Chapter 3: Research Methods and Procedures

Three Main Research Methodologies

Quantitative: Focuses on numerical data, emphasizing objectivity, measurement, and

statistical analysis.
Qualitative: Explores perceptions, experiences, and meanings through non-numerical data,
emphasizing depth and context.
Mixed Methods: Combines quantitative and qualitative approaches to provide a more
comprehensive understanding.

Types of Research According to Purpose

Exploratory: To investigate a problem or phenomenon without prior assumptions.

Descriptive: To describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon.
Explanatory: To establish causal relationships between variables.
Evaluative: To assess the effectiveness of programs, policies, or interventions.

Identify the type of research according to purpose.

_______________1. A researcher is studying the patterns of social media use among teenagers to
understand new trends that have emerged in the last two years, without forming any specific
hypothesis
_______________2. A study is conducted to examine how employees in a company rate their job
satisfaction based on several factors such as salary, work-life balance, and company culture.
_______________3. Researchers are investigating the causes of school bullying and how various
factors such as parental involvement, peer pressure, and socioeconomic background contribute
to the issue.
_______________4. A study is evaluating the effectiveness of a new online learning platform by
measuring student performance before and after using the platform over a semester.
_______________5. A researcher is exploring the reasons why certain students choose specific
fields of study at university, asking open-ended questions to identify underlying motivations.

Chapter 3 Methods and Procedures

1. Research Design
2. Research Flow Chart
3. Research Locale
4. Locator Map
5. Respondents of the Study
6. Population and Sample
7. Data Gathering Instrument
Description,
Validity and Reliability
Data Gathering Procedure
8. Data Analysis Technique
9. Ethical Concerns

Research design is a systematic framework that outlines how a study will be conducted. It
includes the methods and procedures for data collection, analysis, and interpretation, ensuring
the research questions are adequately addressed.

1. Experimental Design
Purpose: Establish causal relationships by manipulating variables.
Key Feature: Random assignment to control and experimental
groups.
Example: Studying the effect of a new teaching strategy on student
performance.
2. Quasi-Experimental Design
Purpose: Similar to experimental design but lacks random
assignment.
Example: Comparing outcomes of two schools, one implementing a
new curriculum and the other following the traditional
approach.
3. Descriptive Design
Purpose: Provides a snapshot of a situation or phenomenon.
Example: Surveying teachers about their perceptions of technology
integration in classrooms.
4. Correlational Design
Purpose: Examines relationships between variables without establishing causation.
Example: Investigating the relationship between teacher burnout and
student engagement.

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5. Case Study Design
Purpose: An in-depth exploration of a single case or a small group of cases.
Example: Examining the implementation of a school-wide literacy program.
6. Action Research
Purpose: Designed for practitioners to improve their practices through
iterative cycles of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting.
Example: A teacher investigating strategies to enhance classroom
management.
7. Phenomenological Design
Purpose: Explores lived experiences to uncover the essence of a
phenomenon.
Example: Understanding teachers’ experiences during the transition to
remote learning.

Practice Test: Read each statement carefully and identify the most appropriate research
design. Write only the letter of the correct answer.

______1. A researcher randomly assigns students to two groups: one group receives a new
study method while the other group follows the traditional method. After a few months, the
researcher compares the academic performance of both groups to see if the new method led to
higher test scores.
A. Experimental
B. Quasi-experimental
C. Descriptive
D. Correlational
______2. A researcher studies the effects of a new teaching strategy on student performance by
comparing two classrooms, one that uses the new strategy and the other that uses the
standard approach, without random assignment.
A. Experimental
B. Quasi-experimental
C. Descriptive
D. Case Study Design
______3. A researcher collects data on people's eating habits, physical activity, and weight
status to determine if there is any relationship between these variables.
A. Experimental
B. Quasi-experimental
C. Descriptive
D. Correlational
______4. A team of researchers investigates how a company's culture affects employee
performance by observing and interviewing employees over a few months.
A. Experimental
B. Quasi-experimental
C. Descriptive
D. Case Study Design
______5. A teacher investigates her own classroom by assessing the effectiveness of a new
lesson plan over a semester, using student feedback, test results, and classroom observations
to make improvements.
A. Experimental
B. Action Research
C. Phenomenological Research
D. Quasi-experimental
______6. A researcher conducts in-depth interviews with survivors of a natural disaster to
understand their emotional and psychological experiences during and after the event.
A. Experimental
B. Action Research
C. Phenomenological Research
D. Case Study Design
______7. A study investigates whether there is a significant difference in the job satisfaction
levels of employees who work from home versus those who work in the office.
A. Experimental
B. Quasi-experimental
C. Descriptive
D. Correlational
______8. A researcher explores the role of culture in shaping people's concept of happiness by
interviewing individuals from different countries and analyzing common themes in their
responses.
A. Experimental
B. Case Study Design
C. Phenomenological Research
D. Action Research

