BCT, Civil Engineering Symbiosis Institute of Technology

UNIT-IV
Super structure Construction

1. What is brick? What are its types? Explain their types.

• Brick: A brick is a rectangular block of fired clay used in building construction. It is

one of the oldest and most versatile building materials, valued for its durability,
strength, and thermal insulation properties. Bricks are typically made from clay,
shale, or other natural materials, molded into shape, and then fired in a kiln to
harden them.

• Types of Bricks:

• Common Bricks: These are the most basic type of bricks, used for general
construction purposes. Common bricks are typically made from clay and are
suitable for non-load-bearing walls and partitions.

• Facing Bricks: Facing bricks, also known as brick veneers or face bricks, are
used for their aesthetic appeal. They have a smooth or decorative surface
finish and are often used on the exterior walls of buildings to provide a
decorative facade.

• Engineering Bricks: Engineering bricks are specially designed for structural

applications where strength and durability are essential. They have high
compressive strength and low water absorption, making them suitable for
use in load-bearing walls, foundations, and retaining walls.

• Fire Bricks: Fire bricks, also known as refractory bricks, are made from
special clay or silica materials that can withstand high temperatures without
deforming or cracking. They are used to line fireplaces, kilns, furnaces, and
other high-temperature applications.

• Pavers: Pavers are bricks used for paving pathways, driveways, patios, and
other outdoor surfaces. They come in various shapes, sizes, and colors,
allowing for creative design options.

2. Write a short note on mortar, walls.

• Mortar: Mortar is a mixture of cement, sand, and water used to bond bricks, stones,
or other masonry units together in construction. It acts as a glue that holds the
individual units in place and provides strength and stability to masonry structures.
Mortar comes in different types and strengths, depending on the specific
requirements of the project. It is applied between the joints of masonry units using a
trowel and allowed to cure to form a solid bond.

• Walls: Walls are vertical structures that enclose and define the spaces within a
building. They provide support for the roof, floors, and other loads and serve as
barriers to weather, noise, and intruders. Walls can be made from various materials
such as bricks, stones, concrete blocks, or wood framing, depending on factors like
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cost, aesthetics, and structural requirements. They can be load-bearing or non-load-

bearing, interior or exterior, and serve different functions within a building.

3. What is plastering and its types? Write in details.

• Plastering: Plastering is the process of applying a thin layer of plaster mixture onto
walls, ceilings, or other surfaces to create a smooth, durable, and decorative finish.
It serves to protect the underlying surface, improve its appearance, and provide
thermal and sound insulation. Plastering is commonly done using a combination of
gypsum or cement-based plaster, sand, and water, which is applied in multiple coats
and then finished to achieve the desired texture.

• Types of Plastering:

• Cement Plaster: Cement plaster is made from a mixture of cement, sand,

and water and is commonly used for external plastering on masonry walls
and surfaces exposed to weathering. It provides good adhesion, durability,
and resistance to water penetration.

• Gypsum Plaster: Gypsum plaster, also known as plaster of Paris, is made

from gypsum powder mixed with water. It is commonly used for interior
plastering on walls and ceilings due to its smooth finish, ease of application,
and quick setting time.

• Lime Plaster: Lime plaster is made from hydrated lime mixed with sand and
water and is used for both interior and exterior plastering. It provides a
breathable and flexible finish that is suitable for historic buildings and
structures with traditional construction methods.

• Finish Plaster: Finish plaster is a final coat of plaster applied to achieve a

smooth, decorative finish. It can be tinted or painted to match the desired
color scheme and is commonly used on interior walls and ceilings.

• Decorative Plaster: Decorative plaster includes various textured or

patterned finishes applied to walls or ceilings for aesthetic purposes. It can
be achieved using specialized tools, techniques, or additives such as fibers or
aggregates to create unique designs and effects.

4. Differentiate between internal and external plastering.

• Internal Plastering: Internal plastering refers to the plastering of interior walls,

ceilings, and surfaces within a building. It is typically done using gypsum or lime-
based plaster and is intended to provide a smooth, decorative finish while covering
imperfections in the underlying surface. Internal plastering helps to improve the
appearance of interior spaces, provide thermal and sound insulation, and protect
the underlying structure.

