Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Module - 1
Cell basic unit of life: Introduction, Origin, and evaluation of life. Structure and functions of a cell. Stem cells and their
application.

Biomolecules: Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids, proteins, lipids. Importance of special biomolecules:
Properties and functions of enzymes, vitamins, and hormones.
Application of biomolecules: Carbohydrates in cellulose-based water filters production, PHA and PLA in bioplastics
production, Nucleic acids in vaccines and diagnosis,
Proteins in food production, lipids in biodiesel and detergents production, Enzymes in biosensors fabrication, food processing,
detergent formulation, and textile processing.

Origin of life
Theories of Origin of Life:

In the olden days, people believed that the universe and life on it was an act and result of God’s creation.
There was, however, no evidence to support these claims. The early scientists and Greeks believed that
life on earth never began on earth itself. They believed that it came from somewhere else in outer space
and they named this phenomenon ‘panspermia’.

Then came the theory of spontaneous generation of life during the times of Aristotle who believed that
life was born from decaying and rotting inorganic matter such as hay, straw, and other non- living
material. This theory was rubbished by Louis Pasteur.

Next came the ‘chemical evolution of life’ theory by two scientists- Oparin from Russia and Haldane
from England. They believed that the generation of life on earth was a slow chemical process which
occurred from pre-existing non-living materials such as amino acids, proteins and nuclear material such
as RNA.

They postulated that these organic materials came together under conditions of high temperature,
reducing atmosphere (without oxygen) and gases released from volcanos all of which were favorable
to produce simple living forms. So they called this mixture of organic materials ‘organic soup’.

This theory was further supported by the experimental evidences provides by Stanley L. Miller
and Harold Urey in 1952. They created early earth like reducing conditions in laboratory scale by
creating electric discharge in a flask containing CH4, H2, NH3 gas along with water vapour at 800o C as
shown in figure. The analysis of the products synthesized in this experiment suggests the formation of
amino acids, nucleobases, pigments, fats and sugar molecules. These experimental evidences strongly
support the chemical evolution of biomolecules and from abiogenic molecules. These building blocks
then polymerize to synthesize complex biopolymers.

1
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Evolution of Life

Evolution can be described as a change in species over time. Dinosaur fossils are significant
evidence of evolution and of past life on Earth.
Darwin’s theory of Natural selection still holds ground but was modified with progress in
genetics and developed into the Modern synthetic theory which is regarded as the most valid
theory of evolution.

Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection

An English Scientist, Charles Darwin (1809-1882) explained the mechanism of evolution

through his theory of natural selection. He is still regarded as ‘the father of evolution’ because
of two very significant contributions.
He suggested that all kind of organisms are related through ancestry and he suggested a
mechanism for evolution and named it natural selection.

According to Darwin, organisms produce more offspring than can survive. Because
environmental resources are limited there ensues struggle for existence. Organisms with
advantageous variations are protected and allowed to reproduce while the disadvantageous
variants are eliminated from nature. This is what was termed natural selection by Darwin.
According to this theory:
1. The unit of evolution is ‘population’ which has its own gene pool. Gene pool
is the group of all different genes of a population.
2. Heritable genetic changes appear in the individuals of a population.

2
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

3. These heritable changes or variations occur due to small mutations in the genes
or in the chromosomes and their recombination’s.
4. Natural selection selects the variations which helps in adapting to the environment.
5. A change in the genetic constitution of a population selected by natural selection is
responsible for evolution of a new species, since through interaction of variation and
Natural Selection more offsprings with favourable genetic changes are born. This is called
‘differential reproduction’.
6. Once evolved, Reproductive Isolation helps in keeping species distinct.

Evidences of Evolution
Fossils − They represent plants and animals that lived millions of years ago and are now extinct.
Comparative anatomy and morphology − It shows evidences of the similarities and
differences between living forms of today and that of the prehistoric times.
Some of the examples of comparative anatomy and morphology are:
Homologous organs − All mammals share the same pattern of forelimbs. Though they perform
different functions, they are anatomically similar. This is called divergent evolution and the
structures are called homologous structures (common ancestors).
Analogous organs − The pair of organs is not anatomically similar, but performs the same
function (e.g., the wings of butterflies and birds). This is called convergent evolution.
Adaptive melanism − In England, it was noted that before industrial revolution, the number
of white winged moths was more than that of dark melanised moth. However, after
industrialisation, there were more of dark melanised moths. The explanation was that after
industrialization, the tree trunks became darker with deposits of soot and smoke and hence, the
number of dark moths increased in order to protect themselves from predators while the white
winged ones were easily picked up by the predators.
Similarly, the herbicide and pesticide resistant plants and animals and antibiotic-resistant
bacteria are some of the evidences that point towards evolution.

3
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Structure and functions of a cell

A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life’s processes.
A cell is the structural and fundamental unit of life. The study of cells from its basic structure

to the functions of every cell organelle is called Cell Biology. All organisms are made up of

cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular), or many cells (multicellular). Cells

are the building blocks of all living beings. They provide structure to the body and convert the

nutrients taken from the food into energy. Cells are complex and their components perform

various functions in an organism. They are of different shapes and sizes.

Cells comprise several cell organelles that perform specialised functions to carry out life
processes. Every organelle has a specific structure.
Characteristics of Cells
Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:
• Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.
• The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles surrounded by a separate
membrane.
• The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction and
cell growth.
• Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
• Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the energy
transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
• Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
• Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organisation of the cell by
synthesising selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to their
appropriate locations.
Types of Cells
Cells are similar to factories with different labourers and departments that work towards a
common objective. Various types of cells perform different functions. Based on cellular
structure, there are two types of cells:
• Prokaryotes
• Eukaryotes

4
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Prokaryotic Cells
1. Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as bacteria have a
region within the cell where the genetic material is freely suspended. This region is
called the nucleoid.
2. They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea, bacteria, and
cyanobacteria.
3. The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
4. The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.
5. Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction.
They are also known to use conjugation – which is often seen as the prokaryotic
equivalent to sexual reproduction (however, it is NOT sexual reproduction).
Eukaryotic Cells

1. Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a true nucleus.

