Submitted To :

Mam Syeda Hina Zainab

Submitted By :
Group 8
Roll#1,8,13,27,50,51,60,65
Group 8 Course Code :
MTH-321
Course Title :
Real Analysis 1
Department :
Mathematics
Semester :
5th MA
GOVERNMENT COLLEGE WOMEN
UNIVERSITY FAISALABAD
 Table of Content

 Darboux’s Theorem

 Types of Discontinuity

 Difference between Derivative and Differential

 Darboux’s Theorem

Statment:-
If a function f defined on interval [a,b] is such that
(1) f is derivable on [a,b]
(2) f′(a) and f′(b) are of opposite signs,
then there exists some point c ∈ (a,b) such that f′(c) = 0
Proof:-
Let us suppose that f′(a) > 0 and f′(b) < 0
As f′(a) >0, therefore there exists some 𝛿1 > 0 such that
f(x)> f(a) for all x ∈ (a , a+𝛿1 )--------------------- (1)
As f′(b) <0, therefore there exists some 𝛿2 > 0 such that
f(x)> f(b) for all x ∈ (b-𝛿2 , 𝑏 )--------------------- (2)
As the function f is derivable on [a,b] and every derivable function
is continuous also.
∴ f is continuous on [a,b]
⇒ f is bounded on [a,b] and attain its bounds.
 Thus there exist c , d ∈ [a,b] such that
f(c) = Sup of f on [a,b] = u (say)-----------------------(3)
and f(d) = Inf of f on [a,b] = l (say)-----------------------(4)
Now u is Sup of f on [a,b]
f(x)≤ u for all x ∈ [a,b]----------------------------------(5)
Claim that c≠ 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 ≠ 𝑏
If c=a, then f(c) = f(a) = u
From (1) , f(x) > u for all x ∈ (a , a+𝛿1 )
This is contradiction to (5). Thus c≠ 𝑎 .
If c=b, then f(c) = f(b) = u
From (2) , f(x) > u for all x ∈ (b-𝛿2 , 𝑏 )
This is contradiction to (5). Thus c≠ 𝑏 .
Hence our claim c≠ 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 ≠ 𝑏 is true.
Finally , we shall show that f′(c) = 0
Case 1. If f′(c) > 0
There exist some 𝛿3 > 0 such that
f(x)> f(c) for all x ∈ (c , c+𝛿3 )
f(x)> u for all x ∈ (c , c+𝛿3 )
which is a contradiction to (5) and thus f′(c) > 0 is not possible.
Case 2. If f′(c) < 0
There exist some 𝛿4 > 0 such that
f(x)> f(c) for all x ∈ (c-𝛿4 , c)
f(x)> u for all x ∈ (c − 𝛿4 , c)
which is a contradiction to (5) and thus f′(c) < 0 is not possible.
Thus there exists some c ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 f′(c) = 0
Similarly we can prove f′(c) = 0 for some c ∈ 𝑎, 𝑏 if f′(a) < 0
and f′(b) > 0.
This proves the result.
 Types of Discontinuity

Discontinuity:-
If f(x) is not continuous at a point of its domain then f(x) is said to be
discontinuous at that point.
Types of Discontinuity:-
There are mainly five types of discontinuity.
1. Removable discontinuity
2. Discontinuity of first kind
3. Discontinuity of second kind
4. Mixed discontinuity
5. Infinite discontinuity
 Removable Discontinuity
If lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ f(a) then ‘a’ is removable discontinuity of f(x).
𝑥→𝑎
sin(𝑥−𝑎)
, 𝑥 ≠𝑎
Example:-𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥−𝑎
0, 𝑥=𝑎
sin( 𝑥−𝑎) 0
Solution:- lim ( )
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎 0

By L’Hospital Rule

cos(𝑥−𝑎)
= lim = cos(𝑎 − 𝑎) = cos(0) =1
𝑥→𝑎 1

& f(a) = 0

⇒ lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ f(a)

𝑥→𝑎

⇒ x= a is a removable discontinuity of f(x).

 Discontinuity of First Kind

If LHL and RHL exist but not equal

i.e. lim 𝑓 𝑎 − ℎ ≠ lim 𝑓 𝑎 + ℎ

ℎ→0 ℎ→0

then function has discontinuity of first kind at ‘a’.

2, 𝑥<0
Example:-𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 =
−2, 𝑥>0

Solution:- LHL= lim 𝑓 0 − ℎ = 2 (𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡)

ℎ→0

RHL= lim 𝑓 0 + ℎ = - 2 (exist)

ℎ→0

LHL ≠ RHL

⇒ f(x) has discontinuity of 1st kind at ‘a’.