• External Plastering: External plastering, also known as rendering, refers to the

plastering of exterior walls and surfaces exposed to weathering and environmental
conditions. It is commonly done using cement-based plaster and is intended to
provide protection against moisture, temperature fluctuations, and mechanical
damage. External plastering helps to waterproof and weatherproof the building
envelope, improve its durability and longevity, and enhance its aesthetic appeal.
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5. What is a lintel? What are its types?

• Lintel: A lintel is a horizontal structural member placed above an opening such as a

door, window, or arch to support the load from the structure above and distribute it
to the surrounding walls or columns. Lintels can be made from various materials
such as reinforced concrete, steel, wood, or stone, depending on the structural
requirements and architectural design.

• Types of Lintels:

• Reinforced Concrete Lintel: Reinforced concrete lintels are commonly used

in modern construction due to their strength, durability, and versatility.
They are made by casting concrete around steel reinforcement bars (rebar)
to increase their load-bearing capacity and prevent cracking or deformation.

• Steel Lintel: Steel lintels are often used in residential and commercial
construction for their high strength-to-weight ratio and ease of installation.
They are typically fabricated from structural steel beams or angles and can
span large openings without the need for intermediate supports.

• Wooden Lintel: Wooden lintels, also known as timber lintels, are used in
traditional and historic buildings for their aesthetic appeal and ease of
construction. They are typically made from solid timber beams or planks and
may require additional support or reinforcement for larger openings.

• Stone Lintel: Stone lintels are commonly found in historic or heritage

buildings constructed using traditional masonry techniques. They are made
from natural stone such as granite, limestone, or sandstone and provide a
rustic or decorative element to the building's facade.

6. Explain Floors- what are the Requirements of a good floor?

• Floors: Floors are horizontal structural elements that provide support for occupants,
furniture, and equipment within a building. They can be made from various
materials such as concrete, wood, tile, or carpet, depending on factors like cost,
aesthetics, and functionality. A good floor should meet the following requirements:

• Strength: The floor should be capable of supporting the intended loads

without deflecting or failing. It should be designed and constructed to
withstand the dead loads (weight of the floor itself) and live loads
(occupants, furniture, equipment) imposed on it.

• Durability: The floor should be durable and resistant to wear, abrasion, and
impact. It should be able to withstand foot traffic, furniture movement, and
other sources of wear and tear without deteriorating or requiring frequent
maintenance.

• Flatness: The floor should be flat and level to provide a safe and
comfortable walking surface. It should be free from bumps, dips, or
unevenness that could cause tripping hazards or affect the installation of
finishes such as tiles or carpet.
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• Moisture Resistance: The floor should be resistant to moisture ingress from

the ground or surrounding environment. Proper waterproofing and drainage
measures should be implemented to prevent water damage, mold growth,
and deterioration of the floor structure.

• Thermal Insulation: The floor should provide thermal insulation to maintain

a comfortable indoor environment and reduce heating and cooling costs.
Insulation materials such as foam boards or underfloor heating systems may
be installed to improve thermal performance.

• Sound Insulation: The floor should provide sound insulation to minimize

noise transmission between floors and rooms within the building. Acoustic
underlayments or resilient materials can be used to reduce impact noise and
airborne sound transmission.

• Aesthetic Appeal: The floor should enhance the overall appearance and
ambiance of the interior spaces. It should be finished with materials and
textures that complement the architectural style and design theme of the
building.

7. Explain the types of roofs.

• Flat Roof: Flat roofs have a minimal slope or pitch and are commonly used in
modern architecture for commercial, industrial, and residential buildings. They are
relatively inexpensive to construct and provide additional usable space for rooftop
gardens, solar panels, or HVAC equipment.

• Pitched Roof: Pitched roofs have a steep slope or pitch and are common in
traditional residential construction. They are typically made from sloping rafters or
trusses covered with roofing materials such as shingles, tiles, or metal sheets.
Pitched roofs provide effective drainage and snow shedding and can accommodate
attic or loft spaces for storage or living.

• Gable Roof: Gable roofs have two sloping sides that meet at a ridge, forming a
triangular gable at each end. They are simple and economical to construct and
provide excellent ventilation and natural light through gable-end windows or vents.
Gable roofs are prone to wind uplift and may require additional bracing or
reinforcement in high-wind areas.

