CHAPTER 14

AND LOCATION

CHAPTER 2
Road Vehicle Performance
14-1
 Outline

1. Introduction

2. Tractive effort and resistance

3. Aerodynamic resistance

4. Rolling resistance

5. Grade resistance

6. Available tractive effort

7. Vehicle acceleration

8. Fuel efficiency

9. Principles of braking 2
 2.1- Introduction

 Roadway design is governed by two main factors:

1. Vehicle capabilities
➢ acceleration/deceleration

➢ braking

➢ cornering (chap. 3)

2. Human capabilities (chap. 2, chap. 3)

➢ perception/reaction times

➢ eyesight (peripheral range, height above roadway)

3
 2.1- Introduction

 Performance of road vehicles forms the basis for roadway

design guidelines such as:

length of acceleration / deceleration lanes

maximum grades

stopping-sight distances

passing-sight distances

setting speed limits

timing of signalized
intersections

4
 Introduction
Stopping Sight Distances

5
 Introduction
Passing Sight Distances

6
 2.1- Introduction

 Studying vehicle performance serves two important

purposes:

1. provides insight into roadway design and traffic

operations and the compromises that are necessary to
accommodate the wide variety of vehicles that use
roadways

2. it forms a basis on which to assess the impact of

advancing vehicle technologies on existing roadway
design guidelines
7
2.2 -Tractive Effort
and Resistance
 2.2 Tractive Effort and
Resistance

 These are the opposing forces that determine straight-line

performance of road vehicles

 Tractive effort is simply the force available at the roadway

surface to perform work (expressed in lbs. [N])

 Resistance (expressed in lbs. [N]) is defined as the force

impeding (obstruct / interfere) vehicle motion

 Tractive effort ( F ) = Resistance forces the

vehicle is either stationary or moving at a constant speed
9
 Resistance

 Three (3) major sources of vehicle resistance are:

 Aerodynamic

 Rolling (originates from the roadway surface/tire interface)

Rolling
Resistance

 Grade or gravitational

10
 Vehicle Force Diagram
Ra

Grade resistance: Rg = W. sing

m.a
Rrlf

Ff W.sing

Wf

Rrl = rolling resistance (front/rear) W.cosg

Ra = aerodynamic resistance W
Rrlr
Ff/r = tractive force (front/rear)
Fr
Sum forces along line of travel: Wr

Ff + Fr = ma + Ra + Rrlf + Rrlr + Rg [Eq. 2.1]

F = ma + Ra + Rrl + Rg [Eq. 2.2]

11
2.3 - Aerodynamic
Resistance (Ra )
 3. Aerodynamic Resistance

 Based on these sources, equation for determining aerodynamic resistance is:


Ra = CD Af V 2 [Eq. 2.3]
2

Ra = aerodynamic resistance in N (lbs.)

ρ (rho) = air density in kg/m3 (slugs)
CD = coefficient of drag (unitless)
Af = frontal area of vehicle (projected area
of vehicle in direction of travel) in m2 (ft2)
V = vehicle speed* in m/s (ft/s)

 * V is speed of vehicle relative to prevailing wind speed (we will

assume wind speed of zero for purposes of this class) 13
 3. Aerodynamic Resistance

 Air density is a function of both elevation and temperature

  altitude,  density

  temperature,  density (with constant pressure)

14
 3. Aerodynamic Resistance
DRAG Coefficient
 The drag coefficient is a term that implicitly
accounts for all three of the aerodynamic resistance
sources previously discussed

 The drag coefficient is a common measure in

automotive design as it pertains to aerodynamics.
Drag is a force that acts parallel to and in the same
direction as the airflow. The drag coefficient of an
automobile impacts the way the automobile passes
through the surrounding air.