Discontinuity of first kind from right

LHL = f (a) ≠ RHL

i.e. lim 𝑓 𝑎 − ℎ = 𝑓 𝑎 ≠ lim 𝑓 𝑎 + ℎ

ℎ→0 ℎ→0

Discontinuity of first kind from left

LHL ≠ f (a) = RHL

i.e. lim 𝑓 𝑎 − ℎ ≠ 𝑓 𝑎 = lim 𝑓 𝑎 + ℎ

ℎ→0 ℎ→0
 Discontinuity of Second Kind
If neither LHL nor RHL exist at ‘a’ then f(x) has discontinuity of second kind at 'a'.

1
sin , 𝑥≠0
Example:- 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥
0, 𝑥=0
1 1
Solution:- LHL = lim 𝑓 0 − ℎ =lim sin(− ) = sin(− ) = sin(− ∞ ) = - sin ∞
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ 0

oscillates between -1 & 1

1 1
RHL = lim 𝑓 0 + ℎ =lim sin( ) = sin( ) = sin( ∞ ) = sin ∞
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ 0

oscillates between -1 & 1

⇒ neither RHL nor LHL exist at x=0

⇒ f(x) has discontinuity of second kind at x=0

 Mixed Discontinuity
If a function has a discontinuity of second kind at one side and on other side a
discontinuity of first kind then f(x) has mixed discontinuity at x=a.
Or more simply
lim 𝑓 𝑎 − ℎ = 𝑓 𝑎 𝑏𝑢𝑡 lim 𝑓 𝑎 + ℎ 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡
ℎ→0 ℎ→0
OR
lim 𝑓 𝑎 + ℎ = 𝑓 𝑎 𝑏𝑢𝑡 lim 𝑓 𝑎 − ℎ 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡 2nd kind 1st kind
ℎ→0 ℎ→0
x=a
0 , 𝑥≤0
Example:- 𝑓 𝑥 = 1
sin , 𝑥 > 0
𝑥

Solution:- LHL= lim 𝑓 0 − ℎ = 0 (𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡) & f(a) = 0 (discontinuity of first

ℎ→0
kind from right)
1 1
RHL = lim 𝑓 0 + ℎ =lim sin( ) = sin( ) = sin( ∞ ) = sin ∞ (does not exist)
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ 0
(Has discontinuity of second kind)
⇒ f(x) has mixed discontinuity at x=0.
 Infinite Discontinuity

A function f(x) is said to have infinite discontinuity at x=a if one or both of

limit i.e. LHL & RHL becomes infinity i.e. - ∞ , +∞

1
, x≠0
Example:- f x = x
0, x=0

1 1
Solution:- LHL = lim 𝑓 0 − ℎ = lim − = - = -∞
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ 0

1 1
RHL = lim 𝑓 0 + ℎ = lim = =∞
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ 0
 Differential vs Derivative

Both the terms differential and derivative and intimately connected to each other
in terms of interrelationship.
We can define derivative in terms of differentials as the ratio of differential of a
function by the differential of variable.

Differential Derivative
Differential is a subfield of The derivative of a function is the
calculus that refers to infinitesimal rate of change of the output value
difference in some varying with respect to its input value.
quantity.
A differential is the change in a A derivative is the change in a
variable ( dx ). function ( dy/dx ) . A Function Is
the relationship between two
variables shows the derivative Is
always a ratio of differentials.
The differential is represented by dy The derivative of the function is the
which can be written as slope of the function at any point and
dy = f′(x) dx 𝑑
is written as .
𝑑𝑥
For example
For example ,The derivative of sin x
y = sin x
can be written as
dy = cos x dx 𝑑
( sin x ) = cos x
𝑑𝑥

Differential represents an equation The derivative represents the

that contains a function and one or instantaneous change in the
more derivatives of that function. dependent variable with respect to its
independent variable.

The function which represents the The function which represents the
relationship between the dependent relationship between the variables is
and the independent variable is known .
unknown.
 References
 https://youtu.be/B5K-3Rerg6g?si=C1auZoN2NXdROmRD

 https://youtu.be/xAYy-mqxZdc?si=LFjlQ9lvltXFakpe

 https://youtu.be/GtHpOzFbvdI?si=I33m2EePNtdEPFDb

 https://youtu.be/kgEABmYnpRY?si=MPqeQ3BeOs5CMTOY

 https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-between-the-
differential-and-derivative-of-a-function

 https://images.app.goo.gl/9yqfdR83BHArGqYZ8