• Hip Roof: Hip roofs have four sloping sides that meet at a ridge, with each side
forming a gentle slope or hip. They provide better stability and resistance to wind
and are commonly used in areas with high winds or hurricane-prone regions. Hip
roofs offer additional attic or storage space and can accommodate dormer windows
or skylights.

• Gambrel Roof: Gambrel roofs have two slopes on each side, with the lower slope
steeper than the upper slope. They resemble a barn or Dutch-style roof and provide
extra headroom and living space in the attic or loft. Gambrel roofs are commonly
used in residential construction and offer a distinctive architectural style.

• Mansard Roof: Mansard roofs have two slopes on each side, with the lower slope
steeper than the upper slope. They are characterized by a flat or nearly flat roof
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section at the top and steeply sloping sides. Mansard roofs provide additional living
space in the attic or garret and are commonly used in historic or French-inspired
architecture.

8. Explain the term chajja.

• Chajja: Chajja is a projecting or overhanging horizontal slab or canopy supported on

brackets or corbels, typically installed above windows, doors, or balconies to provide
shade, protection from rain, and architectural embellishment. Chajjas serve both
functional and decorative purposes, helping to reduce solar heat gain, prevent water
ingress, and enhance the aesthetic appearance of the building facade. They are
commonly found in traditional Indian architecture and can be made from materials
such as reinforced concrete, stone, wood, or metal.

9. What is an arch? What are its types?

• Arch: An arch is a curved structural element that spans an opening and supports the
weight of the structure above it by transferring the load outward along its curve to
the supporting walls or columns. Arches have been used in architecture for
thousands of years and are valued for their strength, stability, and aesthetic appeal.
They are commonly found in bridges, aqueducts, and buildings, where they provide
structural support and architectural beauty.

• Types of Arches:

• Lancet Arch: A lancet arch is a pointed arch with a narrow profile and sharp
angles. It is commonly found in Gothic architecture and is known for its
elegant and dramatic appearance.

• Round Arch: A round arch, also known as a semicircular arch, has a half-
circle shape and is one of the simplest and most widely used arch forms. It
provides excellent structural stability and is commonly found in
Romanesque and Renaissance architecture.

• Tudor Arch: A Tudor arch, also known as a four-centred arch or depressed

arch, has a flattened or elliptical shape with a low rise. It is commonly found
in Tudor and Elizabethan architecture and provides a distinctive and
decorative element to doorways and windows.

• Gothic Arch: A Gothic arch, also known as a pointed arch, has a tall and
narrow profile with a pointed apex. It is characteristic of Gothic architecture
and is known for its verticality, soaring height, and intricate tracery.

• Segmental Arch: A segmental arch, also known as a low or flat arch, has a
shallow curve and is commonly used in modern construction for openings
such as doors and windows. It provides a simple and economical solution for
spanning wide openings with minimal height.

• Ogee Arch: An ogee arch has a double curve with an S-shaped profile,
consisting of a concave curve followed by a convex curve. It is commonly
found in Islamic and Mughal architecture and is known for its graceful and
flowing appearance.
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10. Write a short note on doors, windows, and ventilation.

• Doors: Doors are movable barriers that allow access to and from interior spaces
within a building. They come in various designs, sizes, and materials, depending on
their function, location, and architectural style. Common types of doors include
hinged doors, sliding doors, folding doors, and revolving doors. Doors may feature
panels, glass inserts, hardware, and finishes to enhance their appearance and
functionality.

• Windows: Windows are openings in walls or partitions that allow natural light,
ventilation, and views to the exterior. They come in various styles and
configurations, including casement windows, sliding windows, awning windows, and
picture windows. Windows may feature frames, sashes, glazing, and hardware made
from materials such as wood, vinyl, aluminum, or fiberglass.

• Ventilation: Ventilation is the process of exchanging indoor air with outdoor air to
maintain a healthy and comfortable indoor environment. It helps to remove
pollutants, odors, and excess moisture from the building and improve indoor air
quality. Ventilation can be achieved through natural or mechanical means, such as
windows, doors, vents, fans, or HVAC systems. Proper ventilation design is essential
to prevent issues like condensation, mold growth, and indoor air pollution.