2. The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.
3. This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.
4. The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of nutrients and
electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell to cell communication.
5. They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
6. There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For eg., the plant
cell contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids, whereas the animal cells
do not.

5
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Cell Structure
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry
out life’s processes. These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus,
and cell organelles. Read on to explore more insights on cell structure and function.
Cell Membrane
• The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of
substances in and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment.
The cell membrane is present in all the cells.
• The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles,
such as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma
membrane.
• By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of
selective substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects
the cellular component from damage and leakage.
• It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its
surroundings.
• Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from
external factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.
Cell Wall
• The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of
cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
• The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and
other cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.
• It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
• It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks
and injuries.
Cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
• Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
• The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes,
are suspended in this cytoplasm.
Nucleus
• The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
• It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.

• The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the
rest of the cell.
• The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell structure.

6
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Cell Organelles
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry
out life’s processes. The different cell organelles, along with its principal functions, are as
follows:

Cell Organelles and their Functions

Nucleolus

The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular
activities and cellular reproduction.

Nuclear membrane

The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus and
other cell organelles.

Chromosomes

Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human cells
contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the cell.
It plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids and
proteins.

Golgi Bodies

Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of materials
within the cell.

Ribosome

Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell.

Mitochondria

The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it produces
ATP – the cell’s energy currency.

Lysosomes

Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and help in cell
renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags.

7
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Chloroplast

Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment called
chlorophyll.

Vacuoles

Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.

Stem cells and their application.

Stem cells are special human cells with the unique ability to develop into various types of cells,
ranging from muscle cells to brain cells. These versatile cells also possess the power to repair
damaged tissues within the body.

Stem cells are have two important properties. They are able to make more cells like themselves.
That is, they self-renew. And they can become other cells that do different things in a process
known as differentiation.

Types of Stem Cells:

Embryonic Stem Cells:

▪ Derived from the early embryo, these cells are initially totipotent, meaning they can
differentiate into any cell type.
▪ As development progresses, they become pluripotent, capable of forming various cell
types.
▪ Some embryonic stem cells are multipotent, differentiating into closely related cell types.

8
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Adult Stem Cells:

▪ Obtained from developed organs and tissues (e.g., bone marrow).

▪ They repair and replace damaged tissues in their specific location.
▪ Hematopoietic stem cells, found in bone marrow, are used in bone marrow transplants
for treating certain cancers.

Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs):

▪ Created by converting tissue-specific cells into embryonic-like cells in the lab.

▪ iPSCs share characteristics with embryonic cells and can give rise to all cell types in the
human body.

Mesenchymal Stem Cells:

▪ Derived from connective tissues (stroma) surrounding organs.

▪ These cells can develop into bones, fat cells, and cartilage.
▪ Mesenchymal stem cells are used to treat various diseases

Applications of Stem Cells:

➢ Tissue Regeneration: Stem cells can be used to grow specific tissues or organs, making

them valuable for kidney and liver transplants.

➢ Disease Research and Drug Testing: It help study normal development, disease onset,

and progression. They serve as a tool for testing new drugs.

➢ Understanding Genetic Defects: Stem cells aid in studying genetic defects and disease

causes.

➢ Replacing Damaged Cells: In the future, stem cells may replace damaged or lost cells due

to various diseases

9
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Biomolecules
Biomolecules are organic molecules essential for life, including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids,
and nucleic acids, playing critical roles in cellular structure, energy storage, and genetic
information transfer.
Biomolecule Classes:
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids
• Nucleic Acids
Functions of Biomolecules:
▪ Energy Storage: Carbohydrates and lipids are primary energy storage molecules.
▪ Structural Support: Proteins and carbohydrates (like cellulose) provide structural
support in cells and tissues.
▪ Enzymatic Activity: Proteins, specifically enzymes, catalyze biochemical reactions.
▪ Genetic Information: Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information.
▪ Transport: Proteins can act as transport molecules, carrying substances across cell
membranes or in the bloodstream.
▪ Hormonal Regulation: Lipids and proteins can act as hormones, regulating various
physiological processes.

Properties and functions of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are a group of naturally occurring carbonyl compounds (aldehydes or ketones)
that also contain several hydroxyl groups.

It may also include their derivatives which produce such compounds on hydrolysis. They are
the most abundant organic molecules in nature and are also referred to as “saccharides”. The
carbohydrates which are soluble in water and sweet in taste are called “sugars”.

10
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Carbohydrates, primarily serving as a source of energy, also play structural and regulatory
roles, with properties like being soluble in water and sweet tasting.
Properties of Carbohydrates:
➢ Structure: Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, often in a
1:2:1 ratio (CH2O).
➢ Solubility: They are generally soluble in water, especially monosaccharides and
disaccharides, due to the presence of hydroxyl (-OH) groups.
➢ Sweetness: Many carbohydrates, particularly simple sugars, have a sweet taste.
➢ Solidity: At room temperature, many carbohydrates are solid.
➢ Energy Storage: Carbohydrates are a primary source of energy for the body, broken down
to release glucose for cellular processes.
➢ Structural Component: Some carbohydrates, like cellulose in plants and chitin in insects,
form structural components of cells and tissues.
➢ Glycosidic Bonds: Monosaccharides are linked together by glycosidic bonds to form
disaccharides and polysaccharides.

11
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Functions of Carbohydrates:
Energy Source: Glucose, a simple carbohydrate, is the primary fuel for the body's cells,
particularly the brain, and is essential for energy production through cellular respiration.

Structural Support: Carbohydrates like cellulose and chitin provide structural support in plant
cell walls and insect exoskeletons, respectively.

Fiber for Digestive Health: Non-digestible carbohydrates, like dietary fiber, promote healthy
digestion and gut motility.

Cellular Recognition and Signalling: Carbohydrates, particularly those found on cell surfaces
(glycoproteins and glycolipids), play a role in cell-to-cell communication and recognition.