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______9. A researcher surveys a group of college students to gather data on their study habits,
stress levels, and academic performance to describe the typical patterns of behavior within that
population.
A. Experimental
B. Quasi-experimental
C. Descriptive
D. Correlational
______10. A researcher examines the effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance by
comparing two groups of participants: one group with 8 hours of sleep and the other with only
4 hours of sleep.
A. Experimental
B. Quasi-experimental
C. Descriptive
D. Action Research
______11. A researcher looks at the relationship between daily exercise and levels of stress,
finding that more exercise is associated with lower levels of stress.
A. Experimental
B. Quasi-experimental
C. Descriptive
D. Correlational
______12. A teacher examines the effect of using cooperative learning strategies on students’
problem-solving skills by comparing two groups of students: one using cooperative learning
and the other using individual problem-solving techniques.
A. Experimental
B. Quasi-experimental
C. Descriptive
D. Action Research
______13. A researcher is studying the impact of a new policy in a school system by collecting
feedback from teachers, parents, and students over a few months to evaluate its effectiveness.
A. Experimental
B. Action Research
C. Evaluative Research
D. Case Study Design
______14. A researcher investigates the lived experiences of individuals with chronic illness,
conducting in-depth interviews to understand their daily challenges, emotions, and coping
mechanisms.
A. Case Study Design
B. Action Research
C. Phenomenological Research
D. Descriptive
______15. A researcher compares the number of hours students spend studying and their GPA
to determine if there is a correlation between study time and academic success.
A. Experimental
B. Quasi-experimental
C. Descriptive
D. Correlational

Example of Research Design

Research Design
This study utilized a descriptive-correlational research method. A descriptive-
correlational study is one in which the researcher is primarily interested in documenting
correlations among variables rather than establishing a causal relationship (Creswell, 2012). In
addition, descriptive-correlational research is a quantitative research technique that describes
the correlations between and among variables without influencing or changing them (Seeram,
2019).

Research Flowchart

A research flowchart is a visual representation that outlines the steps or processes involved in
conducting a research study. It provides a clear and logical sequence of activities, from the
initial stage of identifying the problem to the final stage of reporting results.

Example of Research Flowchart

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Research Locale

The research locale refers to the specific geographic location, setting, or environment where a
research study is conducted. It provides details about the physical or virtual context in which
the research participants or phenomena under study are situated.

Example of Research Locale

The research was carried out in Calaba National High School in Brgy. Calaba, San
Isidro, Nueva Ecija. Calaba National High School is a public secondary school in San Isidro
District, Schools Division of Nueva Ecija, Region III. Calaba National High School was
established in 1966 and was previously known as Calaba Barangay High School.

Locator Map

A locator map in research is a visual representation that shows the geographic location or area
where a study is conducted. It is used to provide readers with a clear understanding of the
research locale's physical placement, particularly in studies where the location is significant to
the research context.

Example of Locator Map

Respondents of the Study

The respondents of the study refer to the individuals, groups, or entities who participate in a
research study by providing data or information. They are the primary sources of information
that the researcher collects and analyzes to address the research questions or objectives.

Example of Respondents of the Study

The study utilized a total enumeration of the respondents. Specifically, the respondents
of the study were the Grade 10 Junior High School learners of Calaba National High School,
Calaba, San Isidro, Nueva Ecija for the school year 2021-2022. The learners have been taking
modular distance learning supported by an online learning modality. The learners were
enrolled in Google Classroom where teacher-made Mathematics video lessons, instructional
materials, and assessments were posted.

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Population and Sample

Population: The entire group of individuals relevant to the study.

Sample: A subset of the population chosen to represent the whole group due to practical
constraints like time, resources, or accessibility.
Key Factors in Determining Sample Size
1. Population Size
2. Margin of Error
3. Confidence Level
4. Standard Deviation
Sample Size
For Infinite Population For Finite Population
(Large or Unknown Population Size) (Small or Known Population Size)
� 2 ∙ �2 �∙�2∙�2
�= �=
�2 � −1 ∙�2 +�2 ∙�2

Applications for Sample Size Calculations

1. Online Calculators
Raosoft: User-friendly tool for calculating sample size.
SurveyMonkey Sample Size Calculator: Ideal for surveys.
Qualtrics: Offers advanced options for various types of studies.
2. Statistical Software and Applications
SPSS: Allows for sample size computation based on population parameters and effect
sizes.
G*Power: Free software for power analysis and sample size calculation for various
statistical tests.
R: Statistical programming language with packages like pwr for calculating sample size.

