MDLS 4312 COMPUTER

MDLS 4312 APPLICATION OF

COMPUTER AND COMPUTING
SKILLS

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PART 1
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
There are several definitions to computer, so there is no one single definition of a computer.
However, in this unit we will try to give a generalized and all round satisfactory definition of
computer. A computer is a fast operating machine that can be used for the home and business
to enhance productivity. In other words, a computer is a collection of electronic parts, or
hardware that have a set of electronic instructions called software. All computers perform the
same basic functions; they enable you to store and manipulate information.
Typically any machine called a computer displays the following characteristics:
- The ability to perform calculation at very high speed.
- Ability to take in information and to store that information for future retrieval or use.
- The ability to take in and store sequence of instructions called program which must
be written in the language of computer.
- The ability to obey sequence of program instructions provided the program is stored
within the computer.
- The ability to use simple logical rules to make decisions for their own internal
control, or for the control of some external activity e.g. to take over the role of calculator
operator.
- The ability to communicate with other systems.
- The ability to exploit a complex internal structure of a microelectronics circuitry in a
variety of ways
CLASSES OF COMPUTERS
A few years ago computers were easily classified as mainframe, minicomputer or
microcomputer. Mainframe computers were physically large and powerful systems capable
of supporting hundreds of users. They had relatively large amount of RAM (e.g. 1-2 Mb) and
disk storage (e.g. 100 to 400 Mb). Minicomputers were smaller less powerful machines than
mainframes, but were still multi-user machines. Microcomputers were small humble

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machines with 8-bit or 16-bit processors, 16Kb to 256Kb of RAM and 5 to 10 Mb of disk
storage, used mainly for games and basic word processing. Developments in microprocessor
technology however means that today's desktop microcomputer will easily have more RAM
and disk storage than the above mentioned mainframe, as well as having a more powerful
CPU. Minicomputers today are really no more than very powerful microcomputers. The
differences between such a machine and a desktop model may more likely be in the software
that is being used as opposed to the hardware, for example, a multi-user operating system
such as Unix, would typically be used, as opposed to the Windows systems of PCs.
Mainframe computers are still powerful machines (physically much smaller than their
ancestors) with hundreds of megabytes of RAM and terabytes of disk storage. They have
very powerful CPU's that allow them cope with large numbers of users. Supercomputer is
the term used for the most powerful computer available at any time. These are typically
tailored for very fast processing of what are known as number crunching applications. Such
applications require a tremendous number of arithmetic calculations to be carried out.
Weather forecasting is the classic example of such an application, where equations taking
account of huge numbers of observations have to be solved. Other applications are to be
found in astro-physics and some branches of chemical analysis and modelling.
Supercomputers at the moment can carry out trillions of operations per second! The Cray is
perhaps the most well known supercomputer, named after its designer, Seymour Cray.
The different classes of computers based on sizes are as follow:
MICROCOMPUTERS
Microcomputers are the most common type of computers in existence today, whether at work
in school or on the desk at home. The term "Microcomputer" was introduced with the advent
of single chip large scale integrated circuit computer processors. The term "microcomputer"
itself, is now practically an anachronism.
A microcomputer is a computer with a microprocessor as its central processing unit.
Another general characteristic of these computers is that they occupy physically small
amounts of space when compared to mainframe and minicomputers. Many microcomputers
(when equipped with a keyboard and screen for input and output) are also personal computers
(in the generic sense).
These computers include:
DESKTOP COMPUTERS
A desktop computer is a personal computer (PC) in a form intended for regular use at a
single location, as opposed to a mobile laptop or portable computer. Prior to the wide spread

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of microprocessors a computer that could fit on a desk was considered remarkably small.
Today the phrase usually indicates a particular style of computer case. Desktop computers
come in a variety of styles ranging from large vertical tower cases to small form factor
models that can be tucked behind an LCD monitor. In this sense, the term 'desktop' refers
specifically to a horizontally-oriented case, usually intended to have the display screen placed
on top to save space on the desk top. Most modern desktop computers have separate screens
and keyboards. A specialized form of desktop case is used for home theatre systems,
incorporating front-panel mounted controls for audio and video.
PERSONAL DIGITAL ASSISTANTS (MORE COMMONLY KNOWN AS PDA'S)
A Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) is a handheld computer, also known as small or
palmtop computers. Newer PDAs also have both color screens and audio capabilities,
enabling them to be used as mobile phones (smartphones), web browsers, or portable media
players. Many PDAs can access the Internet, intranets or extranets via Wi-Fi, or Wireless
Wide-Area Networks (WWANs). Many PDAs employ touch screen technology.
PALMTOP COMPUTERS
A subnotebook (also ultraportable laptop or minilaptop computer) is a small and
lightweight portable computer, with most of the features of a standard laptop computer but
smaller. The term is often applied to systems that run full versions of desktop operating
systems such as Windows or Linux, rather than specialized software such as Windows CE,
Palm OS or Internet Tablet OS. The term "ultra-mobile PC" (UMPC) is also frequently used
to refer to such machines, although this also refers to a small form-factor tablet PC platform.
Subnotebooks are smaller than laptops but larger than handheld computers and UMPCs. They
often have smaller-sized screens, usually measuring from 7 inches (17.7 cm) to 13.3 inches
(33.78 cm), and a weight from less than 1 kg (2.2 lbs) up to about 2 kg (4.4 lbs). The savings
in size and weight are usually achieved partly by omitting ports or having removable
media/optical drives; subnotebooks are often paired with docking stations to compensate.
Subnotebooks were seen as niche computing products and have rarely sold in large numbers
until the 2007 introduction of the Asus Eee PC and the OLPC XO-1, known as ultra low-cost
PC (ULPC or ULCPC), which are inexpensive in comparison to both existing machines in
that form factor, and computers in general.
LAPTOP AND NOTEBOOK COMPUTERS
A laptop computer or simply laptop (also notebook computer, notebook and notepad) is
a small mobile computer, typically weighing 3 to 12 pounds (1.4 to 5.4 kg), although older

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laptops may weigh more. Laptops usually run on a single main battery or from an external
AC/DC adapter that charges the battery while also supplying power to the computer itself
even in the event of a power failure. This very powerful main battery should not be confused
with the much smaller battery nearly all computers use to run the real-time clock and backup
BIOS configuration into the CMOS memory when the computer is without power.
Laptops contain components that are similar to their desktop counterparts and perform the
same functions, but are miniaturized and optimized for mobile use and efficient power
consumption, although typically less powerful for the same price. Laptops usually have liquid
crystal displays and most of them use different memory PARTs for their random access
memory (RAM), for instance, SO-DIMM in lieu of the larger DIMMs. In addition to a built-
in keyboard, they may utilize a touchpad (also known as a trackpad) or a pointing stick for
input, though an external keyboard or mouse can usually be attached.
MINICOMPUTERS
The term "Mini computer" was coined at the time when most computers were cabinet sized
like Mainframe Computers. Mini computers were much smaller, less powerful, and much less
expensive than Mainframe Computers. The first Mini computers generally only performed
one task at a time, while bigger computers ran multi-tasking operating systems, and served
multiple users. Mini computers were typified by small word sizes such as 8 or 16 bits
whereas larger machines had larger word sizes.
Minicomputer (colloquially, mini) is a largely obsolete term for a class of multi-user
computers that lies in the middle range of the computing spectrum, in between the largest
multi-user systems (mainframe computers) and the smallest single-user systems
(microcomputers or personal computers). Formerly this class formed a distinct group with its
own hardware and operating systems notably having smaller address space (notice the cited
numbers of bits in a data word, ranging from 8 to 24 bits commonly around 16-bits). While
the distinction between mainframe computers and smaller computers remains fairly clear,
contemporary middle-range computers are not well differentiated from personal computers,
being typically just a more powerful but still compatible version of a personal computer.
More modern terms for minicomputer-type machines include midrange systems (IBM
parlance), workstations (Sun Microsystems and general UNIX/Linux parlance), and servers.
MAINFRAME COMPUTERS
The term Mainframe computer was created to distinguish the traditional, large, institutional
computer intended to service multiple users from the smaller, single user machines. These
computers are capable of handling and processing very large amounts of data easily and

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quickly. A mainframe speed is so fast that it is measured in millions of tasks per milliseconds
(MTM). While other computers became smaller, Mainframe computers stayed large to
maintain the ever growing memory capacity and speed. Mainframe computers are used in
large institutions such as government, banks and large corporations. These institutions were
early adopters of computer use, long before personal computers were available to individuals.
"Mainframe" often refers to computers compatible with the computer architectures
established in the 1960s. Thus, the origin of the architecture also affects the classification, not
just processing power.
Mainframes (often colloquially referred to as Big Iron) are computers used mainly by large
organizations for critical applications, typically bulk data processing such as census, industry
and consumer statistics, ERP, and financial transaction processing.
The term probably originated from the early mainframes, as they were housed in enormous,
room-sized metal boxes or frames. Later the term was used to distinguish high-end
commercial machines from less powerful units.
Today in practice, the term usually refers to computers compatible with the IBM System/360
line, first introduced in 1965 (IBM System z10 is the latest incarnation). Otherwise, large
systems that are not based on the System/360 are referred to as either " servers" or
"supercomputers". However, "server", "supercomputer" and "mainframe" are not
synonymous (see client-server).
Some non-System/360-compatible systems derived from or compatible with older (pre-Web)
server technology may also be considered mainframes. These include the Burroughs large
systems, the UNIVAC 1100/2200 series systems, and the pre-System/360 IBM 700/7000
series. Most large-scale computer system architectures were firmly established in the 1960s
and most large computers were based on architecture established during that era up until the
advent of Web servers in the 1990s (Interestingly, the first Web server running anywhere
outside Switzerland ran on an IBM mainframe at Stanford University as early as 1990. See
History of the World Wide Web for details).
There were several minicomputer operating systems and architectures that arose in the 1970s
and 1980s, but minicomputers are generally not considered mainframes (UNIX arose as a
minicomputer operating system; Unix has scaled up over the years to acquire some
mainframe characteristics).
Many defining characteristics of "mainframe" were established in the 1960s, but those
characteristics continue to expand and evolve to the present day.

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MAINFRAMES VS SUPERCOMPUTERS
The distinction between supercomputers and mainframes is not a hard and fast one, but
supercomputers generally focus on problems which are limited by calculation speed while
mainframes focus on problems which are limited by input/output and reliability ("throughput
computing") and on solving multiple business problems concurrently (mixed workload). The
differences and similarities include:
• Both types of systems offer parallel processing. Supercomputers typically expose it to the
programmer in complex manners, while mainframes typically use it to run multiple tasks.
One result of this difference is that adding processors to a mainframe often speeds up the
entire workload transparently.
• Supercomputers are optimized for complicated computations that take place largely in
memory, while mainframes are optimized for comparatively simple computations involving
huge amounts of external data. For example, weather forecasting is suited to supercomputers,
and insurance business or payroll processing applications are more suited to mainframes.
• Supercomputers are often purpose-built for one or a very few specific institutional tasks
(e.g. simulation and modeling). Mainframes typically handle a wider variety of tasks (e.g.
data processing, warehousing). Consequently, most supercomputers can be one-off designs,
whereas mainframes typically form part of a manufacturer's standard model lineup.
• Mainframes tend to have numerous ancillary service processors assisting their main
central processors (for cryptographic support, I/ O handling, monitoring, memory handling,
etc.) so that the actual "processor count" is much higher than would otherwise be obvious.
Supercomputer design tends not to include as many service processors since they don't
appreciably add to raw number-crunching power.
CLASSES BY FUNCTION
SERVERS
Server usually refers to a computer that is dedicated to the task of storing and retrieving large
amounts of data. For example, a large computer dedicated to a database may be called a
"database server". "File servers" manage a large collection of computer files. "Web servers"
process web pages and web applications. This tends to distinguish them from "mainframes",
which were generally intended to handle a variety of tasks. In some instances, a computer
that was once considered a mainframe, is given the role of Server. This is because the actual
data processing is taken over by individual personal computers. Many smaller servers are
actually personal computers that have been dedicated to the task of storing data for other

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personal computers. In other instances, many small computers (essentially specialised

personal computers) are designed to work in concert as a single server.
WORKSTATION
Workstations are computers that are intended to serve one user and may contain special
hardware enhancements not found on a personal computer. They run operating systems that
are normally associated with mainframe computers, usually one of the variants of the UNIX
operating system.
PORTABLE DATA ENTRY TERMINALS
Portable data entry terminals (more commonly known as PDET's) are handheld devices that
are used to record or capture data away from the mainframe computer that they are linked to.
Examples of PEDTs include:
• Barcode readers Gas Meter
• Optical mark readers (as in lottery ticket readers)
• Optical character recognition
• Scanner
• Graphics tablet
• Magnetic stripe reader
EMBEDDED COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Embedded computers are general purpose CPUs that are a part of a machine or device. This
computer runs a program that is stored in read only memory (ROM) and is only intended to
operate a specific machine or device. Practically all consumer electronics (including electric
toothbrushes), automobiles and industrial machines contain embedded computers today. They
are intended to operate this single machine or a single function of that machine. Embedded
systems are typically required to operate continuously without being reset or rebooted, and
once employed in their task the software usually cannot be modified. An automobile may
contain a number of Embedded systems; however, a washing machine and a DVD player
would contain only one. The CPUs used are slower and less expensive than those found in a
personal computer, but they generally only have to conduct a single function.
SUPERCOMPUTER
A supercomputer is focused on performing one task involving intense numerical calculations
such as weather forecasting and solving scientific problems. The distinction between
supercomputers and mainframes can be difficult to define at times. Supercomputers tend to
be custom built and focus on processing power to do one task. Mainframes, while providing a

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lot of processing power, focus more on data throughput and generally perform many data
handling operations involving minor computations.

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Computer sizes

Super • Minisuper • Mainframe • Mini

Larger
Supermini • Server

Micro Personal • Workstation • Home • Desktop • SFF

Cart / Portable / Desktop replacement

computer • Laptop • Subnotebook (Netbook)
Tablet (Ultra-Mobile PC) • Portable / Mobile
data terminal • Electronic organizer • E-book
reader • Pocket computer • Handheld game
console • Wearable computer
Mobile
Handheld PC • Pocket PC PDAs /
IAs Smartphone • PDA phone PMPs • DAPs

Calculators Graphing

OtherS Embedded system • Wireless sensor network

Microcontroller • Smartdust • Nanocomputer

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CHAPTER 2 COMPUTER HARDWARE

A computer system is made up of both hardware and software. Software is another term for
computer program. Software controls the computer and makes it do useful work. Without
software a computer is useless, akin to a car without someone to drive it. Hardware refers to
the physical components that make up a computer system. These include the computer's
processor, memory, monitor, keyboard, mouse, disk drive, printer and so on. In this notes we
will take a brief look at the functions of the different hardware components. In addition we
shall describe some of the essential software required for the operation of a computer system.
The hardware are the parts of a computer including the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and
related microchips and micro-circuitry, keyboard, monitor, case and drives (floppy, hard,
CD, DVD, optical, tape, etc...). Other extra parts called peripheral components or devices
include mouse, printer, modem, scanner, digital camera and cards (sound, colour,
video) etc. Together they are often referred to as a personal computer or PC
PROCESSING DEVICES CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
Though the term relates to a specific chip or the processor, a CPU's performance is
determined by the rest of the computer's circuitry and chips.
Currently the Pentium chip or processor, made by Intel, is the most common CPU though
there are many other companies that produce processors for personal computers. Examples
are the CPU made by Motorola and AMD.
With faster processors the clock speed becomes more important. Compared to some of the
first computers which operated at below 30 megahertz (MHz) the Pentium chips began at 75
MHz in the late 1990s. Speeds now exceed 3000+ MHz or 3 gigahertz (GHz) and different
chip manufacturers use different measuring standards (check your local computer store for
the latest speed). It depends on the circuit board that the chip is housed in, or the
motherboard, as to whether you are able to upgrade to a faster chip. The motherboard
contains the circuitry and connections that allow the various component to communicate with
each other.
Though there were many computers using many different processors prior to this, I call the
80286 processor the advent of home computers as these were the processors that made
computers available for the average person. Using a processor before the 286 involved
learning a proprietary system and software. Most new software are being developed for the
newest and fastest processors so it can be difficult to use an older computer system.

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MEMORY
Memory can be very confusing but is usually one of the easiest pieces of hardware to add to
your computer. It is common to confuse chip memory with disk storage. An example of the
difference between memory and storage would be the difference between a table where the
actual work is done (memory) and a filing cabinet where the finished product is stored (disk).
To add a bit more confusion, the computer's hard disk can be used as temporary memory
when the program needs more than the chips can provide.
Random Access Memory or RAM is the memory that the computer uses to temporarily
store the information as it is being processed. The more information being processed the
more RAM the computer needs.
One of the first home computers used 64 kilobytes of RAM memory (Commodore 64).
Today's modern computers need a minimum of 64 Mb (recommended 128 Mb or more) to
run Windows or OS 10 with modern software.
RAM memory chips come in many different sizes and speeds and can usually be expanded.
Older computers came with 512 Kb of memory which could be expanded to a maximum of
640 Kb. In most modern computers the memory can be expanded by adding or replacing the
memory chips depending on the processor you have and the type of memory your computer
uses. Memory chips range in size from 1 Mb to 4 Gb. As computer technology changes the
type of memory changes as well making old memory chips obsolete. Check your computer
manual to find out what kind of memory your computer uses before purchasing new memory
chips.
STORAGE DEVICES
Among the most important part of computer systems are the devices that allow you to save
the product of your labour. The physical component or materials on which data are stored are
called storage media. A storage device is a piece of hardware that permanently store
information. Unlike electronic memory, a storage device retains information when electric
power is turned off.
DISK AND STORAGE
Disks are used to store information. All information on computers are stored in files. The size
of a file is measured in bytes.
A byte is approximately one character (letter 'a', number '1', symbol '?' etc....).
A byte is made up of 8 bits. A bit is simply an on or an off signal which passes through the
computers circuitry. Every piece of software can be broken down into a series of on or off
signals or it's Binary Code.