11. Explain the types of doors, window, and ventilation with neat sketches.

• Types of Doors:

• Hinged Door: A hinged door is one of the most common types of doors. It swings on
hinges attached to one side of the door frame and opens inward or outward. Hinged
doors can be single-leaf or double-leaf and are suitable for both interior and exterior
applications.

• Sliding Door: A sliding door operates by sliding horizontally along a track mounted
on the floor or ceiling. It is ideal for spaces with limited clearance or where space-
saving is essential. Sliding doors are commonly used for entrances to patios,
balconies, and closets.

• Folding Door: A folding door, also known as a bi-fold or accordion door, consists of
multiple panels hinged together that fold and slide along a track. It offers flexibility
in opening width and can create wide openings when fully folded. Folding doors are
often used for room dividers, closet doors, and exterior entrances.

• Revolving Door: A revolving door consists of three or four panels that rotate around
a central axis within a cylindrical enclosure. It allows for continuous movement of
people in and out of a building while minimizing air infiltration and maintaining
energy efficiency. Revolving doors are commonly used in high-traffic entrances to
commercial buildings.
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• Types of Windows:

• Casement Window: A casement window is hinged on one side and opens outward
using a crank mechanism or handle. It provides excellent ventilation and weather
sealing and is commonly used in residential buildings.

• Sliding Window: A sliding window operates by sliding horizontally along a track and
is ideal for spaces with limited vertical clearance. It offers unobstructed views and
easy operation and is commonly used in modern residential and commercial
buildings.

• Awning Window: An awning window is hinged at the top and opens outward from
the bottom, forming a canopy or awning when opened. It allows for ventilation
while providing protection from rain and debris and is commonly used in bathrooms
and kitchens.

• Fixed Window: A fixed window, also known as a picture window, does not open and
is used solely for admitting light and views. It provides maximum visibility and can be
combined with operable windows for ventilation in residential and commercial
buildings.

• Types of Ventilation:

• Natural Ventilation: Natural ventilation relies on passive airflow through openings

such as windows, doors, vents, and chimneys to remove stale indoor air and
introduce fresh outdoor air. It takes advantage of prevailing winds, temperature
differentials, and buoyancy effects to ventilate indoor spaces naturally.

• Mechanical Ventilation: Mechanical ventilation uses fans, blowers, and ductwork to

force air into or out of a building. It can be exhaust ventilation, where air is expelled
from the building, or supply ventilation, where outdoor air is introduced into the
building. Mechanical ventilation systems may include filters, heat exchangers, and
controls to regulate airflow and indoor air quality.

• Mixed Mode Ventilation: Mixed mode ventilation combines natural and mechanical
ventilation strategies to optimize indoor air quality and energy efficiency. It uses
sensors and controls to switch between natural and mechanical ventilation modes
based on outdoor conditions, occupancy, and indoor air quality.

• Cross Ventilation: Cross ventilation utilizes openings on opposite sides of a building

to create a flow of air through the space. It relies on pressure differentials generated
by wind or temperature gradients to drive airflow and ventilate indoor spaces
effectively.
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12. What is a stair? What are its types?

• Stair: A stair is a series of steps or flights that provide vertical access between
different levels or floors within a building. Stairs consist of steps, landings, handrails,
and balustrades and are designed to facilitate safe and comfortable movement
between levels. They are essential components of both residential and commercial
buildings and come in various types to suit different architectural styles and space
constraints.

• Types of Stairs:

• Straight Stair: A straight stair is the simplest and most common type of stair.
It consists of a single straight flight of steps that connects two levels directly.
Straight stairs are space-efficient and easy to construct but may require
more linear space than other types of stairs.

• L-Shaped Stair: An L-shaped stair consists of two flights of steps that change
direction at a landing, forming an L-shaped configuration. It is suitable for
spaces with limited floor area and can provide a visual separation between
levels within an open floor plan.

• U-Shaped Stair: A U-shaped stair consists of two flights of steps that change
direction at a landing, forming a U-shaped configuration. It is similar to an L-
shaped stair but with an additional flight of steps, making it ideal for spaces
with higher traffic volume or where a more grandiose appearance is desired.

• Spiral Stair: A spiral stair consists of a central pole or column around which
steps are helically arranged in a circular or elliptical shape. Spiral stairs are
compact and space-saving and are commonly used in tight or restricted
spaces such as attics, lofts, or outdoor decks.