Protein Sparing: Carbohydrates help spare proteins from being used as an energy source,
ensuring that proteins are available for other essential functions.

Metabolic Regulation: Carbohydrate metabolism plays a crucial role in maintaining stable

blood glucose levels, which is essential for overall health.

Lubrication, Cellular Intercommunication and Immunity: Carbohydrates also play a role in

lubrication, cellular intercommunication and immunity.

Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids are large biomolecules that play essential roles in all cells and viruses. Nucleic
acids, primarily DNA and RNA, are crucial macromolecules that store and transmit genetic
information, directing protein synthesis and playing a vital role in cellular processes.

Nucleic acids are naturally occurring chemical compounds that serve as the primary
information-carrying molecules in cells.

Types: The two main classes of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic
acid (RNA).
DNA: Carries genetic information for the development and functioning of an organism.
Forms a double helix structure.
Contains the bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
RNA: Plays a role in protein synthesis and other cellular processes.
Often single-stranded, unlike DNA.
Contains the bases adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and uracil (U).

12
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Functions:
Store and transmit genetic information.
Direct protein synthesis.
Play a role in various cellular processes.
Building Blocks:
Nucleic acids are composed of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar molecule, a phosphate
group, and a nitrogenous base.
Examples:
DNA: Found in the nucleus of cells, and in mitochondria and chloroplasts.
RNA: Found in the cytoplasm and nucleus of cells.
mRNA: Transmits genetic information from DNA to ribosomes.
rRNA: Forms part of ribosomes.
tRNA: Transfers amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis

Proteins
Proteins are very large molecules composed of basic units called amino acids. Proteins contain
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur.

Protein molecules are large, complex molecules formed by one or more twisted and folded
strands of amino acids. Proteins are highly complex molecules that are actively involved in the
most basic and important aspects of life. These include metabolism, movement, defense,
cellular communication, and molecular recognition.

Classification of Proteins

Protein molecules are large, complex molecules formed by one or more twisted and folded
strands of amino acids. Each amino acid is connected to the next amino acid by covalent bonds.

1. Primary (first level) – Protein structure is a sequence of amino acids in a chain.

2. Secondary (secondary level) – Protein structure is formed by folding and twisting of the
amino acid chain.

3. Tertiary (third level) – Protein structure is formed when the twists and folds of the
secondary structure fold again to form a larger three-dimensional structure.

4. Quaternary (fourth level) – Protein structure is a protein consisting of more than one
folded amino acid chain.

13
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Properties of Proteins:
➢ Building Blocks: Proteins are made up of amino acids, which are linked together via peptide
bonds to form long chains called polypeptides.
➢ Structure: Proteins have a complex structure, ranging from simple linear sequences
(primary) to folded shapes (secondary, tertiary, and quaternary).
➢ Versatility: Their diverse structures allow them to perform a wide array of functions.
➢ Shape and Size: Proteins can range from simple crystalloid spherical structures to long
fibrillar structures.
➢ Denaturation: Proteins can lose their structure and function when exposed to conditions
like heat, pH changes, or detergents.

Functions of Proteins:
Catalysis: Enzymes, a type of protein, speed up chemical reactions within cells.
Structure and Support: Proteins provide structural support for cells, tissues, and organs, like
collagen in skin and bone.
Transport: Some proteins act as carriers, transporting molecules like oxygen (haemoglobin) or
nutrients across cell membranes.
Immunity: Antibodies, a type of protein, defend the body against foreign invaders like bacteria
and viruses.
Hormones: Some proteins act as hormones, regulating bodily processes like growth and
metabolism.
Movement: Contractile proteins, like actin and myosin, are responsible for muscle contraction.
Storage: Some proteins store nutrients, such as iron or amino acids, for later use.
Regulation: Proteins can regulate cell growth, differentiation, and other cellular processes.
Energy: Proteins can be broken down for energy, but they are not the primary source of energy
like carbohydrates or fats.

Lipids
These organic compounds are nonpolar molecules, which are soluble only in nonpolar solvents.

In the human body, these molecules can be synthesized in the liver and are found in oil, butter,

whole milk, cheese, fried foods and also in some red meats.

Properties of Lipids
Lipids are a family of organic compounds, composed of fats and oils. These molecules yield
high energy and are responsible for different functions within the human body.

14
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

➢ Lipids are oily or greasy nonpolar molecules, stored in the adipose tissue of the body.

➢ Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds, mainly composed of hydrocarbon chains.

➢ Lipids are energy-rich organic molecules, which provide energy for different life processes.

➢ Lipids are a class of compounds characterised by their solubility in nonpolar solvents and

insolubility in water.

➢ Lipids are significant in biological systems as they form a mechanical barrier dividing a

cell from the external environment known as the cell membrane.

Functions:

➢ Energy Storage: Lipids, particularly triglycerides, are the body's primary energy reserve,

providing a concentrated source of energy that can be readily broken down for fuel. They

store more energy per gram than carbohydrates or proteins.

➢ Structural Component of Cell Membranes:

Lipids, especially phospholipids, are a key component of cell membranes, forming a

bilayer that separates the inside of the cell from its external environment.

This bilayer acts as a barrier, controlling which molecules can enter and exit the cell.

➢ Hormone Synthesis: Certain lipids, like cholesterol, are precursors to steroid hormones,

which play crucial roles in regulating various bodily processes, such as growth,

development, and reproduction.

➢ Fat-Soluble Vitamin Absorption: Lipids aid in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A,

D, E, and K) from the gut.

➢ Insulation and Protection: Lipids, particularly subcutaneous fat, provide insulation against

temperature changes, helping to maintain a stable body temperature. They also cushion and

protect vital organs from injury.

➢ Signalling and Communication: Some lipids act as signalling molecules, transmitting

messages between cells and influencing various cellular processes.

15
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

➢ Other Functions: Lipids contribute to the taste and texture of food, as well as satiety (feeling

of fullness). Lipids also play a role in the formation of myelin sheaths, which insulate nerve

fibers and allow for efficient transmission of nerve impulses.