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• About a thousand bytes is a kilobyte (Kb).

• About a million bytes is a megabyte (Mb).
• About a billion bytes is a gigabyte (Gb).
• About a trillion bytes is a Terabyte
• One Terabyte is a Petabyte
• One Petabyte is an Exabyte
Note: I say 'about' because everything in computers must be divisible by 8 so a kilobyte is
actually 1,024 bytes. The reason for this goes beyond the scope of an introductory level
document but as it can cause some confusion I thought it should be mentioned.
Disk are a common way of transporting information such as bringing files home from work
or sharing files. Floppy disks have become less useful as file sizes increase and Compact
disks (CDs) and Digital Video Devices (DVDs) are becoming more popular. Most software
are sold on CDs. Internal Hard disks are the most common storage device.
Compact disks or CDs can store large amounts of information. One disk will store 650 Mb
or about 70 or 80 minutes of music. One type is a CD-ROM which stands for Compact Disk
Read Only Memory. Another type is a CD-RW which stands for Compact Disk -
Read/Write. CD drives can copy information or burn information on to a blank CD.
Common Read Only CD blanks can only be written to once though more expensive
Read/Write CD's can be used over and over again.
DVD disks can store 4.5 Gb on standard disk, 8 Gb on a dual layer disk and 16 Gb on a blue-
ray disk. DVD recorders allow you to store large files, such as movies, on a single disk.
Hard disks store the majority of information on today's modern computer. My first hard disk
stored 52 Mb, 12 more than my colleague's 40 Mb. Today the standard hard disk stores 30 Gb
or more (this number is constantly increasing). Like a floppy disk information can be stored
and deleted as necessary. As files get larger the speed that hard disks can read and write
become more important.
Floppy disk or diskette comes in two basic sizes; 5.25 inch and 3.5 inch. Both have a low
and high density version though 3.5 inch high density disks are the most common. However,
many modern computers are being sold without floppy disk drives.

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Approximate printed 8.5 x 11 inch

Disk size Amount of storage
pages
3.5 high
1.44 Mb 720 pages
density
CD 650 Mb a small library
DVD 4.5 Gb a feature length movie
DVD dual.
8 Gb
a long feature length movie with extras
layer

There are many other storage devices including tapes, Panasonic's LS120 3.5 inch
diskettes, Iomega's Zip & Jazz disks, VCR tape and many others. Innovation in storage
technology is currently advancing rapidly.
Information is stored in an electromagnetic form much like a cassette or video tape.
Note: Keep disks away from strong electric or magnetic fields including x-rays. Beware of
high electromagnetic areas in the room such as televisions, speakers, high tension wires, etc.
Use disks only at room temperature and keep them out of direct sunlight. If possible avoid
passing electromagnetic storage devices through airport x-rays. In theory information stored
on a disk will last indefinitely but the physical storage device will wear out with usage and
time so be sure to back up (copy) your important files to a second disk.
REMOVABLE STORAGE AND/OR DISK DRIVES
All disks need a drive to get information off - or read and put information on the disk - or
write. Each drive is designed for a specific type of disk whether it is a CD, DVD, hard disk
or floppy. Often the term 'disk' and 'drive' are used to describe the same thing but it helps to
understand that the disk is the storage device which contains computer files - or software -
and the drive is the mechanism that runs the disk.
USB FLASH DRIVES
USB Flash Drives or thumb drives work slightly differently as they use memory cards to
store information on. Digital cameras also use Flash memory cards to store information, in
this case photgraphs. Flash drives or thumb drives range from 512 Mb to 8 Gb in capacity.
TAPE STORAGE
Tape storage is cheap with a large capacity e.g. 50Mb upwards for a typical tape. Video
tapes can store 2Gb to 8Gb (billion bytes). The disadvantage of tape as a storage medium, is
that tape is a sequential storage medium. This means that to access the nth item of

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information, you have to skip over the first n-1 items; in the same fashion as fast forwarding
to play music from the middle of an audio tape cassette. This makes tape very slow to access
in comparison with disks. Typically, tape storage is used to keep a backup of the information
stored on a disk. Thus, in the event of a loss of information from disk, you can retrieve it
from your tape backup. Tape is also used to transfer information (data and software) between
computers. Tape is especially popular in large computer installations where large amounts of
data have to be kept for years. On personal computers it is more common to use disks as a
form of backup storage and as a means of transferring information between computers.
INPUT DEVICES
Input devices are the computer hardware that accept data and instructions from a user. Input
devices have been built in many forms to help in communicating with the computer. The
most common input devices are the keyboard and the mouse.
KEYBOARD
The keyboard and mouse are the most widely used input devices at the moment. The
QWERTY keyboard, so called because the keys 'q','w','e','r','t' and 'y' are adjacent, is the
commonest form of keyboard. But other types of keyboard are available, some being
specially designed for people with special needs. It should be noted that the layout of keys on
the QWERTY keyboard owes its origins to typewriter designers who were actually trying to
slow down the speed at which a typist could type. The reason was that the old lever-based
typewriters were liable to levers getting interlocked if two keys were pressed in rapid
succession. Typewriter designers laid out the keys in a fashion that made it difficult to type
quickly, the QWERTY layout being the product of this design. Because so many people
trained on such keyboards, the layout still remains with us today, many years after the
engineering problem which it was designed to alleviate disappeared. It is worth noting that in
some non-English speaking countries the layout is slightly different giving rise to QWERTZ
and AZERTY keyboard layouts.
The keyboard is used to type information into the computer or input information. There are
many different keyboard layouts and sizes with the most common for Latin based languages
being the QWERTY layout (named for the first 6 keys). The standard keyboard has 101 keys.
Notebooks have embedded keys accessible by special keys or by pressing key combinations
(CTRL or Command and P for example). Ergonomically designed keyboards are designed to
make typing easier.
Some of the keys have special uses, these are referred to as command keys. The three most

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common are the Control or CTRL, Alternate or Alt and the Shift keys though there can be
more (the Windows key for example or the Command key). Each key on a standard keyboard
has one or two characters. Press the key to get the lower character and hold Shift to get the
upper.
MOUSE
The mouse is used as a pointing device and to select options from menus. A tracker ball is
used for the same purposes as a mouse and is popular on laptop computers.
Most modern computers today are run using a mouse controlled pointer. Generally if the
mouse has two buttons the left one is used to select objects and text and the right one is used
to access menus. If the mouse has one button (Mac for instance) it controls all the activity
where a mouse with a third button can be used by specific software programs.
One type of mouse has a round ball under it that rolls and turns the two wheels which control
the direction of the pointer on the screen. Another type of mouse uses an optical system to
track the movement of the mouse.
LIGHT PEN
Which can be used to point at a monitor, serving a similar function as a mouse. A touch
sensitive screen is a method of input based on touching a specially designed screen in
particular places. It is typically used in an application such as a tourist information system ,
where information can be obtained by touching menu options displayed on the screen.
OPTICAL CHARACTER RECOGNITION (OCR)
A very common requirement for business is the processing of payments. Take an insurance
company, for example, here, very many customers return payment for their insurance with
some form of printed statement from the company. In order to automate processing such
payments, a form of input called optical character recognition (OCR) was developed. An
OCR device can scan a document and recognise characters. Originally, text had to be printed
in a special OCR font for OCR to operate but nowadays OCR can handle almost any font.
The advantage of OCR for companies is that when statements are returned with payments,
they can be scanned in and the customer accounts automatically credited. A less sophisticated
but similar device is an optical mark reader which can scan a specially designed form and
recognise the presence of marks in particular positions. One use for such a device is in lottery
games machines where a user marks numbers on a pre-printed form which is then read by an
OCR reader connected to a lottery computer.
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) is similar to OCR but this time the
characters are not scanned optically. Instead they are scanned magnetically as they have been

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printed with magnetised ink, each character having a very distinct shape. This is used on
cheques by banks, to encode bank account numbers.
Barcode Scanners are very popular input devices in supermarkets and stores. These devices
scan barcodes which identify products. This is a form of OCR. The barcode is translated to a
number which can be used by the computer to identify the product and look up its price in a
database. In addition the software can keep track of stock levels by recording the number of
sales of each item.
IMAGE SCANNERS
These are devices which scan an image (document, photograph) and produce a digital version
of the image i.e. the image is stored as a sequence of binary numbers. Special software can
then display the digital version of the image on a monitor. They effectively “photocopy” the
image into the computer. This type of technology is very useful for storing legal documents,
application forms and anywhere there is a requirement to access the contents of an original
document very quickly. The term document image processing (DIP) is used to describe the
application of this technique and it is becoming an important application in insurance and
banking organisations.
CARDS
A whole range of cards are available such as ATM and credit cards which encode
information magnetically. These cards can be read by card readers and allow you carry out
various transactions such as paying for goods or obtaining cash.
Voice Input is perhaps the most exciting form of computer input. While some devices and
applications are available, a good deal of work remains to be done before we will easily be
able to use computer software without the need for a keyboard and mouse.
OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices return processed data that is information back to the user. In other words
output devices allow the computer to ‘talk’ to us. Some of these output devices are discussed
below.
MONITORS
The monitor shows information on the screen when you type. This is called outputting
information. When the computer needs more information it will display a message on the
screen, usually through a dialog box. Monitors come in many types and sizes from the simple
monochrome (one colour) screen to full colour screens.
Most desktop computers use a monitor with a cathode tube and most notebooks use a liquid
crystal display (LCD) monitor.

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To get the full benefit of today's software with full colour graphics and animation, computers
need a color monitor with a display or graphics card.
PRINTERS
The printer takes the information on your screen and transfers it to paper or a hard copy.
There are many different types of printers with various levels of quality. The three basic types
of printer are; dot matrix, inkjet, and laser.
• Dot matrix printers work like a typewriter transferring ink from a ribbon to paper with a
series or 'matrix' of tiny pins.
• Ink jet printers work like dot matrix printers but fires a stream of ink from a cartridge
directly onto the paper.
• Laser printers use the same technology as a photocopier using heat to transfer toner onto
paper.
MODEM
A modem is used to translate information transferred through telephone lines or cable.
The term stands for modulate and demodulate which changes the signal from digital, which
computers use, to analog, which telephones use and then back again. A high speed
connection also requires a modem but because the information is transferred digitally it isn't
required to change the signal from digital to analog but is used to create the connection
between your computer and the computer you are connecting with.
Modems are measured by the speed that the information is transferred. The measuring tool is
called the baud rate. Originally modems worked at speeds below 2400 baud but today
analog speeds of 56,000 are common. Cable, wireless or digital subscriber lines (DSL)
modems can transfer information much faster with rates of 300,000 baud and up.
Modems also use Error Correction which corrects for transmission errors by constantly
checking whether the information was received properly or not and Compression which
allows for faster data transfer rates. Information is transferred in packets. Each packet is
checked for errors and is re-sent if there is an error.
Anyone who has used the Internet has noticed that at times the information travels at different
speeds. Depending on the amount of information that is being transferred the information will
arrive at it's destination at different times. The amount of information that can travel through
a line is limited. This limit is called bandwidth.
There are many more variables involved in communication technology using computers,
much of which is covered in the section on the Internet.

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SCANNERS
Scanners allow you to transfer pictures and photographs to your computer. A scanner 'scans'
the image from the top to the bottom, one line at a time and transfers it to the computer as a
series of bits or a bitmap. You can then take that image and use it in a paint program, send it
out as a fax or print it. With optional Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software you
can convert printed documents such as newspaper articles to text that can be used in your
word processor. Most scanners use TWAIN software that makes the scanner accessable by
other software applications.
DIGITAL CAMERAS
Digital cameras allow you to take digital photographs. The images are stored on a memory
chip or disk that can be transferred to your computer. Some cameras can also capture sound
and video.
CASE
The case houses the microchips and circuitry that run the computer. Desktop models usually
sit under the monitor and tower models beside. They come in many sizes, including desktop,
mini, midi, and full tower. There is usually room inside to expand or add components at a
later time. By removing the cover off the case you will find plate covered, empty slots that
allow you to add cards. There are various types of slots including IDE, ASI, USB, PCI and
Firewire slots.
Notebook computers may have room to expand depending on the type of computer. Most
notebooks also have connections or ports that allow expansion or connection to exterior,
peripheral devices such as monitor, portable hard-drives or other devices.
Cards
Cards are components added to computers to increase their capability. When adding a
peripheral device make sure that your computer has a slot of the type needed by the device.
Sound Cards allow computers to produce sound like music and voice. The older sound cards
were 8 bit then 16 bit then 32 bit. Though human ear can't distinguish the fine difference
between sounds produced by the more powerful sound card they allow for more complex
music and music production.
Colour Cards allow computers to produce colour (with a colour monitor of course). The first
colour cards were 2 bit which produced 4 colours [CGA]. It was amazing what could be done
with those 4 colours. Next came 4 bit allowing for 16 [EGA and VGA] colours. Then came
16 bit allowing for 1064 colours and then 24 bit which allows for almost 17 million colours.
And now 32 bit is standard allowing monitors to display almost a billion separate colours.

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Video Cards allow computers to display video and animation. Some video cards allow
computers to display television as well as capture frames from video. A video card with a
digital video camera allows computer users to produce live video. A high speed or network
connection is needed for effective video transmission.
Network cards allow computers to connect together to communicate with each other.
Network cards have connections for cable, thin wire or wireless networks. For more
information see the section on Networks.
Cables
Cables connect internal components to the Motherboard, which is a board with series of
electronic path ways and connections allowing the CPU to communicate with the other
components of the computer.
CONNECTING A PRINTER TO A COMPUTER
Computers are connected to printers by cables using plugs and sockets. The sockets are
usually called interfaces or ports. Since we use these ports to send information, into or out
of, a computer, they are also called input/output ports or I/O ports. The cable used to
connect the printer to the computer is often called a line.
There are two types of cable which may be used. One is called a serial cable and the other a
parallel cable. The parallel cable is made up of many lines running in parallel, hence its
name. A different interface (socket) is required for each. So you have a serial interface for a
serial line and a parallel interface for a parallel line. Most computers and printers have both
types of interface, allowing you to use whichever one you please. The serial line and interface
are made up according to an international standard referred to as the RS232 standard. Hence a
serial line and the interface for a serial line (i.e. a serial interface) are often referred to as an
RS232 line and an RS232 interface.

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CHAPTER 3 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

The software is the information that the computer uses to get the job done. Software needs to
be accessed before it can be used. There are many terms used for the process of accessing
software including running, executing, starting up, opening, and others.
Also, Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as
programs, data, protocols, etc. When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be
modified (such as BIOS ROM in an IBM PC compatible), it is sometimes called
"firmware" to indicate that it falls into an uncertain area somewhere between hardware and
software.
In addition, Software is a general term used to describe a collection of computer programs,
procedures and documentation that perform some tasks on a computer system. The term
includes application software such as word processors which perform productive tasks for
users, system software such as operating systems, which interface with hardware to provide
the necessary services for application software, and middleware which controls and co-
ordinates distributed systems.
"Software" is sometimes used in a broader context to mean anything which is not hardware
but which is used with hardware, such as films, tapes and records.
Computer programs allow users to complete tasks. A program can also be referred to as an
application and the two words are used interchangeably.
Examples of software programs or applications would be the Operating System (DOS,
Windows 9x/Millenium/XP, O/S2, UNIX, MacOS 9.x/10.x and various others),
Wordprocessor (typing letters), Spreadsheet (financial info), Database (inventory control
and address book), Graphics program, Internet Browser, Email and many others.
Generally speaking, any documents that you create, graphics you design, sound you compose,
files you make, letters you write, emails you send or anything that you create on your
computer are referred to as software. All software are stored in files.
Software maybe stored on a disk or tape, whether that disk is a floppy, hard disk, CD, tape or
one of the several other storage devices available.
There are millions of different pieces of software available for almost every conceivable
need. Software are available commercially through stores and mail order and also available
on the Internet. They are also available through an Open Source license which allows anyone
to use the Open Source software free of charge as long as the license is maintained. If you
can't find the application that you need software development companies can custom design

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software for you, to match your specific need(s).

The largest software companies offer packages of software or suites that include many of the
programs that the average person or business needs. Software packages or suites contain
programs that work together and share information, making it easier to combine that
information in versatile ways. For example when writing a letter you can get the mailing
address from an address book, include a letterhead from a graphics program, include a
financial chart from a spreadsheet and combine this collection of information in the body of
the letter.
RELATIONSHIP TO COMPUTER HARDWARE
Computer software is so called to distinguish it from computer hardware, which encompasses
the physical interconnections and devices required to store and execute (or run) the software.
At the lowest level, software consists of a machine language specific to an individual
processor. A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor
instructions which change the state of the computer from its preceding state. Software is an
ordered sequence of instructions for changing the state of the computer hardware in a
particular sequence. It is usually written in high-level programming languages that are easier
and more efficient for humans to use (closer to natural language) than machine language.
High-level languages are compiled or interpreted into machine language object code.
Software may also be written in an assembly language, essentially, a mnemonic
representation of a machine language using a natural language alphabet. Assembly language
must be assembled into object code via an assembler.
The term “software” was first used in this sense by John W. Tukey in 1958. In computer
science and software engineering, computer software is all computer programs. The theory
that is the basis for most modern software was first proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935
essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungs problem
TYPES
Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major classes: system
software, programming software and application software, although the distinction is
arbitrary, and often blurred.
•System software helps run the computer hardware and computer system. It includes
operating systems, device drivers, diagnostic tools, servers, windowing systems, utilities and
more. The purpose of systems software is to insulate the applications programmer as much as
possible from the details of the particular computer complex being used, especially memory
and other hardware features, and such accessory devices as communications, printers,

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readers, displays, keyboards, etc.