• Winder Stair: A winder stair consists of steps that are wider on one side
than the other, allowing the stair to change direction without the need for a
landing. Winder stairs are space-efficient and aesthetically pleasing but may
be more challenging to navigate and require careful design to ensure safety
and code compliance.

• Curved Stair: A curved stair consists of steps that follow a curved or

sweeping path, creating an elegant and flowing transition between levels.
Curved stairs are custom-designed and can be tailored to fit the
architectural style and spatial requirements of the building. They are often
featured in grand entrances or central staircases of luxury homes and public
buildings.
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13. Explain formwork and its types.

• Formwork: Formwork, also known as shuttering or molds, is a temporary structure

used to support freshly poured concrete until it sets and gains sufficient strength to
support its own weight and the loads imposed on it. Formwork is essential for
shaping and containing the concrete during placement and curing and plays a crucial
role in achieving the desired shape, size, and finish of the concrete elements.

• Types of Formwork:

• Timber Formwork: Timber formwork is the traditional and most commonly

used type of formwork. It consists of wooden boards, planks, or panels
supported by timber frames or props. Timber formwork is versatile, cost-
effective, and easy to work with but may require more time and labor for
construction and removal.

• Steel Formwork: Steel formwork is fabricated from steel plates or profiles

and is suitable for large-scale or repetitive construction projects. It offers
high strength, durability, and dimensional stability and can be reused
multiple times, making it cost-effective in the long run. Steel formwork is
commonly used in commercial, industrial, and infrastructure projects.

• Aluminum Formwork: Aluminum formwork is lightweight, modular, and

highly efficient, making it ideal for fast-track construction projects. It
consists of prefabricated aluminum panels or frames that are assembled on-
site and secured using clamps or pins. Aluminum formwork provides smooth
and uniform finishes and can be reused hundreds of times, reducing
material waste and labor costs.

• Plastic Formwork: Plastic formwork is made from lightweight and durable

plastic materials such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE) or polypropylene
(PP). It is easy to handle, transport, and clean and offers good resistance to
moisture, chemicals, and abrasion. Plastic formwork is suitable for small to
medium-sized projects and can be reused multiple times with proper care
and maintenance.

• Engineered Formwork Systems: Engineered formwork systems, such as

modular formwork, tunnel formwork, and flying formwork, are custom-
designed and manufactured for specific construction applications. They offer
enhanced productivity, efficiency, and safety by incorporating features such
as prefabrication, automation, and integration with other construction
technologies.

14. Write down the Components of ground floor.

• Foundation: The foundation is the lowest part of the building's structure and
provides support for the entire superstructure. It may be shallow, such as strip
footings or raft foundations, or deep, such as piles or caissons, depending on the soil
conditions and structural requirements.

• Ground Slab: The ground slab, also known as the ground floor slab or basement
slab, is a horizontal structural element that forms the lowest habitable level of the
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building. It provides a solid and level surface for the rest of the building's
construction and may include provisions for insulation, damp proofing, and
waterproofing.

• Walls: The walls of the ground floor enclose the habitable spaces within the building
and provide support for the floors, roof, and other structural elements above. They
may be load-bearing or non-load-bearing and can be made from various materials
such as masonry, concrete, or steel framing.

• Columns and Beams: Columns and beams are vertical and horizontal structural
elements that support the loads from the floors and roof and transfer them to the
foundation. They are typically made from reinforced concrete or steel and are
spaced at regular intervals throughout the building to provide structural stability and
integrity.

• Stairs: Stairs provide vertical circulation between different levels of the building,
including the ground floor, upper floors, and basement. They may be straight,
curved, or spiral in design and can be made from various materials such as concrete,
timber, or steel, depending on the architectural style and functional requirements.

• Doors and Windows: Doors and windows provide access, egress, natural light, and
ventilation to the habitable spaces within the building. They may be located in
external walls, internal walls, or partitions and can be made from various materials
and configurations to suit the architectural design and building code requirements.

• Finishes: Finishes such as flooring, wall cladding, and ceiling treatments are applied
to the ground floor to enhance its aesthetic appeal, durability, and functionality.
Common finishes include tiles, hardwood flooring, paint, wallpaper, and suspended
ceilings, which contribute to the overall comfort and ambiance of the interior
spaces.