 The drag coefficient is measured from empirical

data, either from wind tunnel experiments or actual
field tests in which a vehicle is allowed to decelerate
from a known speed with other sources of resistance
(rolling and grade) accounted for

15
 3. Aerodynamic Resistance
DRAG Coefficient
 Approximate range of the drag coefficients for different types of road
vehicles

16
 3. Aerodynamic Resistance
DRAG Coefficient
 Drag coefficients for various automobiles over the last 40+ years

 Have dropped from about 0.5 to mid 0.2’s for sedan type vehicles

 Still in 0.4 – 0.5 range for SUVs and trucks

17
 3. Aerodynamic Resistance
DRAG Coefficient
 Effect of operational factors on the drag coefficient

18
 3. Aerodynamic Resistance

 As seen in equation, Ra is proportional to V 2. Thus, this resistance will

increase rapidly with increasing speed.

 (N)
Ra = CD Af V 2
[Eq. 2.3]
2
 We can develop an expression for determining the power needed to
overcome aerodynamic resistance

❑ Power is the product of force and speed (N-m/s or WATTS)


PRa = CD Af V 3 [Eq. 2.4]
2
 Thus, the power required to overcome aerodynamic resistance increases
with the cube of speed.

19
2.4 - Rolling
Resistance
 4. Rolling Resistance
❖ Refers to the resistance generated from a vehicle’s
internal mechanical friction (i.e. Forces within the
vehicle that offer resistance to motion)

❖ They include friction caused by the tires on the

pavement surface.

❖ These forces are lower on smooth pavements than

on rough pavements

❖ They depend on the speed of the vehicle

and the type of pavement.

3-21
 4. Rolling Resistance

 Primary source (about 90%) of this resistance is the

deformation of the tire as it passes over the roadway
surface.

 Tire penetration/roadway surface compression (about 4%)

 Tire slippage and air circulation around tire & wheel

(about 6%)

6% 90 % + 4 %
22
 4. Rolling Resistance (Rrl)
 Factors affecting Rrl
 Rigidity of tire and roadway surface (influence degree of tire
penetration, surface compression, and tire deformation)
 Tire inflation pressure and temperature (high tire inflation
decreases rolling resistance on hard paved surfaces as a result of reduced
friction. But increases rolling resistance on soft unpaved surfaces due to
additional surface penetration.
higher temperatures makes tire body more flexible tire deformation
less resistance
 Vehicle speed: Increasing speed additional tire flexing
and vibration higher rolling resistance

23
 4. Rolling Resistance
 Studies have shown that rolling resistance can be approximated as the
f
product of a friction term, rl (coefficient of rolling resistance), and the
weight of the vehicle acting normal to the roadway surface.

𝑉
frl = 0.01 1 + [Eq. 2.5]
44.73 (unitless)

where, V = vehicle speed (m/sec) W.cosg

Speed (ft/sec)

Thus, rolling resistance is approximated by:

Rrl = f rlW cos g

where W = total vehicle weight (N) 24
 4. Rolling Resistance

 However, since grades are often small, the equation is further simplified by
assuming cos g = 1 (giving a slightly more conservative estimate), yielding:

Rrl = f rlW [Eq. 2.6]

 To determine power required to overcome rolling resistance, multiply the

previous equation by speed, which yields:

g () cosg
PRrl = f rlWV [Eq. 2.7]
0 1.000
2.5 0.999
 Where P = required horsepower (N-m/s)
5 0.996
10 0.985
15 0.966 25
 Example 2.1
Aerodynamic and Rolling Resistance

 An 11.0-kN car is driven at sea level (ρ = 1.2256 kg/m3) on a level

paved surface. The car has CD = 0.38 and 2.0 m2 of frontal area. It is
known that at maximum speed, 38 kW is being expended to
overcome rolling and aerodynamic resistance. Determine the car’s
maximum speed.