•Programming software usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer
programs, and software using different programming languages in a more convenient way.
The tools include text editors, compilers, interpreters, linkers, debuggers, and so on. An
Integrated development environment (IDE) merges those tools into a software bundle, and a
programmer may not need to type multiple commands for compiling, interpreting, debugging,
tracing, and etc., because the IDE usually has an advanced graphical user interface, or GUI.
•Application software allows end users to accomplish one or more specific (non-computer
related) tasks. Typical applications include industrial automation, business software,
educational software, medical software, databases, and computer games. Businesses are
probably the biggest users of application software, but almost every field of human activity
now uses some form of application software
From another perspective the three basic types of software are; commercial, shareware and
open source software. Some software are also released into the public domain without a
license.
Commercial software come prepackaged and are available from software stores and through
the Internet.
Shareware are software developed by individuals and small companies that cannot afford to
market their software worldwide or by companies that want to release demonstration versions
of their commercial products. You will have an evaluation period in which you can decide
whether to purchase the products or not. Shareware software often are disabled in some way
and have notices attached to explain the legal requirements for using the products.
Open Source software are created by generous programmers and released into the public
domain for public use. There is usually a copyright notice that must remain with the software
product. Open Source software are not public domain in that the companies or individuals
that develop the software retain ownership of the programs but the software can be used
freely. Many popular Open Source applications are being developed and upgraded regularly
by individuals and companies that believe in the Open Source concept.
PROGRAM AND LIBRARY
A program may not be sufficiently complete for execution by a computer. In particular, it
may require additional software from a software library in order to be complete. Such a
library may include software components used by stand-alone programs, but which cannot
work on their own. Thus, programs may include standard routines that are common to many

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programs, extracted from these libraries. Libraries may also include ‘stand-alone’ programs
which are activated by some computer event and/or perform some function (e.g., of computer
‘housekeeping’) but do not return data to their calling program. Libraries may be called by
one to many other programs; programs may call zero to many other programs.
THREE LAYERS
Starting in the 1980s, application software has been sold in mass- produced packages through
retailers Users often see things differently than programmers. People who use modern general
purpose computers (as opposed to embedded systems, analog computers, supercomputers,
etc.) usually see three layers of software performing a variety of tasks: platform, application,
and user software.
Platform Software
Platform includes the firmware, device drivers, an operating system, and typically a graphical
user interface which, in total, allow a user to interact with the computer and its peripherals
(associated equipment). Platform software often comes bundled with the computer. On a PC
you will usually have the ability to change the platform software.
Application Software
Application software or Applications are what most people think of when they think of
software. Typical examples include office suites and video games. Application software ares
often purchased separately from computer hardware. Sometimes applications are bundled
with the computer, but that does not change the fact that they run as independent applications.
Applications are almost always independent programs from the operating system, though
they are often tailored for specific platforms. Most users think of compilers, databases, and
other “system software” as applications.
User-written Software
End-user development tailors systems to meet users’ specific needs. User software includes
spreadsheet templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, and scripts for graphics
and animations. Even email filters are a kind of user software. Users create these software
themselves and often overlook how important they are. Depending on how competently the
user-written software has been integrated into purchased application packages, many users
may not be aware of the distinction between the purchased packages, and what has been
added by fellow co-workers.
OPERATIONS
Computer software has to be “loaded” into the computer’s storage (such as a hard drive,
memory, or RAM). Once the software has loaded, the computer is able to execute the

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software. This involves passing instructions from the application software, through the
system software, to the hardware which ultimately receives the instruction as machine code.
Each instruction causes the computer to carry out an operation - moving data, carrying out a
computation, or altering the control flow of instructions.
Data movement is typically from one place in memory to another. Sometimes it involves
moving data between memory and registers which enable high-speed data access in the CPU.
Moving data, especially large amounts of it, can be costly. So, this is sometimes avoided by
using “pointers” to data instead. Computations include simple operations such as
incrementing the value of a variable data element. More complex computations may involve
many operations and data elements together.
Instructions may be performed sequentially, conditionally, or iteratively. Sequential
instructions are those operations that are performed one after another. Conditional
instructions are performed such that different sets of instructions execute depending on the
value(s) of some data. In some languages this is known as an “if’ statement. Iterative
instructions are performed repetitively and may depend on some data value. This is
sometimes called a “loop.” Often, one instruction may “call” another set of instructions that
are defined in some other program or PART. When more than one computer processor is
used, instructions may be executed simultaneously.
A simple example of the way software operates is what happens when a user selects an entry
such as “Copy” from a menu. In this case, a conditional instruction is executed to copy text
from data in a ‘document’ area residing in memory, perhaps to an intermediate storage area
known as a ‘clipboard’ data area. If a different menu entry such as “Paste” is chosen, the
software may execute the instructions to copy the text from the clipboard data area to a
specific location in the same or another document in memory.
Depending on the application, even the example above could become complicated. The field
of software engineering endeavors to manage the complexity of how software operates. This
is especially true for software that operates in the context of a large or powerful computer
system.
Currently, almost the only limitation on the use of computer software in applications is the
ingenuity of the designer/programmer. Consequently, large areas of activities (such as
playing grand master level chess) formerly assumed to be incapable of software simulation
are now routinely programmed. The only area that has so far proved reasonably secure from
software simulation is the realm of human art— especially, pleasing music and literature.
Kinds of software by operation: computer program as executable, source code or script,

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configuration.
LICENSE
Software license gives the user the right to use the software in the licensed environment,
some software come with the license when purchased off the shelf, or an OEM license when
bundled with hardware. Other software come with free software licences, granting the
recipient the rights to modify and redistribute the software. Software can also be in the form
of freeware or shareware.
PATENTS
The issue of software patents is controversial. Some believe that they hinder software
development, while others argue that software patents provide an important incentive to spur
software innovation. See software patent debate.
ETHICS AND RIGHTS FOR SOFTWARE USERS
Being a new part of society, the idea of what rights users of software should have is not very
developed. Some, such as the free software community, believe that software users should be
free to modify and redistribute the software they use. They argue that these rights are
necessary so that each individual can control their computer, and so that everyone can
cooperate, if they choose, to work together as a community and control the direction that
software progresses in. Others believe that software authors should have the power to say
what rights the user will get.

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Table 1: List of computer software

UNIX System V, AIX, HP-UX, Solaris
Unix/BSD
(SunOS), IRIX, List of BSD operating
systems
List of Linux distributions, Comparison of
GNU/Linux
Linux distributions
Microsoft Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows NT,

Operating Windows Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows

system Vista, Windows CE

DOS 86-DOS (QDOS), PC-DOS, MS-DOS,
FreeDOS
Mac OS Mac OS classic, Mac OS X
Embedded andList of embedded operating systems
real-time
Experimental Amoeba, Oberon/Bluebottle, Plan 9 from
Bell Labs
Multimedia DirectX, OpenGL, OpenAL
Library Programming C standard library, Standard template
library library
Protocol TCP/IP, Kermit, FTP, HTTP, SMTP
Data
File format HTML, XML, JPEG, MPEG, PNG
Graphical userMicrosoft Windows, GNOME, KDE,
User
interface (WIMP) QNX Photon, CDE, GEM
interface Text userCommand line interface, shells
interface

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Word processing, Desktop publishing,

Office suite Presentation program, Database

management system, Scheduling & Time
management, Spreadsheet, Accounting
Internet Access Browser, E-mail client, Web server, Mail
transfer agent, Instant messaging
Computer-aided design, Computer-aided
Design and
manufacturing, Plant management, Robotic
manufacturing
manufacturing, Supply chain management
Raster graphics editor, Vector graphics
Graphics editor, 3D modeler, Animation editor, 3D
computer graphics, Video editing, Image
processing
Digital audio editor, Audio playback,
Application Audio
Mixing, Audio synthesis, Computer music
Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter,
Software Debugger, Text Editor, Integrated
Engineering
development environment, Performance
analysis, Revision control, Software
Educational Edutainment, Educational game, Serious
game, Flight simulator
Strategy, Arcade, Puzzle, Simulation, First-
Games
person shooter, Platform, Massively
multiplayer, InteractiveAntivirus
Artificial intelligence, fiction software,

Misc Malware scanner, Installer/Package

management systems, File manager

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CHAPTER 4 BASIC COMPUTER OPERATIONS

Computer undergoes basic processes at the start of its operations. It is only when such a
process is completed that the computer can proceed to subsequent phases of its functions.
HOW COMPUTERS WORK/BASIC COMPUTER PROCESS
Input: Information and programs are entered into the computer through Input devices such as
the keyboard, disks, or through other computers via network connections or modems
connected to the Internet. The input device also retrieves information off disks.
Output: Output Devices display information on the screen (monitor) or the printer and
sends information to other computers. They also display messages about what errors may
have occurred and brings up message or dialog box asking for more information to be
inputed. The output device also saves information on the disk for future use.
Processing: The CPU or central processing unit is sometimes called the Control Unit and
directs the operation of the input and output devices. The Coprocessor or the Arithmetic-
Logic Unit does arithmetic and comparisons. The memory or RAM temporarily stores
information (files and programs) while you are using or working on them. The BIOS or basic
input/output system controls the dialogue between the various devices.
USING SOFTWARE
Software is anything created and/or stored on a computer or computer storage device (like a
disk). The work that is produced using an application or program is also software and is
usually referred to as a file or a document.
FILES AND DOCUMENTS
Once you have typed or created a new document or file on your computer, you will have to
decide what to do with it. You could print it right away using a Print command and then Exit
or Quit your program without saving it, but most of the time you will want to Save your
document for future use.
The computer saves its information on a disk, most often the hard disk, and the users
determine where and when the file or document is saved.
FOLDERS AND DIRECTORIES
On the disk are directories or collection of folders. These directories or folders could be
compared to a filing cabinet. All files are stored in a directory. Most hard disks have many
directories or folders and files can be stored in any of them.
Directories can have sub-directories and sub-sub-directories many levels down. The directory
immediately below the current directory is called the child directory. The directory

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immediately above the current one is called the parent directory. The top of the directory
structure is called the root directory.
When a user adds or installs a new program on the computer the installation process will
usually create a new directory or folder to store the application's files.
Users can create and delete directories or folders as the need arises. Older version of DOS
requires that the directory be emptied of files before it can be deleted. When removing a
directory always check before deleting it to make sure that it doesn't contain files you need.
You can easily move files from one folder or directory to another using menu commands,
drag & drop using the mouse or a file utility. It is important to understand your computer's
directory structure as a file can be misplaced if it is saved in the wrong directory.
One of the main problems new users have is creating a filing system. Modern operating
systems address the 'filing problem' by automatically creating a (My) Documents folder. By
saving files or documents in this folder you will always know where to look for your files.
Create subfolders within this folder for your main projects. Examples could be a separate
folder for your correspondence called Letters or a folder for images called Graphics or
Pictures. The main Documents folder can also be renamed to whatever name you want it to
be called. If you are not using Windows 9x simply create your own folder and sub-folders to
save your documents in.
SAVING FILES OR DOCUMENTS
In order to save a new document or file you must first choose the Save command. Most
modern software place this command in a menu which you access with the mouse button or
Alt key. Each file must be given a filename so it can be found easily the next time it is
needed.
Computers using DOS 6.X or older version must follow the 8.3 rule: a filename can only be 1
to 8 characters long followed by a 1 to 3 character extension separated by a dot (period or full
stop).
Modern operating systems allow computer users to use filenames up to 256 characters. Mac
users, Windows 9X & NT/2000 and UNIX/LINUX (along with a few others) use long file
names but names using over 32 characters get unwieldy. It is better to use a directory or
folder to help describe them and keep common files together.
Many modern software programs (applications) add their own extension to filenames. These
extensions allow operating systems to recognize certain filenames and associate (match) them
to the program that created it.

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As well as choosing a filename, users must choose a directory and/or disk to store the file in.
Make sure that you are consistent and use a logical structure. Once you are sure you know
where the file is going to be stored press Enter on the keyboard or press the left mouse button
over the word Save or Okay to store the document on a disk, in the directory with the
filename you have chosen. Some software programs will automatically save files in specific
directory that is created when the program is installed (default settings). You can easily
change these settings permanently using the applications Preferences or temporarily at the
point of saving the file.
Some common rules are:
• All files are saved on a disk or storage device.
• A disk is usually broken up into directories and sometimes into partitions.
• A directory or folder is a way of keeping like files in a common area.
A partitioned disk, though physically a single disk, is treated like separate disks and given a
separate drive letter (and/or name).
It is possible to save or move files anywhere that your computer can access. This includes
disk (or other storage devices) on your computer, to any directory or sub-directory on your
computer or on a network that your computer is connected to. Always make sure that you
have chosen the correct directory and filename before pressing Enter or choosing Save.
PRINTING
The promise of a paperless office has not happened though conservation is catching on and it
is possible to reduce paper consumption by using your computer more effectively. Having
said that many computers are attached to printers and there are many reasons to print out
documents that you create on your computer. Most software programs and applications allow
the user to print the information that is created in the program.
When choosing a printer considers the peripheral equipment that you will need as well as the
actual printer. Peripherals include paper, ribbons or ink cartridges, toner and occasionally
print heads.
You may have to adjust some of the settings for the printer to get the output you want.
Density adjustments determine how much ink is placed on the paper or how many dots per
inch (DPI). Draff quality will print quicker but creates a fainter copy (less dense). Modern
Software has a Preview option which shows what the page will look like when it is printed.
Portrait prints the document up and down. Landscape prints the document on it's side. Most
software allows the user to adjust the margin width or the blank space at the top, bottom, left

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and right edge of the paper.

EXIT OR QUIT
It is important to Exit or Quit a program, application and the operating system before shutting
off the computer. It is a good idea to Quit a program when you are finished with it as it takes
up memory. Exiting a program should free up the memory that the program was using.
Having a number of programs running simply uses up resources that may be needed in
another project.
Exiting properly also saves the program settings so that when you return to the application
many changes that were made will still be active.
MENUS

Menus are the most common way of interacting or controlling your software. Though each
program has it's own menu, modern software developers have begun establishing some
standardization in how they create their menus. Many programs have a menu called File
which controls things like Opening, Saving and Printing your file and Exiting the program.
Many also have an Edit menu which contains the main editing commands like Cut, Copy and
Paste.

The items on the menu are Commands or the features of the program. You choose the

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command that you want with the keyboard, mouse, trackball or touchpad. Commands
control the operation of the software.
Menu bars are usually positioned at the top of the screen and are accessed by moving the
cursor to the menu and pressing the button (left button if there are two). This displays a pull
down menu with a number of commands or features. Depending on how the program works
either let go of the button and move to the command you want then press the button again to
choose it or while holding down the button, move to the command and let go to choose it.
Menus can also be controlled through the keyboard. The most common way of accessing the
menu through the keyboard is by pressing the Alt key and using the Arrow or Cursor
Movement keys to move through the menu items, then pressing Enter to choose the item you
want. Many menu items can also be accessed using Hot key combinations. One common
keyboard combination is to first tap the Alt key and then press letter key for the command
you want.
Menus are created in a hierarchy. Some menu items branch out to give even more choices.
Some menu items open Dialog Boxes that allow you to choose from a number of different
options.
Dialog boxes allow computer users to select different options. Some dialog boxes have 2 or
more Tabs which can be clicked to choose more options. Once the options have been chosen
press Okay to apply the options. Some dialog boxes have an Apply button which will apply
the options that you have chosen without closing the dialog box. Choose Cancel to close the
dialog box without applying the changes selected. Note that options set with the Apply button
cannot be canceled this way. Modern software places the most popular commands on a
toolbar for easier access. Simply click the left mouse button over the menu item to access a
particular command. These tool bars can usually be customized and often allow the user to
move or Tear Off the menu and drag them to a preferred location or Dock on the screen.
Menus can also be customized by adding or removing commands.
Windows has a context sensitive menu that is activated with the right button. When the right
mouse button is click over an object on the screen or area of the screen, a specific menu with
commands related to that object will be displayed. Click the left mouse button on the
command to choose it.
INSTALLING NEW SOFTWARE
Most software sold today have automated install sequence that are activated with the press of
a button. The installation process will create a directory, if necessary, to store the files related

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to the new program, uncompress and copy the files to the directory and often adds itself to the
desktop (Start) menu. Many installation processes will also copy files to other parts of the
computer and register themselves with the operating system by updating the registry. Some
programs will associate themselves to a certain filename extension.
Older software may not have this option. The installation procedure is the same though. First
create a folder or drawer to store the program and it's related files in. This makes it easy to
find them and minimizes file clutter in the main directory. Copy the files from the installation
disk to the folder that you will be running the program from. A lot of Software is
compressed and you may need to uncompress it before you can use it. You then can create a
new item, create a short cut to the program or add it to your desktop menu or utility program.
BACKING UP FILES
Computer errors and software failures happen occasionally so it is important to backup your
files and documents.
One simple way to backup your files is to copy them to a disk. If there are only a few small
files a floppy disk will work but if you are backing up lots of large files a CD burner, a
second hard drive or tape backup may be needed. You can use a software program to
automate backups or do it manually. A manual backup usually involves dragging the files or
folders to the backup disk or tape to create the duplicate backup.
Store your backup files in a safe place out of the sun and away from electro-magnetic devices
such as speakers and wires with strong electrical currents.
Every file that you create and plan to keep should be backed up. This includes word
processing documents, financial information, databases, photos, etc...
Some less obvious files that also need to be backed up are E-mail, Internet Favorites or
Bookmarks, and Address Books. Check the help files in your email program on how to back
up E-mail. Generally each folder name in your E-mail program is a file containing the
individual Email messages and copying these files to the backup disk or tape will be
sufficient. Software preferences such as customized menus and settings can also be backed
up. Check your software's help files to find out where these files are located.
A newer software version may be installed on the computer before ever needing the backups
so make sure that the newer programs can handle the older file format.
When to backup is an individual choice. A company should have a backup policy which
explains how and when data should be backed up. It all depends on how important the
information is and how difficult it would be to duplicate it in the event of a system failure. If

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the information is critical an automatic backup system that duplicates the documents
immediately may be needed (a Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks (RAID) system is an
example). If the files are not critical a weekly backup may be all that is needed. It is
impossible to determine when a system failure will occur so it is better to be cautious.
The backed up data can then be used as an archive, to recover from a system failure or to
transfer data to a new computer system. Simply copy the files to the correct folder to restore
them. Backup software will have an automatic recovery feature that will restore the backed
up file automatically.
COMPRESSION AND DECOMPRESSION
Most software you buy or get off the Internet are Compressed. Computers store information
in bytes which are made up of on or off signals. The software applications that uses these
files need to have all the on and off signals (bytes) in place but when the files are stored they
can be modified to take up less space on the storage disk or tape.
There are commercial and shareware programs that will compress and decompressed files for
you. The most popular form of data compression is called zip or stuffit but there are others
available as well.
Programs are also available to compress and decompress your files as you or the application
you are using requires them. This can be a way of making more space available on a hard
drive. Windows comes with a program that will compress part of your hard disk. Be sure to
read the documentation before embarking on a project like compressing a hard drive.
THE DESKTOP
The Desktop offers many features that make using your computer easier. You can easily start
programs or applications, copy and move files from one place to another and drag and drop
files and program where you want them on the computer or even on to a program's icon to
open a file. Open and Save menus are streamlined to allow all applications to have the same
basic features plus program specific features.
Operating systems are often backwardly compatible with older systems so that older
programs will run. Usually when new programs are created they are designed to work with
the newest operating system to allow them to use all the newest features.
Desktop
Menu

• Settings displays system components, such as printers, control panel and taskbar.