Properties and functions of enzymes

Enzymes are proteins that help speed up metabolism, or the chemical reactions in our bodies.

They build some substances and break others down. All living things have enzymes. One of

the most important roles of enzymes is to aid in digestion. Digestion is the process of turning

the food we eat into energy. For example, there are enzymes in our saliva, pancreas, intestines

and stomach. They break down fats, proteins and carbohydrates. Enzymes use these nutrients

for growth and cell repair.

Enzymes also help with:

• Breathing.
• Building muscle.
• Nerve function.
• Ridding our bodies of toxins.
There are thousands of individual enzymes in the body. Each type of enzyme only has one job.
For example,
The enzyme sucrase breaks down a sugar called sucrose.
Lactase breaks down lactose, a kind of sugar found in milk products.
Some of the most common digestive enzymes are:
• Carbohydrase breaks down carbohydrates into sugars.
• Lipase breaks down fats into fatty acids.
• Protease breaks down protein into amino acids.
• Hydrolases: Involved in hydrolysis, where a water molecule is added to break down
substrates (e.g., digestive enzymes).
• Oxidoreductases: Facilitate electron transfer reactions (e.g., redox reactions).
• Lyases: Form or break double bonds by adding or removing chemical groups.
• Transferases: Transfer a chemical group from one substance to another (e.g., kinases).

16
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

• Ligases (Synthetases): Couple the formation of chemical bonds to the breakdown of a

pyrophosphate bond in ATP.
• Isomerases: Rearrange atoms within a molecule to form an isomer.
Functions of Enzymes
The enzymes perform a number of functions in our bodies. These include:
1. Enzymes help in signal transduction. The most common enzyme used in the process
includes protein kinase that catalyses the phosphorylation of proteins.
2. They break down large molecules into smaller substances that can be easily absorbed
by the body.
3. They help in generating energy in the body. ATP synthase is the enzyme involved in
the synthesis of energy.
4. Enzymes are responsible for the movement of ions across the plasma membrane.
5. Enzymes perform a number of biochemical reactions, including oxidation, reduction,
hydrolysis, etc. to eliminate the non-nutritive substances from the body.
6. They function to reorganize the internal structure of the cell to regulate cellular
activities.

Vitamins
The vitamins are natural and essential nutrients, required in small quantities and play a major
role in growth and development, repair and healing wounds, maintaining healthy bones and
tissues, for the proper functioning of an immune system, and other biological functions. These
essential organic compounds have diverse biochemical functions.

There are thirteen different types of vitamins, and all are required for the metabolic processes.

Types of Vitamins
Based on the solubility, Vitamins have been classified into two different groups:
• Fat-Soluble Vitamins.
• Water-Soluble Vitamins.
Fat-soluble vitamin
Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the fat cells and as the name suggests, these vitamins require
fat in order to be absorbed. Vitamin A, D, E and K are fat-soluble vitamins.
Water-soluble vitamin
Water-soluble vitamins are not stored in our body as its excess gets excrete through the urine.
Therefore, these vitamins need to be replenished constantly. Vitamin B and C are water-soluble
vitamins.

17
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Vitamins are essential organic micronutrients that play crucial roles in various bodily functions,
acting as coenzymes or hormones, supporting metabolism, immune function, bone health, and
more.
Properties of Vitamins:
➢ Essential Nutrients: Vitamins are substances that the body needs, but cannot produce in
sufficient amounts, so they must be obtained through the diet or supplements.
➢ Organic Compounds: Vitamins are organic, meaning they contain carbon, and are vital
for the body's chemical processes.
Two Main Types:
• Fat-soluble vitamins: Vitamins A, D, E, and K are stored in the body's fat tissue and
liver.
Water-soluble vitamins: Vitamins C and the B vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, and B12)
are not stored in the body and are excreted through urine.
Coenzymes: Many vitamins act as coenzymes, which are substances that assist enzymes in
carrying out their functions.
Hormonal Role: Some vitamins, like Vitamin D, also function as hormones, regulating various
bodily processes.
Functions of Vitamins:
Metabolism: Vitamins are crucial for various metabolic processes, including energy
production, nutrient absorption, and waste removal.
Immune Function: Several vitamins, such as Vitamin C and Vitamin D, are essential for a
healthy immune system, helping the body fight off infections and diseases.
Bone Health: Vitamins like Vitamin D and Vitamin K are vital for bone health, helping the
body absorb calcium and maintain bone density.
Antioxidant Activity: Some vitamins, like Vitamin C and Vitamin E, act as antioxidants,
protecting the body against damage from free radicals.
Other Functions:
Vitamins also play roles in:
Blood Clotting: Vitamin K is essential for blood clotting.
Nerve Function: B vitamins are important for nerve function.
Skin and Hair Health: Biotin is known for its role in maintaining healthy skin and hair.
Digestive Health: Some vitamins, like Vitamin A, are important for maintaining a healthy
digestive system.
Epithelial Integrity: Vitamin A and C help maintain the integrity of epithelial tissues, which
form barriers against pathogens.

18
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Hormones
Hormones are chemical messengers synthesized and produced by specialized glands in the
body. These glands, known as endocrine glands, release hormones directly into the
bloodstream. Hormones control and regulate the activity of certain cells and organs.

They play a crucial role in maintaining homeostasis and coordinating various physiological
functions.

Types of Hormones:

Peptide Hormones:

▪ Composed of amino acids and soluble in water.

▪ Examples: Insulin (produced by the pancreas).
▪ Cannot pass through cell membranes due to the phospholipid bilayer.

Steroid Hormones:

▪ Fat-soluble and can pass through cell membranes.

▪ Examples: Testosterone, estrogen, progesterone.
▪ Regulate various processes, including growth, metabolism, and sexual function.

Functions of Hormones:

o Metabolism: Hormones influence energy use, storage, and metabolic rate.

o Homeostasis: Maintain internal balance (e.g., blood pressure, blood sugar, electrolyte
levels).
o Growth and Development: Hormones play a role in growth, tissue repair, and
development.
o Reproduction: Control sexual function and reproductive processes.
o Mood and Sleep: Hormones affect mood and sleep-wake cycles.