26
 2.5
Grade Resistance
 5. Grade Resistance
(only applied if driving uphill)

 Gravity, of course, can offer significant resistance on inclines

The grade resistance is determined simply as the component of the vehicle
weight acting parallel to the roadway surface
[Eq. 2.8] Rg = W sin  g
W.sing

sin  g  tan  g
g () sing tang G (%)

0 0.000 0.000 0
2.5 0.044 0.044 4.4 Rg  WG [Eq. 2.9]
5 0.087 0.087 8.7
10 0.174 0.176 17.6
15 0.259 0.268 26.8 Note: G in decimal form: (if G = 5%, then θ = tan-1(0.05) = 2.86o)
28
 Example 2.2
Grade Resistance

 An 8.9-kN car has CD = 0.40, Af = 2.0 m2, and an available tractive

effort of 1135 N. If the car is traveling at an elevation of 1500 m (ρ
= 1.0567 kg/m3) on a paved surface at a speed of 110 km/h, what
is the maximum grade that this car could ascend and maintain
the 110-km/h speed?

29
6A. Friction Testing
 Wet Pavement Crashes

 ≈ 13.5% of fatal crashes and 25% of all crashes occur when pavements are
wet (Kuemmel et al., 2000 according to NTSB & FHWA)

 Empirical research shows that the number of wet crashes increases as

pavement friction decreases
31
 Pavement Friction

 Pavement friction is the force that resists the relative motion between a
vehicle tire and a pavement surface.

 This resistive force is generated as the tire rolls or slides over the pavement
surface.

32
 Coefficient of Road Adhesion (µ)

❑ Adhesion is the ability of a vehicle′s tire to stick firmly

to the road.

❑ The maximum tractive effort (F) as determined by the

roadway surface-tire interaction will be the normal
force (N) multiplied by the coefficient of road adhesion
(µ)
where N = W (weight applied on the wheel)

𝐹 = µW
F = available tractive effort on the tires (N)

= µ.W
Skid number SN = ×100 33
 Typical Values of Coefficients of Road
Adhesion (µ)

 If the tires begin to slide ( the brakes lock), a significant reduction in road
adhesion results as shown above, (For different pavement and weather
conditions)

 * for high performance tires for drag-racing cars

34
2.6 Available Tractive
Effort
 2.6 Available Tractive Effort

 Tractive effort ( F ) available to overcome resistance forces and/or to

accelerate the vehicle is determined by either:

1. The force generated by the vehicle’s engine

2. Some maximum value that is a function of

➢ the vehicle’s weight distribution and

➢ the characteristics of the pavement/tire interface

Ff

Fr

36
 1. Maximum Tractive Effort

 There is a point at which additional engine-generated tractive effort is not

productive

 Eventually your tires will vaporize

 To determine the point of maximum tractive effort (i.e., the value of

impending tire spin), we can use a force and moment-generating diagram

37
1. Maximum Tractive Effort

o L = wheelbase

o h = height of
the center of
gravity

o lf, lr = distance
from the front,
rear axle to the
CG

o W f, W r =
weight of
vehicle on
front, rear axle

38
 1. Maximum Tractive Effort

 To determine the max. tractive effort that the tire/pavement interface can
support, we must examine the normal loads on the drive axles.

 Assuming a rear-wheel drive car, the following equation can be used to

determine the normal load on the rear axle (by summing the moments about
point A):

Ra h + Wl f cos g + mah  Wh sin  g [Eq. 2.10]

Wr =
L

Grade moment: + for upward slope

- for downward slope 39
 1. Maximum Tractive Effort (Fmax)

 Rearranging terms, and:

 assuming cosg = 1, (used for small grades)

 substituting into (eq. 2.2) : F = (ma + Ra + Rrl + Rg)

lf
Wr = W + (F − Rrl )
h
[Eq. 2.11]
L L

 And then substituting: Fmax = µ W

W (l f − f rl h )/ L
Fmax =
(using the coefficient of road adhesion) 1 − h / L

 Similarly, by summing moments about the rear axle (point B), we have the
following formula for a front-wheel-drive vehicle:
W (lr + f rl h ) / L
Fmax =
1 + h / L 40
 Example 2.3
Maximum Tractive Effort

 An 11.0-kN car is designed with a 3.05-m wheelbase. The center

of gravity is located 550 mm above the pavement and 1.00 m
behind the front axle. If the coefficient of road adhesion is 0.6,
what is the maximum tractive effort that can be developed if the
car is (a) front-wheel drive and (b) rear-wheel drive?