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• Find/Search has search abilities to find files, folders and phrases in documents on your
computer.
• Help displays help topics broken up into contents, index and find components.
• Run allows you to start a program from a command line.
• Shut down shuts down the computer, restarts the computer or logs you off a network.
• Favorites and Active Desktop is an option available to Windows 98+ (or Internet
Explorer 4x) users.
Taskbar (Windows) or Dock (Apple) to bring a program or window to the front single click

- Displays the program running and windows open on the item on the taskbar or dock.
- Right click in Windows and click hold in Apple to display a menu for the item
- Right click an open area or click hold the separator for a Taskbar or Dock menu.
- The Window system tray on the right of the Taskbar displays indicators for certain
tasks. (for instance a printer icon will appear when the printer is engaged)
- Click and drag the Taskbar to the top, bottom, left or right and choose Dock
properties to place Dock on left, right or bottom.
- Drag the Taskbar to extend it and the Dock to make it bigger.
- Drag an icon to the Dock or Taskbar to add an alias or shortcut and drag the icon off
to remove it.
- The Dock and Taskbar can be hidden until needed.
- Use Start/Settings/Taskbar to customize the Start menu properties and choose
Apple/Dock to change the Dock properties.
Control Panel & System Preferences jdJ
• used to change system settings like screen savers, time, screen colours.
• also used to add and remove programs, fonts add and make changes to hardware and

software settings.
• displays all the components of the computer including disk drives and networks.
• all parts of the computer can be accessed through My Computer's hierarchical structure.
• double click on any icon to view the contents of a disk, folder or run a program

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• Undo the last change

View
• change how files are displayed
• toggles Toolbar and Status bar (Microsoft)
• sorts files by choosing column name
• can be set system wide
Help
• displays help topics for active application
Toolbar: displays icon menu of main options
Status bar: shows current status of the window (Microsoft)
Shortcuts & Aliases
• can be created anywhere that is convenient to access a program, file or folder
• select item and choose Create Shortcut or Make Alias then drag or move it to where it is
needed
• use the right mouse button to drag the item to the target and choose Create Shortcut Here
from the menu that appears (Microsoft)
• when you delete a Shortcut or Alias the original application and its icon remain intact
Favorites: collection of short cuts to documents, programs and websites
PROGRAMS AND FEATURES
Some Features
• Long file names - document names can now use names up to 255 characters including
spaces using any character except \ / : 1 ? " < > |
• Plug and Play - many hardware devices like CDs, tape drives, upgrade cards, etc. will
automatically be detected and can be automatically installed on the system
• 32 bit Preemptive Multitasking - allows users to leave a task running while working on
another
• Right Mouse button - used to display event specific or context sensitive menus
(Microsoft)
• Drag and Drop feature allows files or other information to be dragged from one area and
dropped in a new location or into another application.
• Active Windows - make your Desktop behave like a web site (Microsoft).

1 click on the taskbar or dock icon of the task you want to bring to the front.

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• Software Update - automates updating software through the Internet.

• System Information or Profile - provides information about the computer system
Using Help ^
• to get help about a specific procedure click the help button in the top right corner of the
screen.
• Contents list general topics grouped by subject.
• Index list specific topics accessed by scroll bars or typing the topic.
• Find creates an index of words in Help and allows searches by word or phrase.
• click Help Topics to return to the Help menu.
• Troubleshooters will step you through a series of steps to solve computer problems
(Microsoft).
Microsoft Explorer Bar^J
• Folder, Search, Favorites, Radio and History information are displayed on the left side of
the window
• click a folder or link to display contents on the right
• click plus to expand or show the sub-folders and minus to hide them
Mg
Using Old DOS Programs
• many older DOS program will run under Windows.
• the PIF editor is replaced with a Properties dialogue box.
• note that some DOS programs cannot run in a windows and require a full screen
Using Older Software in MAC OS 10.x
• When Apple OS 10.x tries to open an older version of a program it will run it in Classic
mode
Switching between tasks (programs/applications/folders)
Hints and Shortcuts
The right mouse button is a great feature of the Windows operating system and can be a real
time saver. Right click on;
• an empty space of the desktop to change Desktop Properties,
• My Computer to display or modify your computer's properties,
• Network Neighborhood to display and modify your network properties,
• Start menu item to modify it,

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• An icon to work with it, etc.

On a Mac, hold the mouse button down to display a context menu.
Different Methods of Opening Documents and Programs
• Open a program and use the Open command in the File menu
• Use the Documents command in the Start or Apple menu to open a recently used
document
• Use the Find command in the Start menu or the Sherlock program on a Mac
• Double click on an icon in a Folder
• Right click and choose Open
• Choose Start, Run and type the application (and path).
Creating Folders _J
• Use the New Folder option in the File menu (or right click) to create a folder in the active
window.
Moving and Deleting Files
• Use Drag & Drop to drag the file or folder from one folder to another.
- With the right button a menu will appear allowing you to
-- Copy or Move the file or folder (Windows).
- Files on the same disk are moved (hold Ctrl to copy).
- Files on another disk are copied (hold Ctrl to move).
Use the Edit menu to Cut the file and Paste it in the destination folder Hold down Shift while
deleting a file to by pass the Recycle Bin and permanently delete files.
Multiple Selection
• To select files sequentially click on the first file and move to the last file, hold down shift
and click on the last file in the sequence.
• To select files non-sequentially click on the first file and hold Ctrl while clicking the rest.
• The two methods can be used in combination.
Organizing your Files and Icons
It is important to develop a filing system early. Create a folder on your Desktop to store your
data. Create sub-folders within that folder to sort the various documents, images, sounds and
other files that you create and use. A new folder can be created easily and given a logical
name which will help organize data.
• My Documents or Documents is the default folder created by the operating system and

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can be used as it is or renamed.

Troubleshooting
• Both Windows and Mac have a number of tools built in to assist in solving computer
problems.
• Choosing Help allows Windows users to access Troubleshooting Wizards that provide
step-by-step suggestions.
• System Information under System Tools provide valuable information and access to other
system tools in Window
• System Profiler under Application, Utilities provide information about the Mac.
• Running a Disk Scan occasionally or on a schedule can solve many simple errors.

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CHAPTER 5 OPERATING SYSTEMS

An Operating System (commonly abbreviated OS and O/S) is the software component of a
computer system that is responsible for the management and coordination of activities and
the sharing of the resources of the computer. The operating system acts as a host for
application programs that are run on the machine. As a host, one of the purposes of an
operating system is to handle the details of the operation of the hardware. This relieves
application programs from having to manage these details and makes it easier to write
applications. Almost all computers, including hand-held computers, desktop computers,
supercomputers, and even modern video game consoles, use an operating system of some
type. Some of the oldest models may however use an embedded OS, that may be contained
on a compact disk or other storage device.
Operating systems offer a number of services to application programs and users. Applications
access these services through application programming interfaces (APIs) or system calls. By
invoking these interfaces, the application can request a service from the operating system,
pass parameters, and receive the results of the operation. Users may also interact with the
operating system by typing commands or using a graphical user interface (GUI, commonly
pronounced “gooey”). For hand-held and desktop computers, the GUI is generally considered
part of the operating system. For large multi-user systems, the GUI is generally implemented
as an application program that runs outside the operating system.
Common contemporary operating systems include Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, Linux
and Solaris. Microsoft Windows has a significant majority of market share in the desktop and
notebook computer markets, while servers generally run on Linux or other Unix-like systems.
Embedded device markets are split amongst several operating systems.
HISTORY
The first computers did not have operating systems. By the early 1960s, commercial
computer vendors were supplying quite extensive tools for streamlining the development,
scheduling, and execution of jobs on batch processing systems. Examples were produced by
UNIVAC and Control Data Corporation, amongst others.
MS-DOS provided many operating systems like features, such as disk access. However many
DOS programs bypassed it entirely and ran directly on hardware.
The operating systems originally deployed on mainframes, and, much later, the original
microcomputer operating systems, only supported one program at a time, requiring only a
very basic scheduler. Each program was in complete control of the machine while it was
running. Multitasking (timesharing) first came to mainframes in the late 1960s.

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In 1969-70, UNIX first appeared on the PDP-7 and later the PDP-11. It soon became capable
of providing cross-platform time sharing using preemptive multitasking, advanced memory
management, memory protection, and a host of other advanced features. UNIX soon gained
popularity as an operating system for mainframes and minicomputers alike.
IBM microcomputers, including the IBM PC and the IBM PC XT could run Microsoft
XENIX, a UNIX-like operating system from the early 1980s. XENIX was heavily marketed
by Microsoft as a multi-user alternative to its single user MS-DOS operating system. The
CPUs of these personal computers could not facilitate kernel memory protection or provide
dual mode operation, so Microsoft XENIX relied on cooperative multitasking and had no
protected memory.
The 80286-based IBM PC AT was the first computer technically capable of using dual mode
operation, and providing memory protection.
Classic MAC OS, and Microsoft Windows 1.0-3.11 supported only cooperative multitasking
(Windows 95, 98, & ME supported preemptive multitasking only when running 32 bit
applications, but ran legacy 16 bit applications using cooperative multitasking), and were
very limited in their abilities to take advantage of protected memory. Application programs
running on these operating systems must yield CPU time to the scheduler when they are not
using it, either by default, or by calling a function.
Windows NT's underlying operating system kernel was designed by essentially the same
team as Digital Equipment Corporation's VMS, a UNIX-like operating system which
provided protected mode operation for all user programs, kernel memory protection,
preemptive multitasking, virtual file system support, and a host of other features.
Classic AmigaOS and Windows 1.0-Me did not properly track resources allocated by
processes at runtime. If a process had to be terminated, the resources might not be freed up
for new programs until the machine was restarted.
The AmigaOS did have preemptive multitasking.
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS
Microsoft Windows
The Microsoft Windows family of operating systems originated as an add-on to the older
MS-DOS operating system for the IBM PC. Modern versions are based on the newer
Windows NT kernel that was originally intended for OS/2. Windows runs on x86, x86-64 and
Itanium processors. Earlier versions also ran on the DEC Alpha, MIPS, Fairchild (later
Intergraph) Clipper and PowerPC architectures (some work was done to port it to the SPARC
architecture).

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As of June 2008, Microsoft Windows holds a large amount of the worldwide desktop market
share. Windows is also used on servers, supporting applications such as web servers and
database servers. In recent years, Microsoft has spent significant marketing and research &
development money to demonstrate that Windows is capable of running any enterprise
application, which has resulted in consistent price/performance records (see the TPC) and
significant acceptance in the enterprise market.
The most widely used version of the Microsoft Windows family is Windows XP, released on
October 25, 2001.
In November 2006, after more than five years of development work, Microsoft released
Windows Vista, a major new operating system version of Microsoft Windows family which
contains a large number of new features and architectural changes. Chief amongst these are a
new user interface and visual style called Windows Aero, a number of new security features
such as User Account Control, and few new multimedia applications such as Windows DVD
Maker.
Microsoft has announced that a new version codenamed Windows 7 will be released in late
2009 - mid 2010
Plan 9
Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie and Douglas McIlroy at Bell Labs designed and developed
the C programming language to build the operating system Unix. Programmers at Bell Labs
went on to develop Plan 9 and Inferno, which were engineered for modern distributed
environments. Plan 9 was designed from the start to be a networked operating system, and
had graphics built-in, unlike Unix, which added these features to the design later. Plan 9 has
yet to become as popular as Unix derivatives, but it has an expanding community of
developers. It is currently released under the Lucent Public License. Inferno was sold to Vita
Nuova Holdings and has been released under a GPL/MIT license.
The Unix-like family is a diverse group of operating systems, with several major sub-
categories including System V, BSD, and Linux. The name "UNIX" is a trademark of The
Open Group which licenses it for use with any operating system that has been shown to
conform to their definitions. "Unix-like" is commonly used to refer to the large set of
operating systems which resemble the original Unix.
Unix-like systems run on a wide variety of machine architectures. They are used heavily for
servers in business, as well as workstations in academic and engineering environments. Free
software Unix variants, such as GNU, Linux and BSD, are popular in these areas. The market
share for Linux is divided between many different distributions. Enterprise class distributions

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by Red Hat or Novell are used by corporations, but some home users may use those products.
Historically home users typically installed a distribution themselves, but in 2007 Dell began
to offer the Ubuntu Linux distribution on home PCs and now Walmart offers a low end
computer with GOS v2..Linux on the desktop is also popular in the developer and hobbyist
operating system development communities.
Market share statistics for freely available operating systems are usually inaccurate since
most free operating systems are not purchased, making usage under-represented. On the other
hand, market share statistics based on total downloads of free operating systems are often
inflated, as there is no economic disincentive to acquire multiple operating systems. So users
can download multiple systems, test them, and decide which they like best.
Some Unix variants like HP's HP-UX and IBM's AIX are designed to run only on that
vendor's hardware. Others, such as Solaris, can run on multiple types of hardware, including
x86 servers and PCs. Apple's Mac OS X, a hybrid kernel-based BSD variant derived from
NeXTSTEP, Mach, and FreeBSD, has replaced Apple's earlier (non-Unix) Mac OS.
Unix interoperability was sought by establishing the POSIX standard. The POSIX standard
can be applied to any operating system, although it was originally created for various Unix
variants.
MAC OS X
Mac OS X is a line of proprietary, graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold
by Apple Inc., the latest of which is preloaded on all currently shipping Macintosh
computers. Mac OS X is the successor to the original Mac OS, which had been Apple's
primary operating system since 1984. Unlike its predecessor, Mac OS X is a UNIX operating
system built on technology that had been developed at NeXT through the second half of the
1980s and up until Apple purchased the company in early 1997.
The operating system was first released in 1999 as Mac OS X Server 1.0, with a desktop-
oriented version (Mac OS X v10.0) following in March 2001. Since then, five more distinct
"end-user" and "server" editions of Mac OS X have been released, the most recent being Mac
OS X v10.5, which was first made available in October 2007. Releases of Mac OS X are
named after big cats; Mac OS X v10.5 is usually referred to by Apple and users as "Leopard".
The server edition, Mac OS X Server, is architecturally identical to its desktop counterpart
but usually runs on Apple's line of Macintosh server hardware. Mac OS X Server includes
workgroup management and administration software tools that provide simplified access to
key network services, including a mail transfer agent, a Samba server, an LDAP server, a
domain name server, and others.

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CATEGORIES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS REAL-TIME OPERATING SYSTEMS

A real-time operating system (RTOS) is a multitasking operating system intended for
applications with fixed deadlines (real-time computing). Such applications include some
small embedded systems, automobile engine controllers, industrial robots, spacecraft,
industrial control, and some large-scale computing systems.
An early example of a large-scale real-time operating system was Transaction Processing
Facility developed by American Airlines and IBM for the Sabre Airline Reservations System.
Embedded Systems
Embedded systems use a variety of dedicated operating systems. In some cases, the
"operating system" software is directly linked to the application to produce a monolithic
special-purpose program. In the simplest embedded systems, there is no distinction between
the OS and the application.
Embedded systems that have fixed deadlines use real-time operating systems such as
VxWorks, eCos, QNX, and RTLinux.
Some embedded systems use operating systems such as Palm OS, Windows CE, BSD, and
Linux, although such operating systems do not support real-time computing.
Windows CE shares similar APIs to desktop Windows but shares none of desktop Windows'
codebase.
FEATURES AND TECHNOLOGY
An operating system is a collection of technologies which are designed to allow the computer
to perform certain functions. These technologies may or may not be present in every
operating system, and there are often differences in how they are implemented. However as
stated above most modern operating systems are derived from common design ancestors, and
are therefore basically similar.
BOOT-STRAPPING
In most cases, the operating system is not the first code to run on the computer at startup
(boot) time. The initial code executing on the computer is usually loaded from firmware,
which is stored in read only memory (ROM). This is sometimes called the BIOS or boot
ROM.
PROGRAM EXECUTION
An operating system's most basic function is to support the running of programs by the users.
On a multiprogramming operating system, running programs are commonly referred to as
processes. Process management refers to the facilities provided by the operating system to
support the creation, execution, and destruction of processes, and to facilitate various

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interactions, and limit others.