Sampling Techniques
1. Probability Sampling
In probability sampling, every individual or unit in the population has a known, non-
zero chance of being selected. This allows for more generalizable results and is
considered more scientifically rigorous.

2. Non-Probability Sampling
In non-probability sampling, not all members of the population have a known or equal
chance of being selected. This makes generalization to the larger population more
difficult, but these methods are often used in exploratory or qualitative research.

1. Probability Sampling
1.1 Simple Random Sampling
1.2 Systematic Sampling
1.3 Stratified Sampling
1.4 Cluster Sampling
1.5 Multistage Sampling

2. Non-Probability Sampling
1.1 Convenience Sampling
1.2 Purposive Sampling
1.3 Snowball Sampling
1.4 Quota Sampling

Practice Test: Identify the sampling technique.

____________________1. A researcher selects every 5th person on a list of registered voters to

survey about their opinions on a new policy.
____________________2. A study is conducted where participants are divided into groups based
on age (e.g., 18-29, 30-44, 45-60, 60+), and then a random sample is
selected from each age group.
____________________3. A researcher conducts a survey by approaching people in a shopping
mall who are willing to answer questions, choosing only those who are
readily available.
____________________4. In a national study, a researcher divides the country into regions and
then randomly selects entire cities from each region to survey.
____________________5. A researcher uses a list of 100 students who volunteered for a study
and picks 10 of them by drawing numbers from a hat.

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____________________6. In a study of social networks, a participant is asked to refer other
participants they know, who then refer others, creating a chain of
referrals.
____________________7. A researcher divides a population into subgroups based on educational
level (e.g., high school, college, postgraduate) and randomly selects a
fixed number of participants from each subgroup.
____________________8. A researcher surveys a group of people from a specific neighborhood,
choosing those who seem most appropriate for the study’s goals.
____________________9. A researcher first randomly selects several towns, then randomly selects
households within those towns, and finally randomly selects individuals
within the households.
____________________10. A researcher conducts a survey by selecting 100 students from a local
school, ensuring that the sample includes an equal number of students
from each grade level.

Data Gathering Procedure

Qualitative and Quantitative Variable

1. Qualitative variable – contains categorical or qualitative responses. It refers to the
characteristics or attributes of the sample such as civil status, religious affiliations,
gender
2. Quantitative variable – contains numerical responses representing an amount or
quantity such as height, weight, number of children

A quantitative variable can be discrete or continuous.

a. Discrete – values obtained by counting, e.g., births, students in the class
b. Continuous – values obtained by measurement, e.g., age, height

Practice Test: Determine if the given quantitative variable is discrete or continuous. Write
your answer on the blank before the number.
_______________1. the number of cars in a parking lot
_______________2. the weight of a newborn baby in kilograms
_______________3. the number of students in a class
_______________4. the height of a basketball player in meters
_______________5. the number of books on a shelf
_______________6. the time it takes for a runner to finish the race
_______________7. the number of pages in a book
_______________8. the temperature of a cup of coffee
_______________9. the amount of water in a swimming pool
______________10. the number of phone calls received by a call center

Dependent Variable Vs Independent Variable

Dependent – a variable which is affected by another variable, e.g., test scores

Independent – a variable which affects the other variable, e.g., number of hours spent for
studying

Practice Test: For each of the following scenarios, identify the dependent variable and the
independent variable. Write your answers on the space provided.
1. A study to determine how the amount of sunlight affects plant growth. The growth of
plants is measured by height.
Independent Variable:
Dependent Variable:

2. A researcher is testing how different amounts of water affect the weight of a tomato
plant.
Independent Variable:
Dependent Variable:

3. A teacher is studying how study time impacts students' test scores.

Independent Variable:
Dependent Variable:

4. An experiment tests how the temperature of water affects the rate at which sugar
dissolves.
Independent Variable:
Dependent Variable:

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 5. A survey examines how the number of hours spent on social media affects teenagers'
levels of stress.
Independent Variable:
Dependent Variable:

Levels of Measurement of Variables

1. Nominal: data are categorical, and the numbers are used as identifiers or a
representation.
2. Ordinal: It denotes an ordered series of associations or rank order
3. Interval: It represents a quantity and has equal units in which zero indicates an
additional point of measurement is an interval scale.
4. Ratio: It is a scale of measurement which is similar to the interval scale that
represents quantity and has equality of units. However, ratio has an absolute zero (no
numbers exist below zero).