41
2. Engine-Generated Tractive Effort

 Two most common measures of engine output are

1. Torque
2. power

 Torque is the work generated by the engine (the twisting

moment), and is expressed in newton-meters (N-m).

42
 2. Engine-Generated Tractive Effort

 Power is the rate of engine work, and is related to torque by the

following equation:

2 M e ne
Pe = [Eq. 2.16]
1000
Pe = engine-generated power in kW,
Me = engine torque in N-m, and
ne = engine speed in crankshaft revolutions per second (rev/sec)

43
 2. Engine-Generated Tractive Effort

 Typical torque-power curve for a gasoline-powered engine

Max

Torque (N-m)
Torque
Power (kW)

Power

Engine Speed (rev/min)

44
 Example 2.4
Engine Torque and Power

 It is known that an experimental engine has a torque curve of the

form Me = ane – bne2, where Me is engine torque in N-m, ne is
engine speed in revolutions per second, and a and b are unknown
parameters. If the engine develops a maximum torque of 125 N-m
at 3200 rev/min (revolutions per minute), what is the engine’s
maximum power?

45
 Engine-Generated Tractive Effort
 Tractive effort needed for acceptable vehicle acceleration is greater at lower
vehicle speeds, but max. torque is developed at high engine speeds.

 We need to use gear reductions to provide a mechanical advantage for

acceptable performance over a range of vehicle speeds.

 With gear reductions there are two factors that determine

the amount of tractive effort reaching the drive wheels

46
Engine-Generated Tractive Effort

47
 Engine-Generated Tractive Effort

 With gear reductions, Of course, not all engine

generated power will reach the wheels

 FIRST: There are mechanical losses along the way

(e.g., transmission, differential)
 ... The differential system allows the two wheels of the rear axle(or any
powered axle) to rotate with respect to each other while transferring the
power from the propeller shaft to both of them.

 Typically 5-25% of the engine engine-

generated tractive effort is lost in the driveline
(gear reduction devices)

 This corresponds to mechanical efficiency term

of the drivetrain , ( d), of 0.75 – 0.95 . 48

 Engine-Generated Tractive Effort
Drivetrain
 The drivetrain of a motor vehicle is the group of components
that transfer power from the transmission to the driving
wheels. This excludes the engine or motor that generates the
power.

 These components include the driveshaft, CV joints, the

differential, the axle shafts and the U-joints.
 CV joints (constant-velocity) is a mechanical coupling
which allows the drive shaft to rotate freely and transmit
power between 2 shafts through a variable angle and at
constant rotational speed without increase in friction.
 U-joints (universal joints) are joints connecting rigid rods
whose axles that are inclined to each other (they allow drive
shafts to move up and down with the suspension while the shaft is moving so
power can be transmitted)

49
 Engine-Generated Tractive Effort


 SECOND: The overall gear reduction ratio, ( o ) is an important
consideration in determining the tractive effort. It is the gear reductions of
the transmission and differential.

o refers to the relationship between the revolutions of the engine’s

crankshaft and the revolutions of the drive wheels.

 An  of 3 means that the engine’s crankshaft turns 3 revolutions for

0

every 1 revolution of the drive wheels

or overall gear reduction ratio is 3 to 1

50
 Engine-Generated Tractive Effort

 The engine-generated tractive effort reaching the drive wheels is

given by the following equation:

M e 0d
Fe = [Eq. 2.17]

r
 where,
Fe = engine-generated tractive effort (N)
Me = engine torque (N-m)
r = radius of the drive wheels (m)
o = overall gear reduction ratio
d = mechanical efficiency of the drivetrain
51
 Engine-Generated Tractive Effort

 The relationship between vehicle speed and engine speed is:

2rne (1 − i )
V = [Eq. 2.18]
0
V = vehicle speed in m/s
ne = engine speed in rev/s
i = driveline slippage (generally taken as 2-5% for passenger cars)