INTERRUPTS
Interrupts are central to operating systems as they allow the operating system to deal with the
unexpected activities of running programs and the world outside the computer. Interrupt-
based programming is one of the most basic forms of time-sharing, being directly supported
by most CPUs. Interrupts provide a computer with a way of automatically running specific
code in response to events. Even very basic computers support hardware interrupts, and allow
the programmer to specify code which may be run when that event takes place.
PROTECTED MODE AND SUPERVISOR MODE
Modern CPUs support something called dual mode operation. CPUs with this capability use
two modes: protected mode and supervisor mode, which allow certain CPU functions to be
controlled and affected only by the operating system kernel. The term is used here more
generally in operating system theory to refer to all modes which limit the capabilities of
programs running in that mode, providing things like virtual memory addressing and limiting
access to hardware in a manner determined by a program running in supervisor mode. Similar
modes have existed in supercomputers, minicomputers, and mainframes as they are essential
to fully supporting UNIX-like multi-user operating systems.
MEMORY MANAGEMENT
Among other things, a multiprogramming operating system kernel must be responsible for
managing all system memory that are currently in use by programs. This ensures that a
program does not interfere with memory already used by another program. Since programs
share time, each program must have independent access to memory.
Cooperative memory management, used by many early operating systems assumes that all
programs make voluntary use of the kernel's memory manager, and do not exceed their
allocated memory. This system of memory management is almost never seen anymore, since
programs often contain bugs which can cause them to exceed their allocated memory. If a
program fails it may cause memory used by one or more other programs to be affected or
overwritten. Malicious programs, or viruses may purposefully alter another program's
memory or may affect the operation of the operating system itself. With cooperative memory
management it takes only one misbehaved program to crash the system.
VIRTUAL MEMORY
The use of virtual memory addressing (such as paging or segmentation) means that the kernel
can choose which memory each program may use at any given time, allowing the operating
system to use the same memory locations for multiple tasks.

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If a program tries to access memory that isn't in its current range of accessible memory, but
nonetheless has been allocated to it, the kernel will be interrupted in the same way as it would
if the program were to exceed its allocated memory.
MULTITASKING
Multitasking refers to the running of multiple independent computer programs on the same
computer, giving the appearance that it is performing the tasks at the same time. Since most
computers can do at most one or two things at one time, this is generally done via time
sharing, which means that each program uses a share of the computer's time to execute.
An early model which governed the allocation of time to programs was called cooperative
multitasking. In this model, when control is passed to a program by the kernel, it may execute
for as long as it wants before explicitly returning control to the kernel. This means that a
malfunctioning program may prevent any other programs from using the CPU.
The philosophy governing preemptive multitasking is that of ensuring that all programs are
given regular time on the CPU. This implies that all programs must be limited in how much
time they are allowed to spend on the CPU without being interrupted. To accomplish this,
modern operating system kernels make use of a timed interrupt. A protected mode timer is set
by the kernel which triggers a return to supervisor mode after the specified time has elapsed.
(See above sections on Interrupts and Dual Mode Operation.)
DISK ACCESS AND FILE SYSTEMS
Access to files stored on disks is a central feature of all operating systems. Computers store
data on disks using files, which are structured in specific ways in order to allow for faster
access, higher reliability, and to make better use out of the drive's available space. The
specific way files are stored on a disk is called a file system, and enables files to have names
and attributes. It also allows them to be stored in a hierarchy of directories or folders arranged
in a directory tree.
DEVICE DRIVERS
A device driver is a specific type of computer software developed to allow interaction with
hardware devices. Typically this constitutes an interface for communicating with the device,
through the specific computer bus or communications subsystem that the hardware is
connected to, providing commands to and/or receiving data from the device, and on the other
end, the requisite interfaces to the operating system and software applications. It is a
specialized hardware-dependent computer program which is also operating system specific
that enables another program, typically an operating system or applications software package
or computer program running under the operating system kernel, to interact transparently

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with a hardware device, and usually provides the requisite interrupt handling necessary for
any necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs.
NETWORKING
Currently most operating systems support a variety of networking protocols, hardware, and
applications for using them. This means that computers running dissimilar operating systems
can participate in a common network for sharing resources such as computing, files, printers,
and scanners using either wired or wireless connections. Networks can essentially allow a
computer's operating system to access the resources of a remote computer to support the
same functions as it could if those resources were connected directly to the local computer.
This includes everything from simple communication, to using networked file systems or
even sharing another computer's graphics or sound hardware.
SECURITY
A computer being secure depends on a number of technologies working properly. A modern
operating system provides access to a number of resources, which are available to software
running on the system, and to external devices like networks via the kernel.
The operating system must be capable of distinguishing between requests which should be
allowed to be processed, and others which should not be processed. While some systems may
simply distinguish between "privileged" and "non-privileged", systems commonly have a
form of requester identity, such as a user name. To establish identity, there may be a process
of authentication. Often a username must be quoted, and each username may have a
password. Other methods of authentication, such as magnetic cards or biometric data, might
be used instead. In some cases, especially connections from the network, resources may be
accessed with no authentication at all (such as reading files over a network share).
In addition to the allow/disallow model of security, a system with a high level of security will
also offer auditing options. These would allow tracking of requests for access to resources
(such as, "who has been reading this file?"). Internal security or security from an already
running program is only possible if all possibly harmful requests are carried out through
interrupts to the operating system kernel. If programs can directly access hardware and
resources, they cannot be secured.
FILE SYSTEM SUPPORT IN MODERN OPERATING SYSTEMS
Support for file systems is highly varied among modern operating systems although there are
several common file systems that almost all operating systems include support and drivers
for.

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SPECIAL PURPOSE FILE SYSTEMS

FAT file systems are commonly found on floppy discs, flash memory cards, digital cameras,
and many other portable devices because of their relative simplicity. Performance of FAT
compares poorly to most other file systems as it uses overly simplistic data structures, making
file operations time-consuming, and makes poor use of disk space in situations where many
small files are present. ISO 9660 and Universal Disk Format are two common formats that
target Compact Discs and DVDs. Mount Rainier is a newer extension to UDF supported by
Linux 2.6 kernels and Windows Vista that facilitates rewriting to DVDs in the same fashion
as has been possible with floppy disks.
JOURNALIZED FILE SYSTEMS
File systems may provide journaling, which provides safe recovery in the event of a system
crash. A journaled file system writes some information twice: first to the journal, which is a
log of file system operations, then to its proper place in the ordinary file system. Journaling is
handled by the file system driver, and keeps track of each operation taking place that changes
the contents of the disk. In the event of a crash, the system can recover to a consistent state by
replaying a portion of the journal.
GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACES
Most modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces (GUI), and often include
them. In some computer systems, such as the original implementations of Microsoft
Windows and the Mac OS, the GUI is integrated into the kernel.
While technically a graphical user interface is not an operating system service, incorporating
support for one into the operating system kernel can allow the GUI to be more responsive by
reducing the number of context switches required for the GUI to perform its output functions.
Other operating systems are modular, separating the graphics subsystem from the kernel and
the Operating System.
Many computer operating systems allow the user to install or create any user interface they
desire.
Graphical user interfaces evolve over time. For example, Windows has modified its user
interface almost every time a new major version of Windows is released, and the Mac OS
GUI changed dramatically with the introduction of Mac OS X in 2001.
FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEMS
In the process of going through the technology of operating systems in Units 3.3 above some
specific functions of the operating systems had been mentioned. In this sub unit we will
examine the four primary functions of an operating system.

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1. Providing User Interface: Provides either a command line interface or a graphic user
interface for the user to communicate with the computer. In other words, the operating system
communicates with the computer user or operator by means of terminals and through the use
of monitor command process. There are two broad categories of interfaces: command-line
interface and graphic user interface.
2. Managing the Hardware: Operating systems control and manage hardware resources. For
example the OS manages the selection and operation of devices used for input, output, and
storage. In other words, the OS serves as the intermediary between programs and hardware.
Regardless of the type of user interface, the OS intercepts commands to use memory and
other devices, keeping track of what program has access to what devices and so on.
3. Managing the File System: Operating systems group data together into logical
compartments for storage on disk. These groups of data are called files. Files may contain
programs instructions or data created or used by a program. The OS maintains the list of files
on a disk.
4. Supporting Programs: Another major function of an OS is to provide services to other
programs. Often these services are similar to that the operating system provides directly to
users. For example when you want your word processing program to retrieve a document, the
word processor will list the files in the directory that you specify.

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PART 2
CHAPTER 1 COMPUTER APPLICATION SYSTEMS
Application programs or software consists of programs that perform specific tasks such as
writing a letter, tracking payroll information, producing a chart and so on. There are several
general purpose application programs as well as customized application systems. Emphasis in
this unit is on the general purpose application systems.
WORD PROCESSING
The keyboard of a word processor is similar to that of a typewriter, but its capabilities extend
far beyond the typewriter's. For example, you don't have to press the Return or Enter key at
the end of every line - in word processing, the line "wraps around" when it reaches the
margin you have set and allows you to continue typing without stopping, you only press
Enter (or Return) when you want to start a new paragraph or insert blank lines. If you make a
mistake while typing use backspace or delete to erase it.
There are many commercial word processing programs including Open Office, Windows
comes with WordPad to edit and format documents and NotePad to edit text. Mac OS X
comes with TextEdit or SimpleText in previous version. Open Office is an Open Source
office application that can be downloaded for free at openoffice.org.
Editing functions such as inserting, deleting, moving, and copying characters, words, lines,
and even blocks of text are fast and easy with only a few keystrokes. Advanced programs will
number pages, repeat material in the same place on every page automatically, and check the
spelling of every word in your document. You print your document only after it looks exactly
the way you want it to. Finally, copies of your documents can be stored on a disk, enabling
you to retrieve, edit, and print them at any time.
The text appears at the cursor. Use the space bar to place spaces between words. Use
backspace to erase to the left of the cursor and delete to erase to the right of the cursor. Use
Enter (or Return) to move the cursor down a line.
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Word processors allow you to type your text in Bold, Italics or Underline. This is useful
when you wish to highlight some word or line in a document. To activate Bold, Italics or
Underline click the icon button on the Toolbar, type the text that you wish to have
highlighted then press Toolbar icon again when you are finished. The indicator on the

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Toolbar will appear highlighted as long as the highlight style is on.

The text can also be modified by changing the Font. A font is the shape and size of a
character of text. The three main types are serif (with tails); sans-serif (without tails); and
script (similar to handwriting). Text colours can also be changed.
Text can also be indented and tab settings added which modify where the text is placed on the
page. Rather than press the space bar more than once set tabs where you want the cursor to
move to.
The page can be modified by changing the margins, adding headers or footers (repeating text
on each page), page numbering, graphic images and various other ways.
The Insert key toggles between Insert and Typeover. Sometimes an indicator on the bottom
of the screen will display the typing mode you are in. Normally, any text after the cursor will
be pushed across the screen (inserted) as new characters are typed in. With Typeover on, the
new character will just replace the old character at the cursor.
Editing text is quite easy once you get use to it. Select text that you want to modify with the
mouse or by holding down Shift and using the arrow keys. Holding Control (CTRL) will
select text one word at a time.
Once you have the text selected use Cut (Ctrl-X) to cut the text off the page and into a
clipboard. Use Copy (Ctrl-C) to transfer a copy of the selected text to the clipboard. Use
Paste (Ctrl-V) to paste the text into the document at the cursor. The Windows clipboard will
only hold a single selection of text which is replaced with each new cut or copy.
If you make a mistake most modern programs have an Undo feature (Crtl-Z). Many also have
a Redo feature.
Most word processors will check your spelling and many have thesauruses and will check
your grammar. Don't rely on the editing tools to replace a good proof reading though! (as this
editor tends to do.).
DATABASE
A Database is a collection of information stored in a way that makes it easy to retrieve,
modify and search. A database can be stored in a single file with all the information stored
together in a single table which is called a flat database or stored in multiple tables with some
common access information referred to as a relational database.
There are many commercial database programs including Microsoft Access also Open Source
databases such as OpenOffice.org MySQL.
Each person or item in a database has it's own Record. Each piece of information about that
person or record are stored in Fields. All the information in all the records makes up the

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Database.
Each Field can have information typed into it. Use the Tab key to move forward through the
Field and the Shift-Tab to move backwards. Many databases also allow users to use the arrow
keys to move around as well. Though many fields only allow a single line of input some
allow multiple lines. When the cursor reaches the bottom of a field with multiple lines the
text will scroll upwards to show any information that is below the line of sight. If there is
more text in the field than there is room on the screen use the arrow keys to move the cursor
through the text.
It is possible to mask individual fields to make data entry easier. For instance the field for
phone numbers can be formatted to only allow numbers to be entered.
There are many different ways to use information in a database. In order to use it you can
search for and display information using various filters to allow or disallow certain records to
display. This is referred to as a query.
The data can be arranged to create reports and print the information in a specific format.
It is crucial that the information typed into a Database or information updated be saved before
leaving the program. Many data errors can be traced back to power-failures or accidental
computer shut downs.
The data can also be used by other programs for things like invoicing and form letters. The
data from a database can be merged with forms created in other programs for a wide range of
uses.
When setting up a database make sure to take a bit of time to decide what fields are needed
and how they relate to other information. For instance, if an address is required does it need
to be broken down into a number of fields such as street, apartment, city, etc? Does the street
need to be broken down into house number, street name, street type, etc? Does a phone
number need a separate field for the area code? Taking time to decide what is needed before
beginning a database project is better than spending many frustrating hours modifying the
data in the future.
SPREADSHEET
Spreadsheets are used to work with financial information. Spreadsheet charts are laid out in
numbered rows and lettered columns. Where the row and column intersect is called a cell.
The cell is referred to by the letter and number of the intersection called the cell address. The
first cell in a chart is at the intersection of column A and row 1 and is referred to as Cell A1.
Some commercial Spreadsheets are Microsoft Excel QuatroPro III I, Lotus 123 and others.
OpenOffice.org Calc

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Open Source office program that is free to download and use. Tax and accounting software
are also spreadsheets but are designed to provide tools and utilities which help get the
specific job done.
When working with numbers in a spreadsheet, refer to the cell addresses when creating
mathematical formulas. This is because any changes you make to a single cell will be
automatically updated without having to reenter the numbers in the rest of the cells.
Use the plus sign (+) to add; the minus (-) sign to subtract; the asterix (*) to multiply; and the
back slash (/) to divide.
Spreadsheets use formulas to create simple to complex mathematical equations. A sheet can
be built to handle the financial needs of businesses.
Most of the standard editing features are available in the spreadsheet such as Bold, Italics,
Underline, Move, Copy and Paste.
Information from a spreadsheet can be displayed in chart form.
Most spreadsheet programs include templates to handle many of the average financial needs
of a home user or small business. These templates can be modified or customized to
personalize them for your own needs.
Most modern spreadsheet programs allow users to work on many sheets at once and access
information from any of the sheets in the workbook group.
GRAPHICS (GRAPHIC IMAGES, SOUNDS & ANIMATION)
Computer graphics are anything that can be displayed on the screen except the text and
sometimes even text falls into the graphics category if it is saved in a graphics format.
There are basically two types of computer graphics, bitmapped and vector/structured.
Bitmapped graphics are images that are mapped to the monitor or screen. The screen is
made up of tiny dots called pixels. These dots can display various colours depending on the
type of computer hardware and software you have. Using shades of red, green and blue
(RGB) an image can be displayed on the screen by mapping different colours to the screen in
different sequences.
Vector graphics use objects created from mathematical formulas to represent things like lines,
curves, fills, line thickness, etc., to create the image.
Each type of graphic has it's own advantages and disadvantages. Older versions of HTML
were only able to recognize bitmapped graphics so most graphics created for the Internet,
using standard HTML, were created or converted to bitmap formats. The newest version of
HTML or XHTML is able to display vector graphics but not all browsers are able to display

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these graphics.
Within each of the two main types there are
dozens of different formats.
Graphics formats are distinguished by their
filename extensions.
The three main bitmapped format graphics used
on the Internet are .gif, .jpeg (.jpg) and .png.
There are many others including .bmp, .tiff
(.tif), .pcx, .ppm, .tga and a host of others.
Some of the structured formats are .ai, .cmx, .eps, .wpg, .cgm and a host of others.
Bitmapped graphics can be created and modified in a paint program and vector or structured
graphics can be created and modified in a draw program.
The main tools in a graphics program allow you to select a section of a picture, erase part of a
picture, fill a defined area, select a colour, magnify a section, draw free hand, draw with
various tools such as a straight line; a curved line; a rectangle; an oval; and a polygon. You
can also modify a drawing by changing the size, colour, placement, and, depending on the
program, hundreds of other modifications.
SOUND
Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) or .mpg is multimedia format that is attempting to
create a standardization among the various formats available. MPEG has made it possible to
place audio content on your website without having it sound tiny and hollow or taking an
extreme amount of time to download. There are many different formats for sound including;
Microsoft's .wav, Sun's .au & .snd, RealNetwork's RealAudio, .ra(*), and various others.
You may have heard .mid files play when visiting various websites. Musical Instruments
Digital Interface (MIDI) files are basically sound tracks which use a collection of sounds
contained in the .mid file to play a tune.
To create a sound file you will need an audio program. You can then record with a
microphone or off of a prerecorded medium. Your computer will need to have a sound card
properly installed and a speaker to hear your recording. You can save the sound file to play
back later.
Animation
With the advent of faster computers comes animation. Though it has been around for years
the modern computer has made it possible to include animation in programs without causing

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them to slow down (much). As with every multimedia format there are a number of types.
You may have seen .gif animations on a website. A GIF animation is a series of separate
images or frames that display one after the other to give the impression of movement. Other
formats are Audio Visual Interleave's .avi, the earlier mentioned mpg, Microsoft's Media
Player .wmv, Apple's Quick Time .qt, .aif( 2) & .mov, RealNetwork's RealVideo .rm(*),
Macromedia's Flash creates Shockwave .swf, and JavaScript as well as various others.
There are various animation or multimedia players available for a free download off the
Internet.