Practice Test: For each of the following data sets, identify the correct level of
measurement: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, or Ratio.
________________1. the brand of a smartphone
________________2. the temperature in Celsius
________________3. the number of children in a family
________________4. the ranking of students in a competition
________________5. the time of a day
________________6. the type of fruits in a basket
________________7. the weight of an object in kilograms
________________8. the IQ scores of students
________________9. the education level of a person
_______________10. the speed of cars on a highway

Data Gathering Techniques

Practice Test: For each of the following scenarios, choose the most appropriate data gathering
technique: Direct, Indirect, Registration, Experimental, or Observation.

_____________1. A researcher is conducting an experiment to test the effect of different fertilizer

types on plant growth.
_____________2. A sociologist is interviewing participants to learn about their experiences
during a specific event (e.g., a natural disaster).
_____________3. A school administrator wants to know how many students are enrolled in each
grade this year, so they refer to the official school records.
_____________4. A psychologist is observing and recording the behavior of children in a
classroom to study their social interactions.
_____________5. A health researcher is examining hospital records to find out how many people
were treated for flu symptoms last winter.
_____________6. A market researcher is sending out a questionnaire to consumers to find out
their preferences for a new product.
_____________7. A scientist is using laboratory experiments to determine the effect of
temperature on the solubility of salt in water.
_____________8. A police officer is observing pedestrians on the street to see how often people
jaywalk.
_____________9. A biologist is measuring the blood pressure of individuals before and after they
consume caffeine to study the effect.
____________10. A historian is reviewing ancient documents and records to understand the
political system of a past civilization.

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Validity refers to the extent to which a research instrument measures what it is intended to
measure. A valid instrument produces results that are accurate and truly represent the
concept being studied.
a. Content validity
b. Construct Validity
c. Face Validity

Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of the measurements produced by the
instrument. A reliable instrument produces the same results under consistent conditions.
a. Test – Retest Reliability
b. Inter-Rater Reliability
c. Internal Consistency Reliability

Example of Data Gathering Procedure

Description of the Instrument

To determine the relationships of the use of digital learning solutions for assessment
towards the academic achievement and the academic performance of learners in Mathematics,
the researcher formulated survey questionnaire and achievement test in Mathematics after
extensive reading of related articles, studies, and literature guided by the research adviser.
The questionnaire was chosen as the first data-gathering instrument. The questionnaire
is a list of a survey designed to gather specific information. The researcher utilized a 40-item
survey questionnaire on a four-point Likert scale having a scale of 1 to 4, namely strongly
disagree (1), disagree (2), agree (3), and strongly agree (4). Ten (10) items were included in each
of the following variables namely performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence,
and facilitating condition.

Validation and Reliability Test

The questionnaire and achievement test were reviewed and consulted with the adviser,
statistician, and panel members of the researcher to fit the present context and experience of
the learners as respondents. The survey questionnaire and achievement test were then
validated for input and approval.
In terms of testing the reliability of the questionnaire and achievement test, the
research instruments were subjected to pilot testing of Grade 10 learners of St. Stephen
Academy Inc., a private school in Laur, Nueva Ecija. Cronbach’s Alpha with computed values of
0.894, 0.873, 0.832, and 0.904 in terms of performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social
influence, and facilitating condition respectively was used to test the internal consistency and
reliability of each item in the questionnaire which indicates that the items were reliable and
acceptable.

Administration of the Instrument

Before administering the research instruments, the researcher obtained written
authorization from the Superintendent of the Schools Division of Nueva Ecija, the district
supervisor of public schools in San Isidro, and the school principal of Calaba National High
School requesting permission to conduct the study.

Before administering the survey questionnaire, the researcher reminded the

participants through Google Meet of few important points. The respondents were then emailed
via Facebook messaging the link to the Google Form containing the survey questionnaire.
Through each section's respective Facebook group chats, the researcher provided follow-up.

Data Analysis Technique

Parametric Tests
Parametric tests are statistical tests that make certain assumptions about the
parameters of the population distribution from which the sample is drawn. These tests assume
that the data follows a specific distribution (often a normal distribution), and they rely on
certain properties of the population, such as the population mean and standard deviation.