52
Tractive Effort

53
7. Vehicle Acceleration
 7. Vehicle Acceleration

 For determining a vehicle’s acceleration, the tractive force equation can be

used again, with an additional term added

F = m ma + Ra + Rrl + Rg
F = m ma + ΣR
m is called the mass factor, and accounts for the inertia of the vehicle’s
rotating parts that must be overcome during acceleration

 Rearranging tractive force equation with the mass factor included gives:
F −  R = γ m ma
[Eq. 2.19]
 The mass factor is approximated as:

γm = 1.04 + 0.0025ε02 [Eq. 2.20]

55
 7. Vehicle Acceleration
Two measures of vehicle acceleration:
• Time to accelerate
• Distance to accelerate
 For both, the force available to
accelerate is given by:

Fnet = F −  R
Fmax

 Relationship between Fnet and F (lesser

of Fmax and Fe) and R is shown Fe

 When Fnet = 0, vehicle cannot

accelerate, and is at its top speed Fnet = 0
= Fmax - FR = Fe - FR

Fe = F R
 Maximum acceleration means:
Fe = Fmax (RWD or FWD forces)
56
 Example 2.5
Vehicle Acceleration

 A car is traveling at 16 km/h on a roadway covered with hard-packed

snow (coefficient of road adhesion of 0.20). The car has CD = 0.30, Af =
2.0 m2, and W = 13.3 kN. The wheelbase is 3.05 m and the center of
gravity is 500 mm above the roadway surface and 1.27 m behind the
front axle. The air density is 1.0567 kg/m3. The car’s engine is
producing 130 N-m of torque and is in a gear that gives an overall
gear reduction ratio of 4.5 to 1, the wheel radius is 360 mm, and the
mechanical efficiency of the driveline is 80%. If the driver needs to
accelerate quickly to avoid an accident, what would the acceleration
be if the car is (a) front-wheel drive and (b) rear-wheel drive?

57
 Example 2.6
Engine-Torque and Vehicle Acceleration

 A front-wheel drive car is in gear with a gear-reduction ratio 8 to 1

and is traveling at 40 km/h. The engine torque of the car is given
by the equation Me = 13ne – 0.08ne2. The car has a frontal area of 1.8
m2, CD of 0.30 and is traveling at sea level (15 degrees C) on a level
road. The wheelbase is 3 meters and the center of gravity is 1 meter
behind the front axle and 800 mm above the road surface and the
car weighs 12.5 kN. If the car is on a road that is wet with poor
pavement, what is the maximum acceleration from 40 km/h
(driveline efficiency is 90%, slippage of the drive axle is 2%, wheel
radius is 380 mm)?

58
8. Fuel Efficiency
 8. Fuel Efficiency

 Engine design is the most critical determinant that relates to fuel

efficiency

 This is how the engine-generated tractive effort is produced

Improved fuel efficiency is achieved by:

1. Increasing the quantity of air entering the combustion
chamber,

2. Improving fuel delivery to the combustion chamber, and

3. Decreasing internal engine friction

60
 8. Fuel Efficiency

Improvements in other mechanical

components, such as
 Decreasing slippage

 Improving the mechanical efficiency of the transmission

and driveshaft

 Increase the overall fuel efficiency.

61
 8. Fuel Efficiency

In terms of resistance-reducing options,

 Decreasing overall vehicle weight (W) will lower grade and
rolling resistances, thus reducing fuel consumption (all other
factors held constant).

 Similarly, aerodynamic improvements such as a lower drag

coefficient (CD) and a reduced frontal area (Af) can produce
significant fuel savings.

 Finally, improved tire designs with lower rolling resistance

can improve overall fuel efficiency.

62
9. Principles of Braking
 9. Principles of Braking

 For roadway design and traffic analysis, vehicle braking

characteristics are the most important aspect of vehicle
performance.

 Braking performance is a key factor to the determination of:

 stopping-sight distance, which is one of the foundations of

roadway design

 the length of the yellow interval for signals

64
 9. Principles of Braking

 Like we did for determining maximum tractive effort, we can

use a force and moment-generating diagram to determine

Fbf and Fbr (Braking force, front and rear).