To create animations, sounds or graphics you will need a program that has the capabilities
you want. Visit the various multimedia company websites to read up on their product to see if
they can do what you want. (Hint: to find a company website type "www.'replace this with
the companies name'.com"). Most companies offer free trials that you can download from
their website.
You should also be aware that most media contents placed on the Internet are considered
published materials and therefore copyrighted unless explicitly stated otherwise.
DESKTOP PUBLISHING
Desktop publishing (dtp) uses both word processing and graphics to produce publications and
presentations.
QD
Some common dtp programs are MS Publisher l__Jand Quark Express. Both Adobe and
Corel have a number of programs that work like dtp programs. OpenOffice.org Draw f is an
OpenSource free option.
Desktop publishing programs layout their documents in a series of slides that can contain
text, graphics and dynamic content. Content is added to each slide in a series which can be
printed or saved as a slide presentation. Sound and music can also be added to the
presentation.

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CHAPTER 2 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

A database management system (DBMS) is computer software designed for the purpose of
managing databases based on a variety of data models.
DESCRIPTION
DBMSs are complex set of software programs that control the organization, storage,
management, and retrieval of data in a database. DBMSs are categorized according to their
data structures or types, sometimes DBMSs are also known as Data base Managers. A DBMS
includes:
A modeling language to define the schema of each database hosted in the DBMS, according
to the DBMS data model.
•The four most common types of organizations are the hierarchical, network, relational and
object models. Inverted lists and other methods are also used. A given database management
system may provide one or more of the four models. The optimal structure depends on the
natural organization of the application's data, and on the application's requirements (which
include transaction rate (speed), reliability, maintainability, scalability, and cost).
•The dominant model in use today is the ad hoc one embedded in SQL, despite the objections
of purists who believe this model is a corruption of the relational model, since it violates
several of its fundamental principles for the sake of practicality and performance. Many
DBMSs also support the Open Database Connectivity API that supports a standard way for
programmers to access the DBMS.
ii. Data structures (fields, records, files and objects) optimized to deal with very large
amounts of data stored on a permanent data storage device (which implies relatively slow
access compared to volatile main memory).
ii. A database query language and report writer to allow users to interactively interrogate the
database, analyze its data and update it according to the users privileges on data.
•It also controls the security of the database.
•Data security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database. Using
passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database or subsets of it called subschemas.
For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee,
but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed
access to only work history and medical data.
•If the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database, as well as
interrogate it, this capability allows for managing personal databases. However, it may not
leave an audit trail of actions or provide the kinds of controls necessary in a multi-user

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organization. These controls are only available when a set of application programs are
customized for each data entry and updating function.
iv. A transaction mechanism, that ideally would guarantee the ACID properties, in order to
ensure data integrity, despite concurrent user accesses (concurrency control), and faults (fault
tolerance).
•It also maintains the integrity of the data in the database.
•The DBMS can maintain the integrity of the database by not allowing more than one user to
update the same record at the same time. The DBMS can help prevent duplicate records via
unique index constraints; for example, no two customers with the same customer numbers
(key fields) can be entered into the database.
•The DBMS accepts requests for data from the application program and instructs the
operating system to transfer the appropriate data.
When a DBMS is used, information systems can be changed much more easily as the
organization's information requirements change. New categories of data can be added to the
database without disruption to the existing system.
Organizations may use one kind of DBMS for daily transaction processing and then move the
detail onto another computer that uses another DBMS better suited for random inquiries and
analysis. Overall systems design decisions are performed by data administrators and systems
analysts. Detailed database design is performed by database administrators.
Database servers are specially designed computers that hold the actual databases and run only
the DBMS and related software. Database servers are usually multiprocessor computers, with
RAID disk arrays used for stable storage. Connected to one or more servers via a highspeed
channel, hardware database accelerators are also used in large volume transaction processing
environments.
DBMSs are found at the heart of most database applications. Sometimes DBMSs are built
around a private multitasking kernel with built-in networking support although nowadays
these functions are left to the operating system.
DBMS BENEFITS
•Improved strategic use of corporate data
•Reduced complexity of the organization’s information systems environment
•Reduced data redundancy and inconsistency •Enhanced data integrity •Application-data
independence •Improved security
•Reduced application development and maintenance costs •Improved flexibility of
information systems •Increased access and availability of data and information •Logical &

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Physical data independence •Concurrent access anomalies.

•Facilitate atomicity problem.
•Provides central control on the system through DBA.
FEATURES AND CAPABILITIES OF DBMS
A DBMS can be characterized as an "attribute management system" where attributes are
small chunks of information that describe something. For example, "colour" is an attribute of
a car. The value of the attribute may be a color such as "red", "blue" or "silver".
Alternatively, and especially in connection with the relational model of database
management, the relation between attributes drawn from a specified set of domains can be
seen as being primary. For instance, the database might indicate that a car that was originally
"red" might fade to "pink" in time, provided it was of some particular "make" with an inferior
paint job. Such higher clarity relationships provide information on all of the underlying
domains at the same time, with none of them being privileged above the others.
Throughout recent history specialized databases have existed for scientific, geospatial,
imaging, document storage and like uses. Functionality drawn from such applications has
lately begun appearing in mainstream DBMSs as well. However, the main focus there, at
least when aimed at the commercial data processing market, is still on descriptive attributes
on repetitive record structures.
Thus, the DBMSs of today roll together frequently-needed services or features of attribute
management. By externalizing such functionality to the DBMS, applications effectively share
code with each other and are relieved of much internal complexity. Features commonly
offered by database management systems include:
QUERY ABILITY
Querying is the process of requesting attribute information from various perspectives and
combinations of factors. Example: "How many 2-door cars in Texas are green?"
A database query language and report writer allow users to interactively interrogate the
database, analyze its data and update it according to the users privileges on data. It also
controls the security of the database.
Data security prevents unauthorized users from viewing or updating the database. Using
passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database or subsets of it called subschemas.
For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee,
but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed
access to only work history and medical data.
If the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database, as well as

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interrogate it, this capability allows for managing personal databases. However it may not
leave an audit trail of actions or provide the kinds of controls necessary in a multi-user
organization. These controls are only available when a set of application programs are
customized for each data entry and updating function.
BACKUP AND REPLICATION
Copies of attributes need to be made regularly in case primary disks or other equipment fails.
A periodic copy of attributes may also be created for a distant organization that cannot
readily access the original. DBMSs usually provide utilities to facilitate the process of
extracting and disseminating attribute sets.
When data is replicated between database servers, so that the information remains consistent
throughout the database system and users cannot tell or even know which server in the
DBMS they are using, the system is said to exhibit replication transparency.
RULE ENFORCEMENT
Often one wants to apply rules to attributes so that the attributes are clean and reliable. For
example, we may have a rule that says each car can have only one engine associated with it
(identified by Engine Number). If somebody tries to associate a second engine with a given
car, we want the DBMS to deny such a request and display an error message. However, with
changes in the model specification such as, in this example, hybrid gas-electric cars, rules
may need to change. Ideally such rules should be able to be added and removed as needed
without significant data layout redesign.
SECURITY
Often it is desirable to limit who can see or change which attributes or groups of attributes.
This may be managed directly by an individual, or by the assignment of individuals and
privileges to groups, or (in the most elaborate models) through the assignment of individuals
and groups to roles which are then granted entitlements.
COMPUTATION
There are common computations requested on attributes such as counting, summing,
averaging, sorting, grouping, cross-referencing, etc. Rather than have each computer
application implement these from scratch, they can rely on the DBMS to supply such
calculations, all arithmetical work performed by computer is called a computation.
CHANGE AND ACCESS LOGGING
Often one wants to know who accessed what attributes, what was changed, and when it was
changed. Logging services allow this by keeping a record of access occurrences and changes.

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AUTOMATED OPTIMIZATION
If there are frequently occurring usage patterns or requests, some DBMS can adjust
themselves to improve the speed of those interactions. In some cases the DBMS will merely
provide tools to monitor performance, allowing a human expert to make the necessary
adjustments after reviewing the statistics collected.
TYPES
Navigational DBMS
As computers grew in capability, this trade-off became increasingly unnecessary and a
number of general-purpose database systems emerged; by the mid-1960s there were a number
of such systems in commercial use. Interest in a standard began to grow, and Charles
Bachman, author of one such product, IDS, founded the Database Task Group within
CODASYL, the group responsible for the creation and standardization of COBOL. In 1971
they delivered their standard, which generally became known as the Codasyl approach, and
soon there were a number of commercial products based on it availability.
The Codasyl approach was based on the "manual" navigation of a linked data set which was
formed into a large network. When the database was first opened, the program was handed
back a link to the first record in the database, which also contained pointers to other pieces of
data. To find any particular record the programmer had to step through these pointers one at a
time until the required record was returned. Simple queries like "find all the people in
Sweden" required the program to walk the entire data set and collect the matching results.
There was, essentially, no concept of "find" or "search". This might sound like a serious
limitation today, but in an era when the data was most often stored on magnetic tape such
operations were too expensive to contemplate anyway.
IBM also had their own DBMS system in 1968, known as IMS. IMS was a development of
software written for the Apollo program on the System/360. IMS was generally similar in
concept to Codasyl, but used a strict hierarchy for its model of data navigation instead of
Codasyl's network model.
Both concepts later became known as navigational databases due to the way data was
accessed, and Bachman's 1973 Turing Award award presentation was The Programmer as
Navigator.
IMS is classified as a hierarchical database. IDS and IDMS (both CODASYL databases) as
well as CINCOMs TOTAL database are classified as network databases.
RELATIONAL DBMS
Edgar Codd worked at IBM in San Jose, California, in one of their offshoot offices that was

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primarily involved in the development of hard disk systems. He was unhappy with the
navigational model of the Codasyl approach, notably the lack of a "search" facility which was
becoming increasingly useful. In 1970, he wrote a number of papers that outlined a new
approach to database construction that eventually culminated in the groundbreaking A
Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks.
In this paper, he described a new system for storing and working with large databases.
Instead of records being stored in some sort of linked list of free-form records as in Codasyl,
Codd's idea was to use a "table" of fixed-length records. A linked-list system would be very
inefficient when storing "sparse" databases where some of the data for any one record could
be left empty. The relational model solved this by splitting the data into a series of
normalized tables, with optional elements being moved out of the main table to where they
would take up room only if needed.
For instance, a common use of a database system is to track information about users, their
name, login information, various addresses and phone numbers. In the navigational approach
all of these data would be placed in a single record, and unused items would simply not be
placed in the database. In the relational approach, the data would be normalized into a user
table, an address table and a phone number table (for instance). Records would be created in
these optional tables only if the address or phone numbers were actually provided.
Linking the information back together is the key to this system. In the relational model, some
bit of information was used as a "key", uniquely defining a particular record. When
information was being collected about a user, information stored in the optional (or related)
tables would be found by searching for this key. For instance, if the login name of a user is
unique, addresses and phone numbers for that user would be recorded with the login name as
its key. This "re-linking" of related data back into a single collection is something that
traditional computer languages are not designed for.
Just as the navigational approach would require programs to loop in order to collect records,
the relational approach would require loops to collect information about any one record.
Codd's solution to the necessary looping was a set-oriented language, a suggestion that would
later spawn the ubiquitous SQL. Using a branch of mathematics known as tuple calculus, he
demonstrated that such a system could support all the operations of normal databases
(inserting, updating etc.) as well as providing a simple system for finding and returning sets
of data in a single operation.
Codd's paper was picked up by two people at Berkeley, Eugene Wong and Michael
Stonebraker .They started a project known as INGRES using funding that had already been

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allocated for a geographical database project, using student programmers to produce code.
Beginning in 1973, INGRES delivered its first test products which were generally ready for
widespread use in 1979. During this time, a number of people had moved "through" the
group — perhaps as many as 30 people worked on the project, about five at a time. INGRES
was similar to System R in a number of ways, including the use of a "language" for data
access, known as QUEL — QUEL was in fact relational, having been based on Codd's own
Alpha language, but has since been corrupted to follow SQL, thus violating much the same
concepts of the relational model as SQL itself.
IBM itself did only one test implementation of the relational model, PRTV, and a production
one, Business System 12, both now discontinued. Honeywell did MRDS for Multics, and
now there are two new implementations: Alphora Dataphor and Rel. All other DBMS
implementations usually called relational are actually SQL DBMSs.
In 1968, the University of Michigan began development of the Micro DBMS relational
database management system. It was used to manage very large data sets by the US
Department of Labor, the Environmental Protection Agency and researchers from University
of Alberta, the University of Michigan and Wayne State University. It ran on mainframe
computers using Michigan Terminal System .The system remained in production until 1996.
SQL DBMS
IBM started working on a prototype system loosely based on Codd's concepts as System R in
the early 1970s — unfortunately, System R was conceived as a way of proving Codd's ideas
unimplementable, and thus the project was delivered to a group of programmers who were
not under Codd's supervision, never understood his ideas fully and ended up violating several
fundamentals of the relational model. The first "quickie" version was ready in 1974/5, and
work then started on multitable systems in which the data could be broken down so that all of
the data for a record (much of which is often optional) did not have to be stored in a single
large "chunk". Subsequent multi-user versions were tested by customers in 1978 and 1979,
by which time a standardized query language, SQL, had been added. Codd's ideas were
establishing themselves as both workable and superior to Codasyl, pushing IBM to develop a
true production version of System R, known as SQL/DS, and, later, Database 2 (DB2).
Many of the people involved with INGRES became convinced of the future commercial
success of such systems, and formed their own companies to commercialize the work but
with an SQL interface. Sybase, Informix, NonStop SQL and eventually Ingres itself were all
being sold as offshoots to the original INGRES product in the 1980s. Even Microsoft SQL
Server is actually a re-built version of Sybase, and thus, INGRES. Only Larry Ellison’s

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Oracle started from a different chain, based on IBM's papers on System R, and beat IBM to
market when the first version was released in 1978.
Stonebraker went on to apply the lessons from INGRES to develop a new database, Postgres,
which is now known as PostgreSQL. PostgreSQL is primarily used for global mission critical
applications (the .org and .info domain name registries use it as their primary data store, as do
many large companies and financial institutions).
In Sweden, Codd's paper was also read and Mimer SQL was developed from the mid-70s at
Uppsala University. In 1984, this project was consolidated into an independent enterprise. In
the early 1980s, Mimer introduced transaction handling for high robustness in applications,
an idea that was subsequently implemented on most other DBMS.
LIST OF DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS SOFTWARE
Examples of DBMSs include:
•Oracle
•DB2
•Sybase Adaptive Server Enterprise
•FileMaker
•Firebird
•Ingres
•Informix
•Microsoft Access
•Microsoft SQL Server
•Microsoft Visual FoxPro
•MySQL
•PostgreSQL
•Progress
•SQLite
•Teradata
•CSQL
•OpenLink Virtuoso

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CHAPTER 3 SYSTEMS DEVLOPMENT LIFE CYCLE

There are different definitions associated with systems development life cycle depending on
the type of systems being developed. Some of these definitions are:
• Systems development life cycle is a procedure for automating manual systems and
solving problem with computer programs.
• A systematic and orderly approach to solve business problems, and developing
supporting resulting information systems.
• A system by which systems analysts, software engineers, programmers, and end users
build information systems and computer application.
• A disciplined approach to developing information systems.
MODELS AND METHODOLOGIES
SDLC, the Software Development Life Cycle relates to models or methodologies that people
use to develop systems, generally computer systems. Note: the acronym is sometimes thought
of to represent Software Development Life Cycle and sometimes the process/model is simply
referred to as the SLC. Computer systems have become more complex and usually
(especially with the advent of SOA) link multiple traditional systems often supplied by
different software vendors. To manage this, a number of system development life cycle
(SDLC) models have been created: waterfall, fountain, spiral, build and fix, rapid
prototyping, incremental, and synchronize and stabilize.
The oldest model, that was originally regarded as “the SDLC” is the waterfall model: a
sequence of stages in which the output of each stage becomes the input for the next. These
stages generally follow the same basic steps but many different waterfall methodologies give
the steps different names and the number of steps seems to vary between 4 and 7.
There is not a definitive correct model, but the steps can be characterized and divided as
follows:
• Project Planning, Feasibility Study, Initiation
To generate a high-level view of the intended project and determine the goals of the project.
Funding is often mentioned/sought at this stage.
• Requirements Gathering and Systems Analysis
Analyses project goals, breaking down functions that need to be created, and attempts to
engage users so that definite requirements can be defined.
• Systems Design
Functions and operations are described in detail, including screen layouts, business rules,

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process diagrams and other documentation. The output of this stage will often be the
technical specification.
• Build
The program code is written in this stage.
• Testing
The code is tested at various levels. Unit, system and user acceptance testing are often
performed. This is a very grey area as many different opinions exist as to what the stages of
testing are and how much if any iteration occurs. Iteration is not generally part of the
Waterfall model, but usually some occurs at this stage.
• Installation, Implementation or Deployment
The final stage of a project or the initial development, where the software is put into
production and is used by the actual business.
• Maintenance, Business as Usual
The life of the system which includes changes and enhancements before the
decommissioning or sunset of the system.
The systems development life cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model used in project
management that describes the stages involved in an information system development
project, from an initial feasibility study through maintenance of the completed application.
Various SDLC methodologies have been developed to guide the processes involved,
including the waterfall model (which was the original SDLC method); rapid application
development (RAD); joint application development (JAD); the fountain model; the spiral
model; build and fix; and synchronize-and-stabilize. Frequently, several models are combined
into some sort of hybrid methodology. Documentation is crucial regardless of the type of
model chosen or devised for any application, and is usually done in parallel with the
development process. Some methods work better for specific types of projects, but in the
final analysis, the most important factor for the success of a project may be how closely the
particular plan was followed.
In general, an SDLC methodology follows the following steps: The existing system is
evaluated. Deficiencies are identified. This can be done by interviewing users of the system
and consulting with support personnel. The new system requirements are defined. In
particular, the deficiencies in the existing system must be addressed with specific proposals
for improvement. The proposed system is designed. Plans are laid out concerning the
physical construction, hardware, operating systems, programming, communications, and

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security issues. The new system is developed. The new components and programs must be
obtained and installed. Users of the system must be trained in its use, and all aspects of
performance must be tested. If necessary, adjustments must be made at this stage. The system
is put into use. This can be done in various ways. The new system can phased in, according to
application or location, and the old system gradually replaced. In some cases, it may be more
cost-effective to shut down the old system and implement the new system all at once.
Once the new system is up and running for a while, it should be exhaustively evaluated.
Maintenance must be kept up rigorously at all times. Users of the system should be kept up-
to-date concerning the latest modifications and procedures.
BENEFITS
Proponents of Systems Development Life Cycle or Application Lifecycle Management claim
that it:
• Increases productivity, as the team shares best practices for development and
deployment, and developers need focus only on current business requirements.
• Improves quality, so the final application meets the needs and expectations of users.
• Breaks boundaries through collaboration and smooth information flow.
• Accelerates development through simplified integration
• Cuts maintenance time by synchronizing application and design.
• Maximizes investments in skills, processes, and technologies.
• Increases flexibility by reducing the time it takes to build and adapt applications that
support new business initiatives.
PEOPLE INVOLVEMENT IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS DESIGN
The most brilliant state-of-the art information system is a waste of time and effort unless
people in the organization accept it and use it. Many information systems never work
successfully in the organization even though the software operates correctly on the computer.
The main force against social inertia is involvement and commitment by participants and
their managers. Low level of involvement and commitment make it more likely that the
information system will never reach its full potential or will fail altogether. If commitment is
low, even an information system that has been implemented somewhat successfully may be
used for a while and then gradually abandoned, soon making it seem that the project never
happened.
Table 1 shows some of the possible levels of user involvement in an information system
development project, ranging from non-involvement to active ongoing participation in the

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project team. Non-involvement occurs if the users are unable to participate or if the system is
to be imposed on them and they are not invited to participate. Noninvolvement may sound
like a recipe for disaster, but it sometimes works, such as when software package developed
else where is the most practical basis for a new information system and when the
implementation of that package is well explained. Involvement through advice or sign-off
uses a small amount of users’ time to provide input that influences priorities and features and
therefore reduces political problems.
Table 1: Alternative Levels of User Involvement in Systems Development
Level of Involvement Description of Involvement at this level
N on-involvement Users are unwilling to participate, unable to
contribute, or are not invited to participate.
Involvement by advice User advice is solicited through interviews or
questionnaires, but others make decision about
which features are included in the system.
Involvement by sign-off Users approve the result produced by the project
team, but are not actively involved in analyzing or

Involvement by design team designing the system.