The pituitary gland’s hormones stimulate the testes and ovaries to produce their own
hormones. The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland located near the brain. Other endocrine
glands in the body include the thyroid, pancreas, and adrenal glands.
Pancreas – Insulin: The pancreas secretes hormones such as glucagon and insulin, which
balance the body’s blood sugar levels. Somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide are two
other hormones secreted.
Properties of Hormones
• Because of their low molecular weight, they can easily pass through capillaries.
• Because they are water-soluble, they can be transported through the blood.
• Hormones always have a low concentration of action. Hormones are important because
they are non-antigenic.
• They function as organic catalysts. In the human body, hormones serve as coenzymes for
other enzymes.

19
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

• Hormones are notable for their ability to be destroyed, excreted, or inactivated after their
function has been completed.
• Hormones cause a limited number of reactions in their initial action and do not directly
influence any metabolic activities of a cell.
• Hormonal activity is not inherited.

Carbohydrates in cellulose-based water filters production

Cellulose, a complex carbohydrate, is a key material in water filter production due to its
abundant availability, high mechanical strength, and hydrophilicity, making it suitable for
trapping particles and pollutants.

Cellulose as a Carbohydrate: Cellulose is a polysaccharide, a type of carbohydrate made

up of many glucose molecules linked together.

1. Sources of Cellulose:
• Natural Sources:
Cellulose is the primary structural component of plant cell walls, making plants like cotton,
hemp, flax, jute, and wood excellent sources.
• Microbial Cellulose:
Some bacteria also produce cellulose, which can be used as a source for water filtration.
Types of Cellulose-Based Filters:
Cellulose Acetate Membranes:
These membranes are formed by dissolving cellulose acetate in a solvent and then casting or
extruding it into a film, which is then treated to create pores.
Cellulose-Based Paper Filters:
These are made by using cellulose pulp fibers to create a paper-like material that can be used
for filtration.
Cellulose-Based Hydrogels:
These are three-dimensional networks of cellulose that can absorb and retain water, making
them suitable for water purification applications.

Properties for Water Filtration:

Mechanical Strength: Cellulose fibers provide the structural support for filter materials,
allowing them to withstand pressure and maintain their shape.

20
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Hydrophilicity: Cellulose's ability to attract and interact with water helps in the efficient
capture of particles and pollutants.

Porous Structure: The natural structure of cellulose fibers creates a porous network that
allows water to pass through while trapping impurities.

Examples of Cellulose-Based Water Filters:

Paper Filters: These filters are commonly used for removing sediments and other particles
from water.

Membrane Filters: These filters are used for more advanced water purification, removing a
wider range of contaminants.

Nanocellulose-Based Filters: These filters are promising for removing heavy metals and
other pollutants from water

Production Methods:
Extraction and Modification:
Cellulose is first extracted from its source and then modified to enhance its filtration properties,
such as by acetylation (creating cellulose acetate) or oxidation.
Membrane Formation:
Cellulose acetate solutions can be cast or extruded to form membranes.
Filter Fabrication:
CNFs and CNCs can be used to create filters by forming a porous matrix or by coating other
materials.
Polyelectrolyte Modification:
Cellulose filters can be modified with polyelectrolytes (charged polymers) to enhance their
ability to remove specific contaminants.
Interfacial Polymerization:
This method involves using a membrane as a scaffold and then forming a new layer on its
surface through a chemical reaction at the interface of two immiscible liquids.
Advantages of Cellulose-Based Water Filters:
Sustainability: Cellulose is a renewable and biodegradable resource, making it an
environmentally friendly alternative to traditional filter materials.

21
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Cost-Effectiveness: Cellulose is relatively inexpensive and readily available, making

cellulose-based filters a potentially cost-effective solution for water purification.
Versatility: Cellulose can be modified in various ways to create filters with different pore sizes
and functionalities, allowing them to be used for a wide range of water purification
applications.
High Surface Area: CNFs and CNCs have a high surface area, which can enhance their ability
to adsorb and remove contaminants from water.
Applications:
Drinking Water Purification:
Cellulose-based filters can be used to remove bacteria, viruses, and other contaminants from
drinking water. Wastewater Treatment: They can also be used to remove pollutants from
wastewater, such as heavy metals and organic compounds. Industrial Applications:
Cellulose-based filters are used in various industrial processes, such as filtration of liquids and
gases.
PHA and PLA in bioplastics production
PHA (Polyhydroxyalkanoates) and PLA (Polylactic Acid) are both biodegradable bioplastics,
but PHA is produced by microorganisms through fermentation, while PLA is derived from
renewable resources like corn starch or sugarcane.

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are biopolymers as they offer a sustainable alternative to

conventional plastics. They can replace the linear use and disposal practices of plastics with a
circular life cycle. They find use in a wide range of applications ranging from packaging to
medical devices.

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs): Chemical Composition and Types

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are a family of microbial polyesters. They form a large group
of thermoplastic polymers produced by various prokaryotic organisms. They are formed as
carbon and energy storage materials under unbalanced nutrition conditions.
PHAs encompass a wide range of materials with significant variations in their chemical
structure. The general structure of PHA consists of repeating units in the polymer chain as

22
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Applications of PHAs

In addition to its eco-friendly characteristics, PHA is a versatile natural polymer that can be
tailored to meet specific applications. Some examples include:

• Biofuels, fine chemicals, bioplastics, industrial fermentation, upholstery, and carpet

• Food packaging (compostable bags, lids, thermoforming tubs)

• Disposable items (diapers, cosmetic containers, razors, cups, feminine hygiene

products, utensils)

• Packaging films (containers, paper coatings, shopping bags)

• Medical surgical garments, drugs, and bio-implants

Physical properties

Origin – PHA is produced through microbial processes, making it environmentally friendly.

Transparency and colorability – PHA can be transparent or translucent. They exhibit good
optical clarity which makes them ideal for clear packaiging applications.