65
 9. Principles of Braking

 Notice that this figure is identical to the “Vehicle Force Diagram”, except
that the braking forces have replaced the tractive forces, and are in the
opposite direction because the braking forces are counteracting the forward
motion. Also, ma points in opposite direction (because this force is
counteracting braking force).
66
 9. Principles of Braking

 Taking moments about the front and rear axles (just like for max tractive
effort derivation), and assuming cos g = 1 for small roadway grades, the
normal loads on the front and rear axles are given by the following
equations:
Wf =
1
L

Wl r + h(ma − Ra  W sin  g )  [Eq. 2.23]

Wr =
1
L

Wl f − h(ma − Ra  W sin  g )  [Eq. 2.24]

where Wf & Wr is the weight of the vehicle on the front and rear ales (N)

 Grade resistance (Wsing) is negative for uphill grades and positive for
downhill grades
 These equations are identical to their tractive effort equation counterparts,
except that ‘ma’ is of the opposite sign
67
 9. Principles of Braking

 Also, from summing forces along the vehicle’s longitudinal axis gives:

Fb + f rlW = ma − Ra  W sin  g [Eq. 2.25]

where: Fb = Fbf + Fbr

And using Rrl = frl W [Eq. 2.6]

 Substituting this equation into the previous two equations yields the
following equations:

Wf =
1
Wl r + h(Fb + f rlW ) [Eq. 2.26]
L
1
L

Wr = Wl f − h(Fb + f rlW )  [Eq. 2.27]

68
 9. Principles of Braking

 The MAXIMUM VEHICLE BRAKING force (Fb max) is equal to the

coefficient of road adhesion times the weights normal to the roadway
surface.

Fbf max = W f (front braking force) [Eq. 2.12]

Fbr m ax = Wr (rear braking force) [Eq. 2.12]

 = coefficient of road adhesion

69
 9. Principles of Braking

 Substituting the Wf and Wr equations gives:

W
Fbf max = l r + h( + f rl ) [Eq. 2.28]
L
W
Fbr max =
L

l f − h( + f rl )  [Eq. 2.29]

 To develop maximum braking forces, the tires should be at the point

of impending slide.
 If the tires begin to slide (i.e., the brakes lock), a significant
reduction in road adhesion will result. See section 6A “Friction
Testing” for example coefficients of road adhesion for various
pavement/weather conditions under max and slide scenarios.
70
 2.9.2 Braking Force Ratio
and Efficiency
 On a given roadway surface, the maximum attainable vehicle
deceleration, using the vehicle’s braking system, is equal to µ.g
where

 μ is the coefficient of road adhesion, and

 g is the gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2).

 To approach this maximum vehicle deceleration, vehicle braking

systems must correctly distribute braking forces between the
vehicle’s front and rear brakes.

71
 Braking Force Ratio and Efficiency

 The front/rear proportioning of braking forces will be optimal (achieving a

deceleration rate equal to µ.g) when it is in exactly the same proportion as
the ratio of the maximum braking forces on the front and rear axles, i.e.,
Fbf max
BFR f / r max =
Fbr max

 Thus, maximum braking forces (with the tires at the point of impending
slide) will be developed when the brake force ratio (front force over the rear
force) is:
l + h( + f rl ) [Eq. 2.30]
BFR f / r max = r
l f − h( + f rl )

BFR—brake force ratio that results in maximum (optimal) braking forces

72
 Braking Force Ratio and Efficiency

 It follows that the percentage of braking force that the braking

system should allocate to the front and rear axles for maximum
braking is:

100
PBF f = 100 − [Eq. 2.31]
1 + BFR f / r max

100
PBFr = [Eq. 2.32]
1 + BFR f / r max

73
 Example 2.7
Brake-Force Proportioning

 A car has a wheelbase of 2.5 m and a center of gravity that is 1.0

m behind the front axle at a height of 600 mm. If the car is
traveling at 130 km/h on a road with poor pavement that is wet,
determine the percentage of braking forces that should be
allocated to the front and rear brakes (by the vehicle’s braking
system) to ensure that maximum braking forces are developed.