Users participate actively in design activities, such
membership as interviews of other users and creation of
functional specifications and external
Involvement by project team Users participate throughout the entire project,
specifications.
membership, management,including initiation, development, implementation,
and project ownership and operation; a user representative manages the
project; the user organization owns the project.

Unfortunately, limited involvement often leads to overlooking systems shortcomings and

organizational issues that fuller participation would catch. The highest levels of involvement
require ongoing participation by users in the project team. In some cases a user representative
manages the project to make sure that it genuinely solves the problem. Also, limited
involvement leads to inconsistent requests from different users, different needs that cannot all
be supported due to resource constraints, and request features or capabilities that the analysts
believe are too difficult or expensive to provide.
The importance of involvement and commitment are clear from attempts to implement the
same information system in four unrelated life insurance firms, Sun Alliance Insurance
Group in the United Kingdom, National Mutual in Australia, and Prudential and Lutheran

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Brotherhood in the United States. All sold a full line of life insurance products and had a
geographically diverse field sales force with a central home office. All attempted to
implement an information system developed by Applied Expert Systems to perform
comprehensive financial planning in areas such as cash management, risk management,
income protection, general insurance, education funding, and retirement planning.
The different results at these four companies show that a system’s success is determined
partially by its features and partially by the development and implementation process itself.
The likelihood of success drops if this process cannot overcome the inertia of current
business processes or if the implementation itself causes resistance.
PROCESS/STAGES OF INFORMATION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT
The system development life cycle is triggered either by problems, opportunities or
directives.
There are many versions of the SDLC but they all share same basic approach. Some of the
SDLC have five to seven phases depending on the nature of the project, whether it is a
software development or development of information systems project in an organization.
Typical SDLC phases are:
• Planning/Feasibility Definition
• Analysis
• Design
• Implementation
• Testing
• Maintenance
• Evaluation
PLANNING/FEASIBILITY AND REQUIREMENT DEFINITION
Planning is the study of the ongoing environment to identifying problem solving possibilities.
This is the first step in an SDLC aimed at identifying the business need of an organization.
This includes the identification of a shortcoming in an existing system or an observation by
anyone in the organization that a problem exists, or that needs are not been addressed. The
systems developers working in consultation with those commissioning the system and its
intended users (who may be two different groups of people), establish the general tasks which
the system is intended to perform and constraints (budgetary, time, etc) on its production.
The outcome of this phase should include the following:
• Term of Reference (TOR)

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• An analysis of the functional system

• A summary of the requirements for the system
• An outline description of the proposed system
• Estimates of costs, benefits and timescales.
Based on the reports containing these points, it is possible to decide whether a system is
likely to provide an adequate solution. The decision to commission to build or acquire a
system must be taken by the problem owner(s). Unless they are committed to the system, it is
almost certain that it will fail at the evaluation level.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
Systems analysis is the study of the problem environment and subsequent definition and
prioritization of the requirements for solving the problem. After a project has been approved
for further study, the next step is to perform detailed analysis of the existing system,
otherwise termed need analysis. The overall emphasis is to uncover some of the inherent
problems and limitations of the existing system and to determine the extent to which the
existing system is achieving the organization’s goals and objectives.
Systems analysis is achieved by modeling relevant areas of business activity to produce some
detailed description usually known as specification. Systems analysts start by clarifying the
overall objectives of the organization and by determining which documents and information
are needed to obtain desired objectives. There is a lot of movement, storage and retrieval of
data.
Analysis of a small company’s computer system can be straightforward. On the other hand,
evaluating an existing data processing system of a large company can be long and tedious. As
a result large organizations that are evaluating a major data processing system normally go
through formalized evaluation procedure that involves assembling of the study team,
collection of appropriate data; analysis of the data and the existing system; preparation of a
report of the existing system. For small projects, the study team can be just one person. Large
projects may require 20 or more people.
The data collected in this raw form from the data collection stage is usually not adequate to
make a determination of the effectiveness and efficiency of the existing data processing
system. This data needs to be manipulated in a form that is useable by the members of the
study team. System analysis concludes with a formal report on the status of the existing
system. The report contains both the strengths and weaknesses of the system. Particular
attention is focused on those areas that could use improvement.

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SYSTEMS DESIGN
Systems design is the evaluation of alternative problem solutions, and the detailed
specification of the final system. The specification produced in the analysis stage is used to
construct a design for the complete system, including programs, files, records, etc.
The emphasis of systems design is to develop a new system that helps to achieve the goals
and objectives of the organization and overcomes some of the shortcomings and limitations
of the existing system. If the problems are minor, only small modifications are required. On
the other hand, major changes may be suggested by systems analysis. Throughout design the
emphasis usually shifts from the business to computer solution.
In these cases major investments in additional hardware, software and personnel may be
necessary. Regardless of the complexity and scope of the new system, it is the purpose of
systems design to develop the best possible system.
The final design consideration is documentation. The documentation of the new system is
similar to the documentation of the existing system. The importance of good documentation
cannot be over emphasized. In most cases there are both user and technical documentation.
Without good documentation, the new system may never be used, and it may be virtually
impossible to modify the system in the future. Poorly documented systems have resulted in
mistakes that led to great losses in organisations.
SYSTEMS IMPLEMENTATION
Systems implementation is the construction or the assembly of the problem solution
culminating in new environment based on the solution. After detailed design of a program or
project the next logical phase in the SDLC is implementation of the designed program or
project. In the case of programming, the design is turned into executable code using whatever
programming language that is appropriate. On the other hand too, for the implementation of
data processing system selected, a number of tasks must be completed before the system is
installed and ready to operate.
This system implementation includes acquisition of software, hiring and training of the
personnel, the site preparation, data preparation and installation.
SYSTEMS TESTING
The process of systems testing takes place at several levels. This includes testing of the
individual PARTs or units making up the system, testing the system as a whole, testing the
system under normal and unusual conditions, hands-on testing by the intended end-user, etc.
The ‘full system’ will also be a test of documentation, training and operating procedures, as
well as the computerized part of the system.

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SYSTEMS MAINTENANCE/SUPPORT
Systems maintenance consists of making sure that the system runs in operational use and
continues to do so for as long as is required. It includes correcting any errors that have
remained undetected so far, improving the implementation of systems PART/units where this
is possible and enhancing the functionality of the system where the client or user desires this.
It should be the longest of all the stages in the life cycle as far as elapsed time is concerned.
The Centre for Software Maintenance estimates that 50 % and 90% of the cost of
computer system is over its lifetime in maintenance.
POST-IMPLEMENTATION REVIEW/EVALUATION
During this phase, we determine whether the new system has achieved its original design
goals. We also look back to see if the system was developed within the specified time and
budget. Typically time and budget comparisons are made. These comparisons investigate the
difference between the planned time and the cost estimates and the actual time and cost
expended. This can be used to determine whether the entire project was over budgeted at any
point in time.
In a five-phase systems development life cycle (for example as in figure 1), feasibility studies
account for 10-20 percent of project cycle; systems analysis and design, 25-45 percent;
programming, 15-30 percent; conversion and implementation 20-25 percent; and post
implementation evaluation, 5 percent.

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Figure 1: A 5-Phase SDLC

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CHAPTER 4 COMPUTER NETWORKS

Classified according to a wide variety of characteristics. This unit provides a general
overview of some types and categories and presents the basic components of a network. A
computer network is a group of interconnected computers. Networks may be
Most people working in office with more than a couple of computers will be using some form
of network. As networks become easier to setup and maintain more home users are also
setting up networks to share resource such as disk space, printers, Internet connections and
access to software.
NETWORK CLASSIFICATION
The following list presents major categories used for classifying networks.
Scale
Computer networks may be classified according to the scale: Personal area network (PAN),
Local Area Network (LAN), Campus Area Network (CAN), Metropolitan area network
(MAN), or Wide area network (WAN). Also a business area network
As Ethernet increasingly is the standard interface for networks, these distinctions are more
important to the network administrator than the user. Network administrators may have to
tune the network, to correct delay issues and achieve the desired performance level.
Connection Method
Computer networks can also be classified according to the hardware technology that is used
to connect the individual devices in the network such as Optical fibre, Ethernet, Wireless
LAN, HomePNA, or Power line communication.
Ethernets use physical wiring to connect devices. Often they employ hubs, switches, bridges,
and/or routers.
Wireless LAN technology is built-in to connect devices without wiring. These devices use a
radio frequency to connect.
FUNCTIONAL RELATIONSHIP (NETWORK ARCHITECTURES)
Computer networks may be classified according to the functional relationships which exist
between the elements of the network, e.g., Active Networking, Client-server and Peer-to-peer
(workgroup) architecture.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Computer networks may be classified according to the network topology upon which the
network is based, such as Bus network, Star network, Ring network, Mesh network, Star-bus
network, Tree or Hierarchical topology network, etc.
Network Topology signifies the way in which devices in the network see their logical

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relations to one another. The use of the term "logical" here is significant. That is, network
topology is independent of the "physical" layout of the network. Even if networked
computers are physically placed in a linear arrangement, if they are connected via a hub, the
network has a Star topology, rather than a Bus Topology. In this regard the visual and
operational characteristics of a network are distinct; the logical network topology is not
necessarily the same as the physical layout.
TYPES OF NETWORKS
Below is a list of the most common types of computer networks in order of scale.
Personal Area Network (PAN)
A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among
computer devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are
printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs or scanners. The reach of a PAN is typically within
about 20-30 feet (approximately 6-9 metres).
Personal area networks may be wired with computer buses such as FireWire. A wireless
personal area network (WPAN) can also be made possible with network technologies such as
IrDA and Bluetooth.
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
This is network covering a small geographic area, like a home, office, or building. Current
LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology. For example, a library may have a
wired or wireless LAN for users to interconnect local devices (e.g., printers and servers) and
to connect to the internet. On a wired LAN, PCs in the library are typically connected by
category 5 (Cat5) cable, running the IEEE 802.3 protocol through a system of interconnection
devices and eventually connect to the internet. The cables to the servers are typically on Cat
5e enhanced cable, which will support IEEE 802.3 at 1 Gbit/s. A wireless LAN may exist
using a different IEEE protocol, 802.11b or 802.11g. The staff computers (bright green in the
figure) can get to the color printer, checkout records, and the academic network and restore
the Internet. All user computers can get to the Internet and the card catalog. Each workgroup
can get to its local printer. Note that the printers are not accessible from outside their
workgroup.
Typical library network, in a branching tree topology and controlled access to resources.
All interconnected devices must understand the network layer (layer 3), because they are
handling multiple subnets (the different colors). Those inside the library, which have only
10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet connections to the user device and a Gigabit Ethernet connection to
the central router, could be called "layer 3 switches" because they only have Ethernet

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interfaces and must understand IP. It would be more correct to call them access routers,
where the router at the top is a distribution router that connects to the Internet and academic
networks' customer access routers.
The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to WANs (wide area networks), include
their higher data transfer rates, smaller geographic range, and lack of a need for leased
telecommunication lines. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at
speeds up to 10 Gbit/s. This is the data transfer rate. IEEE has projects investigating the
standardization of 100 Gbit/s, and possibly 40 Gbit/s.
CAMPUS AREA NETWORK (CAN)
A network that connects two or more LANs but which is limited to a specific and contiguous
geographical area such as a college campus, industrial complex, or a military base. A CAN
may be considered a type of MAN (metropolitan area network), but is generally limited to an
area that is smaller than a typical MAN. This term is most often used to discuss the
implementation of networks for a contiguous area. This should not be confused with a
Controller Area Network. A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance.
A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though
sometimes one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and
occasionally a LAN will span a group of nearby buildings. In TCP/IP networking, a LAN is
often but not always implemented as a single IP subnet.
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)
A Metropolitan Area Network is a network that connects two or more Local Area Networks
or Campus Area Networks together but does not extend beyond the boundaries of the
immediate town/city. Routers, switches and hubs are connected to create a Metropolitan Area
Network.
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area (i.e.
one city to another and one country to another country) and that often uses transmission
facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies
generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the
data link layer, and the network layer.
GLOBAL AREA NETWORK (GAN)
Global Area Network (GAN) specifications are in development by several groups, and there
is no common definition. In general, however, a GAN is a model for supporting mobile
communications across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc.

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The key challenge in mobile communications is "handing off' the user communications from
one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of
terrestrial Wireless local area networks (WLAN).
INTERNETWORK
Two or more networks or network segments connected using devices that operate at layer 3
(the 'network' layer) of the OSI Basic Reference Model, such as a router. Any interconnection
among or between public, private, commercial, industrial, or governmental networks may
also be defined as an internetwork.
In modern practice, the interconnected networks use the Internet Protocol. There are at least
three variants of internetwork, depending on who administers and who participates in them:
•Intranet
•Extranet
•Internet
Intranets and extranets may or may not have connections to the Internet. If connected to the
Internet, the intranet or extranet is normally protected from being accessed from the Internet
without proper authorization. The Internet is not considered to be a part of the intranet or
extranet, although it may serve as a portal for access to portions of an extranet.
INTRANET
An intranet is a set of interconnected networks, using the Internet Protocol and uses IP-based
tools such as web browsers and ftp tools, that is under the control of a single administrative
entity. That administrative entity closes the intranet to the rest of the world, and allows only
specific users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal network of a company or other
enterprise. A large intranet will typically have its own web server to provide users with
browseable information.
EXTRANET
An extranet is a network or internetwork that is limited in scope to a single organization or
entity but which also has limited connections to the networks of one or more other usually,
but not necessarily, trusted organizations or entities (e.g. a company's customers may be
given access to some part of its intranet creating in this way an extranet, while at the same
time the customers may not be considered 'trusted' from a security standpoint). Technically,
an extranet may also be categorized as a CAN, MAN, WAN, or other type of network,
although, by definition, an extranet cannot consist of a single LAN; it must have at least one
connection with an external network.