Biodegradability – PHA can naturally degrade, reducing environmental impact and waste
accumulation.

Solubility – PHAs are insoluble in water and organic solvents.

Barrier properties – PHA have good barrier properties to gas and oxygen making them
suitable for packaging materials.

Flexibility – PHAs range from rigid to flexible. Longer side chains tend to be more flexible
than smaller side chains.

Processability – PHAs tend to have good processing.

Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable thermoplastic polyester derived from renewable

resources like corn or sugarcane, offering an alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics.
It's known for its biodegradability, biocompatibility, and versatility in various applications,
including packaging, 3D printing, and biomedical devices.

23
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Bioplastic: PLA is a bioplastic, meaning it's made from renewable resources rather than fossil
fuels.

Biodegradable: PLA is biodegradable, meaning it can break down naturally under specific
conditions, such as in industrial composting facilities.

Thermoplastic: PLA is a thermoplastic, meaning it can be softened by heat and molded into
various shapes.

Polyester: PLA is a polyester, a type of polymer characterized by ester linkages in its

backbone.

Production

Lactic acid: PLA is synthesized from lactic acid, which is produced through the fermentation
of sugars from plants like corn, sugarcane, or cassava.

Lactide: Lactic acid is then converted into lactide, a cyclic dimer, which is polymerized to
form PLA.

Ring-opening polymerization:

The polymerization process is known as ring-opening polymerization, where the lactide

monomers are linked together to form the polymer chain.

Properties and Advantages:

Renewable Resource: PLA is derived from renewable resources, making it a more sustainable
alternative to traditional plastics.

Biodegradable: PLA's biodegradability reduces environmental impact compared to non-

biodegradable plastics.

Versatile: PLA can be processed using conventional plastic processing techniques, making it
suitable for various applications.

Good Mechanical Properties: PLA exhibits good mechanical properties, including strength,
stiffness, and gas barrier properties.

Biocompatible: PLA is biocompatible, meaning it can be used in medical applications without

causing harm to the body.

24
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Applications: Packaging: PLA is used in food packaging, including trays, bags, and
containers.

3D Printing: PLA is a popular material for 3D printing, used to create a wide range of objects.

Biomedical Applications: PLA is used in biomedical devices, such as sutures, implants, and
drug delivery systems.

Textiles: PLA can be spun into fibers for textiles and other applications

Nucleic acids in both vaccines and diagnostic applications

Nucleic Acid Vaccines:

Nucleic acid vaccines have the potential to be safe, effective, and cost-effective. The immune
responses induced by nucleic acid vaccines only target the selected antigen in the pathogen.
Nucleic acid-based vaccines, including DNA (as plasmids) and RNA [as messenger RNA
(mRNA)] vaccines, exhibit promising potential in targeting various indications and diseases.

These vaccines introduce genetic material (DNA or RNA) encoding a specific protein from a
pathogen (like a virus or bacteria) into the body.
The body's cells then use this genetic material as a blueprint to produce the protein, which is
displayed on the cell surface. The immune system recognizes this protein as foreign and mounts
an immune response, including producing antibodies and T-cells that can neutralize the
pathogen if encountered in the future.
Types of Nucleic Acid Vaccines:
DNA vaccines: Use DNA as the genetic material.
RNA vaccines: Use RNA as the genetic material.

Mechanism:

The genetic material (DNA or RNA) provides instructions for making a specific protein from
the pathogen. Once inside host cells, this genetic material is read by the cell’s own protein-
making machinery. The cell then manufactures antigens (foreign proteins), which trigger an
immune response.

25
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Advantages:

▪ No live components, reducing the risk of vaccine-triggered disease.

▪ Relatively easy to manufacture.
▪ Immune response involves both B cells and T cells.

Challenges:

▪ Some RNA vaccines require ultra-cold storage.

▪ Booster shots may be necessary.

Application: While DNA and RNA vaccines are being developed for various diseases
(including HIV, Zika virus, and COVID-19), none have yet been approved for human use

Nucleic acids, specifically DNA and RNA, are used in vaccines to stimulate an immune
response by providing instructions for producing specific pathogen proteins, while they are
also used in diagnostic tests to detect pathogens or genetic mutations.

Immune Response:

The immune system recognizes these proteins as foreign (antigens) and mounts an immune
response against them, providing protection against the disease. Examples: mRNA vaccines,
like those used against COVID-19, are a prominent example of nucleic acid vaccines.

Cancer Treatment: Nucleic acid vaccines are also being developed as a personalized
treatment for cancer, targeting specific patient tumors.

Nucleic Acids in Diagnosis:

Detection of Pathogens: Nucleic acid tests, such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction), can be
used to detect the presence of pathogens, like viruses or bacteria, in a sample.

Genetic Testing: Nucleic acid analysis can also be used to identify genetic mutations or
variations that can be associated with diseases or predispositions.

Examples: COVID-19 tests, which detect the presence of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, are based
on nucleic acid amplification techniques.

Diagnostic Applications of Nucleic Acids:

PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): PCR amplifies specific DNA sequences, allowing
detection of pathogens (e.g., viruses, bacteria) in clinical samples.

Widely used for diagnosing infectious diseases. RT-PCR (Reverse Transcription PCR):
Converts RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) before amplification.

Essential for detecting RNA viruses (e.g., SARS-CoV-2): Nucleic Acid Probes: Labeled DNA
or RNA molecules that bind specifically to complementary sequences.

26
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Used in techniques like hybridization and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) for
identifying pathogens.

Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS): Analyzes entire genomes or transcriptomes. Enables

rapid identification of pathogens and their variants.

CRISPR-Based Diagnostics: Utilizes CRISPR-Cas systems for detecting specific nucleic acid
sequences.

Promising for point-of-care testing. Antisense Oligonucleotides:

▪ Synthetic nucleic acids designed to bind to specific RNA targets.