Key Assumptions of Parametric Tests

• Normality: The data is assumed to follow a normal distribution (especially for small
sample sizes).
• Homogeneity of Variance: The variance within each group being compared should be
approximately equal.
• Interval or Ratio Data: The data should be measured on an interval or ratio scale (i.e.,
with meaningful distances between values).

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Common Parametric Tests
1. t-test
Paired Sample or Independent Samples
2. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
3. Pearson r Correlation Coefficient
4. Linear Regression

Practice Test: Identify the most appropriate parametric test to use in testing each of the ff.
null hypotheses.
_______________________1. There is no significant difference in the mean test scores between the
two teaching methods (traditional vs. online).
_______________________2. There is no significant difference in the mean blood pressure of
patients before and after taking the drug.
_______________________3. There is no significant difference in the mean income between the
three job sectors (healthcare, technology, education).
_______________________4. There is no significant relationship between the academic
performance and age of the students.
_______________________5. The hours of exercise has no significant impact/influence to Body
Mass Index.
_______________________6. There is no significant difference in the mean weight of apples
between Orchard A and Orchard B.
_______________________7. There is no significant difference in the mean response times
between the three conditions (rest, moderate exercise, intense
exercise).
_______________________8. There is no significant between the profile variables of the learners
and their use of AI tools.
_______________________9. The mean customer satisfaction score for a product is equal to 80.
______________________10. There is no significant linear relationship between years of
experience, education level, and salary.

Non - Parametric Tests

Non-parametric tests do not make specific assumptions about the distribution of the
data. They are often called distribution-free tests because they can be used with data that
does not follow a normal distribution or when the sample size is small.

Key Assumptions
• No Assumptions of Normality: Non-parametric tests do not assume the data follows
any particular distribution.
• Ordinal or Nominal Data: Non-parametric tests can be used for ordinal or nominal
data (data that represents categories or rankings, rather than numerical values).
• Robust to Outliers: These tests are generally more robust to outliers than parametric
tests.

Common Non-Parametric Tests

1. Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test/Mann-Whitney U Test
2. Kruskal-Wallis H Test
3. Spearman Rank Correlation
4. Theil-Sen Estimator
5. Chi-Square
Test of Independence and Goodness-of-Fit Test

Data Analysis Technique

Example:
Statistical Tools Applied
Frequency count and percentage were used to describe the academic performance of
learners in Mathematics 10 during the first and second grading period for the school year
2021-2022. The grading scale and verbal interpretation of learners’ academic performance in
Mathematics was based on DepEd Order No. 8, s. 2015 or the Policy Guidelines on Classroom
Assessment for K to 12 Basic Education Program. Furthermore, the verbal interpretation of the
academic performance was indicated below.

Grading Scale Verbal Interpretation

90-100 Outstanding
85-89 Very Satisfactory
80-84 Satisfactory
75-79 Fairly Satisfactory
74 and below Did Not Meet Expectation

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 Weighted mean was computed in describing the use of digital learning solutions for the
assessment of Grade 10 learners. Meanwhile, the data gathered from the Digital Learning
Solutions for Assessment Questionnaire were interpreted using the guide below.

Weighted Mean Verbal Interpretation

3.25 – 4.00 Very High
2.50 – 3.24 High
1.75 – 2.49 Low
1.00-1.74 Very Low

Pearson r Coefficient of Correlation was computed to test if a significant relationship

exists between the academic performance of learners in Mathematics during the first and
second grading period and the use of digital learning solutions for assessment.

All computations were done using Microsoft Excel and Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) stored in the computer.

Ethical Concerns

As a researcher, considering several ethical considerations was necessary to ensure the

integrity of the research procedures and the protection of the rights of the participants.
Informed consent that clearly outlines the details of the research, questionnaires, and
procedures were ensured in the conduct of the study. The researcher secured permission
through formal communication letters from the Superintendent, district supervisors, and
school heads of the participating schools. The respondents, including teachers and school
heads, were fully informed about the purpose, procedure, and potential outcomes of the study.
The respondents were provided with detailed information about the survey and their
participation was voluntary and was given the right to withdraw at any point without negative
consequences.
All survey data were stored securely using password-protected systems and were only
accessible to the researcher. Findings from the survey were reported accurately and
transparently.
By adhering to these ethical considerations, this research aimed to uplift the integrity
and quality of research outputs and meet the global standards.

Chapter 3 Methods and Procedures

1. Research Design
2. Research Flow Chart
3. Research Locale
4. Locator Map
5. Respondents of the Study
6. Population and Sample
7. Data Gathering Instrument
Description,
Validity and Reliability
Data Gathering Procedure
10. Data Analysis Technique
11. Ethical Concerns

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