74
 Braking Force Ratio and Efficiency

 It is clear from Eq. 2.30 that the design of a vehicle’s braking system
is not an easy task because the optimal brake-force proportioning
changes with both vehicle and road conditions.

 Passenger and cargo loading conditions, especially for trucks, is

a major factor

 Changes in road conditions produce different coefficients of

road adhesion

 Because of these uncertainties, vehicle designers often choose

brake force proportioning that is good on average, but rarely
optimal

75
 Braking Force Ratio and Efficiency

 Because true optimal brake-force proportioning is seldom achieved in standard

non-antilock braking systems, we use a term that reflects the degree to which the
braking system is operating below optimal.

 Braking efficiency is defined as the ratio of the maximum rate of deceleration,

expressed in g’s (denote gmax), achievable prior to any wheel lockup, to the
coefficient of road adhesion.

g max
b = [Eq. 2.33]


 With braking efficiency considered, the actual braking force becomes

Fb = ηb μ W
76
 2.9.3 Antilock Braking
Systems (ABS)
 ABS prevent the wheels from locking during braking applications

 ABS serve two purposes

1. They prevent the coefficient of road adhesion from dropping to slide

values

2. They have the potential to raise the braking efficiency to 100% (ηb = 1.0)

ABS allow better

steering control

77
 2.9.4 Theoretical Stopping
Distance
➢ After understanding the brake force proportioning and the resulting braking efficiency,
we can now focus on determining stopping distances
 Review Section 2.9.4 for derivation details

 Equation for theoretical stopping distance is given by (assuming V2 = 0)

 bW  K V 2 
S=  ln 1 + a 1 
2 gK a   W + f W  W sin   [Eq. 2.42]
where,  b rl g 
 W sin θg is ( grade resistance term) + for uphill and – for downhill Braking force
 b is the mass factor accounting for moments of inertia during braking, given value of
1.04 for automobiles
 W = weight of vehicle (N)
 Ka = 0.5 ρ CD Af [Eq. 2.37] With braking efficiency
considered
 ρ = air density
 μ = coefficient of road adhesion
 ηb = braking efficiency (may be reduced with increased load / cargo)
 frl W = rolling resistance 78
 Theoretical Stopping Distance

 Assume that the effect of speed on the coeff. of rolling resistance is

constant, and can be approximated as V = (V1 + V2)/2 (use this V in

Eq. 2.5 for frl for stopping distances)

 If we ignore aerodynamic resistance (which is not a big factor in

deceleration), we get:

 b (V12 − V22 )
S=
2 g (b  + f rl  sin  g )
[Eq. 2.43]

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 Example 2.8
Theoretical Minimum Stopping Distance

 A new experimental 11-kN car, with CD = 0.25 and Af = 2.0 m2, is

traveling at 145 km/h down a 10% grade. The coefficient of road
adhesion is 0.7 and the air density is 1.2256 kg/m3. The car has an
advanced antilock braking system that gives it a braking efficiency of
100%. Determine the theoretical minimum stopping distance for the
case where aerodynamic resistance is considered and the case where
aerodynamic resistance is ignored.

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 Example 2.9 – Effects of Grade on
Theoretical Minimum Stopping Distance

 A car is traveling at 130 km/h and has a braking efficiency of 80%.

The brakes are applied to miss an object that is 45 m from the point of
brake application, and the coefficient of road adhesion is 0.85.
Ignoring aerodynamic resistance and assuming theoretical minimum
stopping distance, estimate how fast the car will be going when it
strikes the object if (a) the surface is level and (b) the surface is on a
5% upgrade.

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 Example 2.10 – Theoretical Minimum
Stopping Distance with and without Antilock
Brakes

 A car is traveling up a 3% grade on a road that has good, wet

pavement. The engine is running at 2500 revolutions per minute.
The radius of the wheels is 380 mm, the driveline slippage is 3%,
and the overall gear reduction ratio is 2.5 to 1. A deer jumps out
onto the road and the driver applies the brakes 89 m from it. The
driver hits the deer at a speed of 30 km/h. If the driver did not
have antilock brakes, and the wheels were locked the entire
distance, would a deer-impact speed of 30 km/h be possible?