▪ Used in gene silencing and therapeutic applications.
o Liquid Biopsies:
▪ Detects circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) or RNA for cancer diagnosis and monitoring.
o Microarrays:
▪ Arrays of immobilized nucleic acid probes for simultaneous detection of multiple targets.
▪ Useful in genotyping, expression profiling, and pathogen identification.

Proteins in food production

Proteins play a crucial role in food production, both nutritionally and as functional ingredients.

Nutritional Importance:

Essential Amino Acids: Proteins are vital for building and repairing tissues, producing
enzymes and hormones, and supporting immune function.

High Protein Foods: Foods rich in protein, like meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dairy, and legumes,
are important sources of these essential nutrients.

Plant-Based Protein: Plant proteins like soy, pea, and wheat are increasingly used as
functional ingredients in food production, offering a viable alternative to animal proteins.

Whey Protein: Whey protein, a byproduct of cheese production, is a valuable source of protein
with excellent gelation and viscosity-developing properties.

2Functional Properties in Food Processing:

Textural Enhancement: Proteins contribute to the texture of foods, influencing their

chewiness, firmness, and overall mouthfeel.

Gelation and Viscosity: Certain proteins, like those in egg whites and whey, have the ability
to form gels and increase viscosity, making them useful in various food applications.

Emulsification and Binding: Proteins can act as emulsifiers, stabilizing mixtures of liquids
and solids, and as binders, holding ingredients together.

Food Safety: Fermentation-produced proteins, like enzymes used in food processing, have
been assessed for safety and are used to enhance the nutritional value and digestibility of foods.

27
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

3. Emerging Protein Sources and Technologies:

Cultured Meat: Lab-grown meat, or cultured meat, is a new technology that produces animal
protein in bioreactors using cells taken from living beings, offering a potential alternative to
traditional meat production.

Insect Protein: Insects are a rich source of protein and essential amino acids, and are being
explored as a viable alternative protein source for food and feed applications.

Plant-Based Meat Analogs: Plant-based meat alternatives, like those from Beyond Meat and
Impossible Foods, are made from plant proteins that mimic the texture and appearance of meat.

Protein Engineering: Protein engineering involves modifying proteins to improve their

functionality, nutritional value, and other desirable characteristics, leading to innovative and
sustainable food products.

Fermentation: Fermentation, a biological process, can enhance protein digestibility and

nutritional value in foods, while also reducing antinutrient content

Proteins are not only essential for our health but also critical for creating diverse and appealing
foods. Whether it’s the tenderness of meat, the creaminess of dairy products, or the structure
of baked goods, proteins play a central role.

Lipids in biodiesel and detergents production

Lipids, specifically fats and oils, are crucial in both biodiesel and detergent production.
Biodiesel is produced via transesterification of lipids with alcohol, while lipids are used as a
base for soap and detergent production through saponification.

Biodiesel Production:

Source of Lipids: Biodiesel, a renewable fuel alternative to petroleum diesel, is primarily

derived from lipids found in various sources like vegetable oils, animal fats, and microalgae.

Transesterification: The process involves reacting these lipids (triacylglycerols) with an

alcohol (typically methanol or ethanol) in the presence of a catalyst (like sodium hydroxide or
potassium hydroxide) to produce fatty acid esters (biodiesel) and glycerol.

28
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Types of Lipids: Various types of lipids, including vegetable oils (e.g., soybean, palm,
rapeseed), animal fats (e.g., tallow), and microalgae lipids, can be used as feedstocks for
biodiesel production.

Process: The transesterification process involves several steps, including lipid extraction from
the biomass, followed by the reaction with alcohol and the separation of biodiesel and glycerol.

Detergent Production:

Saponification: Lipids are converted into soap through saponification, a chemical reaction
where fats or oils react with a base (e.g., sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide).

Soap Formation:

This reaction breaks down the lipids into fatty acids and glycerol. The fatty acids then combine
with the base to form soap, which is a cleaning agent.

Detergent Production: Detergents are often made from similar processes, with additional
ingredients like surfactants and builders added to enhance cleaning capabilities.

Key Differences:

Reaction: Biodiesel production uses transesterification, while detergent production uses

saponification.

Products: Biodiesel produces fatty acid esters (FAMEs) and glycerol, while saponification
produces soap and glycerol

29
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Enzymes in biosensors fabrication

Enzymes play a role in the fabrication of biosensors, enabling sensitive and selective detection
of target analytes.

Enzyme-Based Biosensors:

Enzyme-based biosensors combine biocatalysts (enzymes) with transducers to create analytical

devices.

Unique Properties of Enzymes are: Specificity: Enzymes recognize their substrates with high
specificity.

Catalytic Activity: They accelerate chemical reactions, making them efficient biocatalysts.

Applications of Enzyme-Based Biosensors

• Healthcare: Diabetes monitoring, disease diagnosis, drug development.

• Environmental Monitoring: Detection of pollutants, pesticides.
• Food Industry: Quality control, food safety.
• Bioprocess Monitoring: Fermentation monitoring, enzyme activity measurement

Enzymes as Bioreceptors

Enzyme-Substrate Interaction: The enzyme acts as a bioreceptor, recognizing and binding

to its specific substrate (analyte).

Enzymatic Reaction: The enzyme catalyzes a reaction, converting the substrate into a
detectable product or altering a measurable parameter (e.g., oxygen consumption, hydrogen
peroxide production).

Signal Detection: The transducer in the biosensor converts the enzymatic reaction signal (e.g.,
electrical signal, optical signal) into a measurable readout.

Fabrication Steps:

Enzyme Immobilization: The immobilization of enzymes onto a solid support (such as a sensor
surface) is a critical step.

Enzymes can be physically adsorbed, covalently attached, or encapsulated within matrices.

Immobilization ensures enzyme stability and enhances biosensor performance.

Enzyme–Nanoparticle Conjugates:

▪ Functional nanostructures often involve coupling enzymes with nanoparticles (NPs).

▪ NPs serve as carriers and sensing components.
▪ Physicochemical properties of NPs impact biosensor performance.

30
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Large-Scale Fabrication Techniques:

▪ Roll-to-roll methods (e.g., screen-printing, inkjet printing, 3D printing) enable mass

production.
▪ Integration into flexible, wearable, and cost-effective point-of-use devices is
achievable

Role of Enzymes Food processing

Enzymes play a crucial role in food processing, acting as biological catalysts to accelerate
reactions, improve quality, and extend shelf life, making them essential for various food
products and processes.

➢ Enhancing Food Processing Techniques and Quality:

• Accelerating Reactions: Enzymes speed up chemical reactions, which can be used to
accelerate processes like fermentation in beer and wine production, or the ripening of
fruits.

➢ Improving Texture and Flavor: Enzymes can modify the texture and flavor of food
products. For example, proteases break down proteins, leading to meat tenderization,
while amylases convert starch to sugars, affecting the sweetness and texture of baked
goods.

➢ Improving Extraction and Yields: Enzymes can assist in extracting juices from fruits
and vegetables, improving the yield and quality of the final product.

➢ Enhancing Stability and Shelf Life: Enzymes can help stabilize food products, reducing
spoilage and extending shelf life. For example, catalase can remove hydrogen peroxide,
preventing browning and extending the shelf life of certain foods.

➢ Optimizing Raw Material Performance: Enzymes can help optimize the performance
of raw materials, even when their quality varies, leading to more consistent and
predictable outcomes in food processing.

Applications in Different Food Industries:

• Bakery: Enzymes can be used to modify dough rheology, gas retention, and crumb
softness in bread, pastry, and biscuit making.
• Dairy: Enzymes like lactase are used to process milk for lactose-intolerant individuals,
while others are used in cheese making.
• Meat Processing: Proteases are used to tenderize meat, while other enzymes can
improve the color, smell, and taste of meat products.
• Fruit and Vegetable Processing: Enzymes can be used for peeling fruits, clarifying fruit
juice, and reducing viscosity, as well as extending the shelf life of fruits and vegetables.
• Beverage Industry: Enzymes are used in brewing, winemaking, and juice production to
improve flavor, clarity, and stability.
• Feed Industry: Enzymes are used to improve the utilization of feed, increasing the
amount of nutrients available to animals, which improves their health, lowers feed cost
for the farmers and reduces farm waste volume.

31
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Benefits of Using Enzymes in Food Processing:

▪ Sustainability:
▪ Enzymes can reduce energy consumption, water usage, and waste in food processing,
making it more sustainable.
▪ Cost-Effectiveness:
▪ Enzymes can improve efficiency and reduce processing time, leading to cost savings
for manufacturers.
▪ Food Safety:
▪ Enzymes can be used to detect foodborne diseases and improve food safety.
▪ Improved Quality and Sensory Properties:
▪ Enzymes can enhance the quality, stability, and sensory properties of food products.
▪ Increased Variety and Accessibility:
▪ Enzymes can enable the production of a wider variety of food products, including those
suitable for specific dietary needs, and make foods more affordable, palatable, and
available.

Role of Enzymes in detergent formulation

Enzymes in detergent formulations act as biological catalysts, breaking down complex stains
like proteins, fats, and starches into smaller, more manageable compounds, enhancing stain
removal and cleaning performance, even at lower temperatures.
Enzymes as Catalysts: Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions without being
consumed in the process. In detergents, they act as catalysts, breaking down complex molecules
in stains.

Helps in Specific Stain Removal: Different enzymes target specific types of stains:
Proteases: Break down protein-based stains like blood, egg, grass, and sweat.
Amylases: Break down starch-based stains.
Lipases: Break down fats and oils.
Cellulases: Help to remove pilling and fuzz from cotton fabrics.
Enhanced Cleaning Performance: By breaking down stains into smaller pieces, enzymes make
them easier to wash away and improve overall cleaning efficiency.
Low-Temperature Washing: Enzymes allow for effective cleaning at lower temperatures,
reducing energy consumption and water usage.
Fabric and Color Care: Enzymes can also help prevent soil from redeposition and improve
fabric care by acting directly on cotton surfaces, helping garments look new longer.
Environmentally Friendly: Enzymes are biodegradable and can be used at low concentrations,
making them a sustainable choice for cleaning products

32
Department of Chemistry Biology for Engineers (CSE Stream)

Role of Enzymes in textile processing

Enzymes play a crucial role in textile processing, acting as eco-friendly and efficient
alternatives to harsh chemicals, used in various stages like desizing, bleaching, dyeing, and
finishing, improving fabric quality and reducing environmental impact.
Desizing: Enzymes, particularly amylases, effectively remove sizing agents (like starch) from
raw fibers, ensuring cleaner and more uniform textiles.
This process is gentler on the fabric compared to traditional chemical methods, preserving fiber
strength and quality.
Bleaching: Enzymes like cellulases and laccases are used in bleaching processes, promoting
fiber whitening and reducing the need for harsh chemicals.
Laccases, for example, are used in dyeing with natural or chemical precursors.
Catalase degrades excess hydrogen peroxide, a common bleaching agent, reducing the need for
reducing agents or extensive rinsing.
Denim Finishing:
• Cellulases are widely used in denim processing for bio-polishing and bio-stoning,
creating a softer texture and unique finishes without harsh physical treatments.
• This process reduces pilling, improves color retention, and produces stronger, longer-
lasting fabrics.
Dyeing:
• Enzymes can be used in dyeing processes with natural or chemical precursors.
• Laccases, for example, are used in dyeing with natural dyes.

Other Applications:
➢ Scouring: Enzymes can help remove impurities and natural waxes from fibers.
➢ Effluent Treatment: Enzymes play a role in treating textile wastewater, reducing
pollution and promoting sustainability.
➢ Wool Modifications: Proteases are used for wool modifications.
➢ Improved Product Quality: Enzyme-based processes lead to higher quality finished
products with reduced chemical load, water consumption, and energy consumption.
➢ Reduced Environmental Impact: The use of enzymes in textile processing significantly
reduces the environmental impact by minimizing chemical usage, water consumption,
and energy consumption

*****

33