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 2.9.5 BREAKING DISTANCE (Db)

❑ Is another parameter related to dynamic characteristics of the vehicle.

❑ Db is always a horizontal distance because measurements of distances in surveying
are horizontal and, therefore distance measurements in highway design are always

made with respect to the horizontal plane

A horizontal distance
traveled while reducing
the speed of a vehicle
from speed V1 to speed
V2 (km/h) during a
braking maneuver

𝑉12 − 𝑉22
𝐷𝑏 =
𝑎
2𝑔 ±𝐺
𝑔

3-83
 Practical Stopping Distance

 Highway engineers face a more complex problem because they

must design for a variety of

 driver skill levels

➢ which can affect whether or not the brakes lock and reduce the
coefficient of road adhesion to slide values

 vehicle types
➢ with varying aerodynamics, weight distributions, and brake
efficiencies

 weather conditions
➢ which change the roadway’s coefficient of adhesion

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 Practical Stopping Distance (V2 = 0)

[Eq. 2.47]

• d = deceleration distance (practical stopping distance) (m)

• V1 = initial vehicle speed (m/s)
• a = deceleration rate (m/s2 ) (2011 AASHTO recommends a rate of 3.4 m/s2 –
Other studies have shown a higher rate  AASHTO conservative)
• g = gravitational constant, 9.81 m/s2 (a / g) = 0.35
• G = roadway grade (+ for uphill, − for downhill) in percent/100
• G = 0 if driving on a level road

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 Example 2.11
Braking Efficiency and Stopping Distance

 A car (W = 9.8 kN, CD = 0.25, Af = 2.0 m2) has an antilock braking system
that gives it a braking efficiency of 100%. The car’s stopping distance is
tested on a level roadway with poor, wet pavement (with tires at the point
of impending skid), and ρ = 1.227 kg/m3. How inaccurate will the stopping
distance predicted by the practical-stopping-distance equation be compared
with the theoretical stopping distance, assuming the car is initially traveling
100 km/h? How inaccurate will the practical-stopping-distance equation be
if the same car has a braking efficiency of 85%?

86
 Distance Traveled During
Perception/Reaction Time

[Eq. 2.49]

V1 = initial vehicle speed (m/s)

tr = time required to perceive and react to the need to stop, (sec)

87
 Distance Traveled During
Perception/Reaction Time

 Perception/reaction time of a driver is a function of a number of factors:

 Driver’s age

 Physical condition

 Emotional state

 Complexity of the situation

 Strength of the stimuli requiring a stopping action

 For highway design, 2011 AASHTO recommends tr = 2.5 sec (conservative)

 Average drivers have tr = 1.0 to 1.5 seconds

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 TOTAL STOPPING DISTANCE
Stopping Sight Distance

[Eq. 2.50]

ds = total stopping distance (including perception/reaction time) (m)

d = distance traveled during braking (either theoretical or practical) (m)
dr = distance traveled during perception/reaction (m) Braking distance
to full stop
𝑽𝟐
𝒅𝒔 = 𝑽 × 𝒕 +
𝒂
𝟐𝒈 ±𝑮
𝒈

89
 Example 2.12 – Practical Stopping
Distance and Perception/Reaction Times

 Two drivers each have a reaction time of 2.5 seconds. One is obeying
a 90-km/h speed limit and the other is traveling illegally at 120
km/h. How much distance will each of the drivers cover while
perceiving/reacting to the need to stop, and what will the total
stopping distance be for each driver (using practical stopping
distance and assuming G = −2.5%)?

90
 References

 Mannering, Fred L.; Washburn, Scott S.; Principles of Highway Engineering

and Traffic Analysis, 5th Edition SI Version; ISBN-13: 9781118471395 –
Chapter 2.

 American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, A

Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 6th Edition,
Washington, DC, 2011.

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