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INTERNET
A specific internetwork, consisting of a worldwide interconnection of governmental,
academic, public, and private networks based upon the Advanced Research Project Agency
Network (ARPANET) developed by ARPA of the U.S. Department of Defense - also home
to the World Wide Web (WWW) and referred to as the 'Internet' with a capital 'I' to
distinguish it from other generic internetworks.
Participants in the Internet, or their service providers, use IP Addresses obtained from address
registries that control assignments. Service providers and large enterprises also exchange
information on the reachability of their address ranges through the Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP).
BASIC HARDWARE COMPONENTS
All networks are made up of basic hardware building blocks to interconnect network nodes,
such as Network Interface Cards (NICs), Bridges, Hubs, Switches, and Routers. In addition,
some method of connecting these building blocks is required, usually in the form of galvanic
cable (most commonly Category 5 cable). Less common are microwave links (as in IEEE
802.11) or optical cable ("optical fiber").
NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS
A network card, network adapter or NIC (network interface card) is a piece of computer
hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. It provides
physical access to a networking medium and often provides a low-level addressing system
through the use of MAC addresses. It allows users to connect to each other either by using
cables or wirelessly.
REPEATERS
A repeater is an electronic device that receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or
higher power, or onto the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer
distances without degradation. In most twisted pair ethernet configurations, repeaters are
required for cable runs longer than 100 meters.
HUBS
A hub contains multiple ports. When a packet arrives at one port, it is copied to all the ports
of the hub for transmission. When the packets are copied, the destination address in the frame
does not change to a broadcast address. It does this in a rudimentary way, it simply copies the
data to all of the Nodes connected to the hub.
BRIDGES
A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the

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OSI model. Bridges do not promiscuously copy traffic to all ports, as hubs do, but learn
which MAC addresses are reachable through specific ports. Once the bridge associates a port
and an address, it will send traffic for that address only to that port. Bridges do send
broadcasts to all ports except the one on which the broadcast was received.
Bridges learn the association of ports and addresses by examining the source address of
frames that it sees on various ports. Once a frame arrives through a port, its source address is
stored and the bridge assumes that MAC address is associated with that port. The first time
that a previously unknown destination address is seen, the bridge will forward the frame to all
ports other than the one on which the frame arrived.
Bridges come in three basic types:
Local bridges: Directly connect local area networks (LANs)
Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs.
Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been
replaced by routers.
Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote stations to LANs.
Switches
A switch is a device that performs switching. Specifically, it forwards and filters OSI layer 2
datagrams (chunk of data communication) between ports (connected cables) based on the
Mac-Addresses in the packets. This is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the
datagrams to the ports involved in the communications rather than all ports connected.
Strictly speaking, a switch is not capable of routing traffic based on IP address (layer 3)
which is necessary for communicating between network segments or within a large or
complex LAN. Some switches are capable of routing based on IP addresses but are still called
switches as a marketing term. A switch normally has numerous ports with the intention that
most or all of the network be connected directly to a switch, or another switch that is in turn
connected to a switch.
Switches is a marketing term that encompasses routers and bridges, as well as devices that
may distribute traffic on load or by application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier). Switches
may operate at one or more OSI layers, including physical, data link, network, or transport
(i.e., end-to-end). A device that operates simultaneously at more than one of these layers is
called a multilayer switch.
Overemphasizing the ill-defined term "switch" often leads to confusion when first trying to
understand networking. Many experienced network designers and operators recommend
starting with the logic of devices dealing with only one protocol level, not all of which are

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covered by OSI. Multilayer device selection is an advanced topic that may lead to selecting
particular implementations, but multilayer switching is simply not a real-world design
concept.
ROUTERS
Routers are networking devices that forward data packets between networks using headers
and forwarding tables to determine the best path to forward the packets. Routers work at the
network layer of the TCP/IP model or layer 3 of the OSI model. Routers also provide
interconnectivity between like and unlike media (RFC 1812). This is accomplished by
examining the Header of a data packet, and making a decision on the next hop to which it
should be sent (RFC 1812) They use preconfigured static routes, status of their hardware
interfaces, and routing protocols to select the best route between any two subnets. A router is
connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP's
network. Some DSL and cable modems, for home (and even office) use, have been integrated
with routers to allow multiple home/office computers to access the Internet through the same
connection. Many of these new devices also consist of wireless access points (waps) or
wireless routers to allow for IEEE 802.11b/g wireless enabled devices to connect to the
network without the need for a cabled connection.
CONNECTING TO A NETWORK
To connect computers, each of the computers needs a network card with a connection that
allows a cable to be connected to it. Computers can be connected directly through a bi-
directional cable or through another piece of hardware called a hub. The hub then connects all
the computers in your local network together. Both solutions cost about the same but a hub
allows more than two computers to connect. A hub can also be used to connect two local area
networks together to create a wide area network.
Some form of network software is required. This network protocol software is installed
through the network preferences. NetBIOS was commonly used though recently a secure
TCP/IP protocol has been developed. The network protocol determines how computers
become part of the network and how they are recognized. The network must have a name and
you can use some creativity at this point. Each computer must also have a unique name that
other computers on the network can access them with.
If all goes well this is all you need, but often, there will be a conflict that can be resolved by
establishing exactly how the computer will communicate. To solve these types of conflict
your network needs a set DNS server address and each computer in the network needs to be
assigned a unique IP address. The addresses usually are in the range of 192.168.x.x where x

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means any number between 0 and 255. Once these numbers have been entered your network
should be functioning with each computer able to see the other computers on the network.
You must also decide which resources you want to share. You may want to make a disk or
folder available, a printer or tape backup system so that everyone can use it. You may also
want to have parts of the network that are either not accessible or accessible only through a
password. File and print sharing must be enabled on the computer that will share it's
resources or host computer and then determine how it is accessed by other computers or
clients.
A computer with an Internet connection can also share that connection with other computers
on the network but you should check with your ISP what their policy on sharing Internet
connections is. Sharing an Internet connection also raises some serious security issues. Many
cable high speed Internet connections use the Network Neighborhood settings to create the
Internet connection and connecting your home or office network to this existing system can
cause problems. Though you may want to allow a computer in another room of the house to
access files or run programs on your computer you probably don't want the kid down the
block to have that same access.
SECURITY
Security on networks begins with passwords. Everyone who wishes to access the network
must logon with a username and password. If someone cancels the password challenge they
will be able to access the files and programs on that individual computer but can't access any
of the network resources. Specific passwords for important folders or disks can also be set or
access to folders or disks can be forbidden.
USE OF NETWORKS
In business, government, schools and other types of organizations, networks of all types of
computers provide tremendous benefits. The major benefits among others are as follow:
2. Share Information: networks allow users to share information easily. For example,
electronic mail system enables co-workers to send memos to each other. This accelerates the
distribution of company information. Users can send written message without worrying about
whether the user is currently using her computer. The Internet has provided business world
especially the financial institutions with an entirely new and immense valuable form of
communication.
3. Share Resources: Resources shared under network are;
i. Application Programs: It is a fact in business computing that most workers use the

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same program. With a network, businesses can save a lot of money by purchasing special
network version of most commonly used program, rather than buying separate copies for
each machine. When employees want to use a program they simply load it from a shared
storage device into their own personal computer. Since a single network copy of the program
can serve the needs of a large number of users simultaneously, all the program would occupy
on a local hard disk.
ii. Share Data File: the same is true for data that multiple employees need access to at
same time, for example, daily stock trade figures in a stock trading firm. Here the issue is
data integrity, rather than money. If employees keep separate copies of data on different hard
disks, updating the data is very difficult. As soon as a change is made to the data on one
machine, there is a discrepancy and it becomes very difficult to know which data is correct.
Keeping data that is used by more than one person on shared storage devices solve the whole
problem.
iii. Shared Peripheral Devices/Hardware: Network enables everyone in an office to
utilize the maximum amount of available equipment. For example, by sharing one printer
among several computers cost is reduced. If you have different computers in a work setting,
network enables more people to capitalize on each computer’s strength.
iv. Even distribution of work and processing load.
4. Back Up In business for example financial institutions, data can be extremely valuable.
So making sure that employees back up their data is one way to address this problem.
Employees gain access through a network. That way, one person can be charged with the
responsibility of making regular backups of data on the shared storage device.
5. Share Disk Space

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CHAPTER 5 THE INTERNET

Internet is a specific internetwork, consisting of a worldwide interconnection of
governmental, academic, public, and private networks based upon the Advanced Research
Project Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by ARPA of the U.S. Department of
Defense - also home to the World Wide Web (WWW), and is referred to as the 'Internet' with
a capital 'I' to distinguish it from other generic internetworks.
The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is the authority that
coordinates the assignment of unique identifiers on the Internet, including domain names,
Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, and protocol port and parameter numbers. A globally unified
namespace (i.e., a system of names in which there is at most one holder for each possible
name) is essential for the Internet to function. ICANN is headquartered in Marina del Rey,
California, but is overseen by an international board of directors drawn from across the
Internet technical, business, academic, and non-commercial communities. The US
government continues to have the primary role in approving changes to the root zone file that
lies at the heart of the domain name system. Because the Internet is a distributed network
comprising many voluntarily interconnected networks, the Internet has no governing body.
ICANN's role in coordinating the assignment of unique identifiers distinguishes it as perhaps
the only central coordinating body on the global Internet, but the scope of its authority
extends only to the Internet's systems of domain names, IP addresses, protocol ports and
parameter numbers.
On November 16, 2005, the World Summit on the Information Society, held in Tunis,
established the Internet Governance Forum (IGF) to discuss Internet-related issues.
LANGUAGE
The prevalent language for communication on the Internet is English. This may be a result of
the Internet's origins, as well as English's role as a lingua franca. It may also be related to the
poor capability of early computers, largely originating in the United States, to handle
characters other than those in the English variant of the Latin alphabet.
After English (30% of Web visitors) the most requested languages on the World Wide Web
are Chinese (17%), Spanish (9%), Japanese (7%), French (5%) and German (5%).
By continent, 38% of the world's Internet users are based in Asia, 27% in Europe, 18% in
North America, 10% in Latin America and the Caribbean, and 7% in Australia.
The Internet's technologies have developed enough in recent years, especially in the use of
Unicode that good facilities are available for development and communication in most widely
used languages. However, some glitches such as mojibake (incorrect display of foreign

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language characters, also known as kryakozyabry) still remain.

INTERNET AND THE WORKPLACE
The Internet is allowing greater flexibility in working hours and location, especially with the
spread of unmetered high-speed connections and Web applications.
THE INTERNET VIEWED ON MOBILE DEVICES
The Internet can now be accessed virtually anywhere by numerous means. Mobile phones,
datacards, handheld game consoles and cellular routers allow users to connect to the Internet
from anywhere there is a cellular network supporting that device's technology.
Within the limitations imposed by the small screen and other limited facilities of such pocket-
sized devices, all the services of the Internet, including email and web browsing, may be
available in these ways. Service providers may restrict the range of these services and charges
for data access may be significant, compared to home usage.
COMMON USES E-MAIL
The concept of sending electronic text messages between parties in a way analogous to
mailing letters or memos predates the creation of the Internet. Even today it can be important
to distinguish between Internet and internal e-mail systems. Internet e-mail may travel and be
stored unencrypted on many other networks and machines out of both the sender's and the
recipient's control. During this time it is quite possible for the content to be read and even
tampered with by third parties, if anyone considers it important enough. Purely internal or
intranet mail systems, where the information never leaves the corporate or organization's
network, are much more secure, although in any organization there will be IT and other
personnel whose job may involve monitoring, and occasionally accessing, the e-mail of other
employees not addressed to them.
THE WORLD WIDE WEB
Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web (or just the Web) interchangeably,
but, as discussed above, the two terms are not synonymous.
The World Wide Web is a huge set of interlinked documents, images and other resources,
linked by hyperlinks and URLs. These hyperlinks and URLs allow the web servers and other
machines that store originals, and cached copies, of these resources to deliver them as
required using HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol). HTTP is only one of the communication
protocols used on the Internet.
Web services also use HTTP to allow software systems to communicate in order to share and
exchange business logic and data.
Software products that can access the resources of the Web are correctly termed user agents.

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In normal use, web browsers, such as Internet Explorer and Firefox, access web pages and
allow users to navigate from one to another via hyperlinks. Web documents may contain
almost any combination of computer data including graphics, sounds, text, video, multimedia
and interactive content including games, office applications and scientific demonstrations.
Through keyword-driven Internet research using search engines like Yahoo! and Google,
millions of people worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online
information. Compared to encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has
enabled a sudden and extreme decentralization of information and data. Using the Web, it is
also easier than ever before for individuals and organisations to publish ideas and information
to an extremely large audience. Anyone can find ways to publish a web page, a blog or build
a website for very little initial cost. Publishing and maintaining large, professional websites
full of attractive, diverse and up-to-date information is still a difficult and expensive
proposition, however.
Many individuals and some companies and groups use "web logs" or blogs, which are largely
used as easily updatable online diaries. Some commercial organisations encourage staff to fill
them with advice on their areas of specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by
the expert knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the corporation as a result.
One example of this practice is Microsoft, whose product developers publish their personal
blogs in order to pique the public's interest in their work.
Collections of personal web pages published by large service providers remain popular, and
have become increasingly sophisticated. Whereas operations such as Angelfire and GeoCities
have existed since the early days of the Web, newer offerings from, for example, Facebook
and MySpace currently have large followings. These operations often brand themselves as
social network services rather than simply as web page hosts.
Advertising on popular web pages can be lucrative, and e-commerce or the sale of products
and services directly via the Web continues to grow. In the early days, web pages were
usually created as sets of complete and isolated HTML text files stored on a web server.
More recently, websites are more often created using content management system (CMS) or
wiki software with, initially, very little content. Contributors to these systems, who may be
paid staff, members of a club or other organisation or members of the public, fill underlying
databases with content using editing pages designed for that purpose, while casual visitors
view and read this content in its final HTML form. There may or may not be editorial,
approval and security systems built into the process of taking newly entered content and
making it available to the target visitors.

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REMOTE ACCESS
The Internet allows computer users to connect to other computers and information stores
easily, wherever they may be across the world. They may do this with or without the use of
security, authentication and encryption technologies, depending on the requirements.
This is encouraging new ways of working from home, collaboration and information sharing
in many industries. An accountant sitting at home can audit the books of a company based in
another country, on a server situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT
specialists in a fourth. These accounts could have been created by home-working
bookkeepers, in other remote locations, based on information e-mailed to them from offices
all over the world. Some of these things were possible before the widespread use of the
Internet, but the cost of private leased lines would have made many of them infeasible in
practice.
An office worker away from his desk, perhaps on the other side of the world on a business
trip or a holiday, can open a remote desktop session into his normal office PC using a secure
Virtual Private Network (VPN) connection via the Internet. This gives the worker complete
access to all of his or her normal files and data, including e-mail and other applications, while
away from the office.
This concept is also referred to by some network security people as the Virtual Private
Nightmare, because it extends the secure perimeter of a corporate network into its employees'
homes; this has been the source of some notable security breaches, but also provides security
for the workers.
COLLABORATION
The low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and skills has made
collaborative work dramatically easier. Not only can a group cheaply communicate and test,
but the wide reach of the Internet allows such groups to easily form in the first place, even
among niche interests. An example of this is the free software movement in software
development, which produced GNU and Linux from scratch and has taken over development
of Mozilla and OpenOfflce.org (formerly known as Netscape Communicator and StarOffice).
Internet "chat", whether in the form of IRC "chat rooms" or channels, or via instant
messaging systems, allow colleagues to stay in touch in a very convenient way when working
at their computers during the day. Messages can be sent and viewed even more quickly and
conveniently than via e-mail. Extension to these systems may allow files to be exchanged,
"whiteboard" drawings to be shared as well as voice and video contact between team
members.

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Version control systems allow collaborating teams to work on shared sets of documents
without either accidentally overwriting each other's work or having members wait until they
get "sent" documents to be able to add their thoughts and changes.
FILE SHARING
A computer file can be e-mailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment. It can
be uploaded to a website or FTP server for easy download by others. It can be put into a
"shared location" or onto a file server for instant use by colleagues. The load of bulk
downloads to many users can be eased by the use of "mirror" servers or peer-to-peer
networks.
In any of these cases, access to the file may be controlled by user authentication; the transit of
the file over the Internet may be obscured by encryption, and money may change hands
before or after access to the file is given. The price can be paid by the remote charging of
funds from, for example, a credit card whose details are also passed— hopefully fully
encrypted—across the Internet. The origin and authenticity of the file received may be
checked by digital signatures or by MD5 or other message digests.
These simple features of the Internet, over a worldwide basis, are changing the basis for the
production, sale, and distribution of anything that can be reduced to a computer file for
transmission. This includes all manner of print publications, software products, news, music,
film, video, photography, graphics and the other arts. This in turn has caused seismic shifts in
each of the existing industries that previously controlled the production and distribution of
these products.
Internet collaboration technology enables business and project teams to share documents,
calendars and other information. Such collaboration occurs in a wide variety of areas
including scientific research, software development, conference planning, political activism
and creative writing.
STREAMING MEDIA
Many existing radio and television broadcasters provide Internet "feeds" of their live audio
and video streams (for example, the BBC). They may also allow time-shift viewing or
listening such as Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again features. These providers have
been joined by a range of pure Internet "broadcasters" who never had on-air licenses. This
means that an Internet-connected device, such as a computer or something more specific, can
be used to access on-line media in much the same way as was previously possible only with a
television or radio receiver. The range of material is much wider, from pornography to highly
specialized, technical webcasts. Podcasting is a variation on this theme, where—usually

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audio—material is first downloaded in full and then may be played back on a computer or
shifted to a digital audio player to be listened to on the move. These techniques using simple
equipment allow anybody, with little censorship or licensing control, to broadcast audio-
visual material on a worldwide basis.
Webcams can be seen as an even lower-budget extension of this phenomenon. While some
webcams can give full-frame-rate video, the picture is usually either small or updates slowly.
Internet users can watch animals around an African waterhole, ships in the Panama Canal, the
traffic at a local roundabout or their own premises, live and in real time. Video chat rooms,
video conferencing, and remote controllable webcams are also popular. Many uses can be
found for personal webcams in and around the home, with and without two-way sound.
YouTube, sometimes described as an Internet phenomenon because of the vast amount of
users and how rapidly the site's popularity has grown, was founded on February 15, 2005. It
is now the leading website for free streaming video. It uses a flash-based web player which
streams video files in the format FLV. Users are able to watch videos without signing up;
however, if users do sign up they are able to upload an unlimited amount of videos and they
are given their own personal profile. It is currently estimated that there are 64,000,000 videos
on YouTube, and it is also currently estimated that 825,000 new videos are uploaded every
day.
VOICE TELEPHONY (VOIP)
VoIP stands for Voice over IP, where IP refers to the Internet Protocol that underlies all
Internet communication. This phenomenon began as an optional two-way voice extension to
some of the instant messaging systems that took off around the year 2000. In recent years
many VoIP systems have become as easy to use and as convenient as a normal telephone.
The benefit is that, as the Internet carries the actual voice traffic, VoIP can be free or cost
much less than a normal telephone call, especially over long distances and especially for
those with always-on Internet connections such as cable or ADSL.
Thus, VoIP is maturing into a viable alternative to traditional telephones. Interoperability
between different providers has improved and the ability to call or receive a call from a
traditional telephone is available. Simple, inexpensive VoIP modems are now available that
eliminate the need for a PC.
Voice quality can still vary from call to call but is often equal to and can even exceed that of
traditional calls.
Remaining problems for VoIP include emergency telephone number dialing and reliability.
Currently, a few VoIP providers provide an emergency service, but it is not universally

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available. Traditional phones are line-powered and operate during a power failure; VoIP does
not do so without a backup power source for the electronics.
Most VoIP providers offer unlimited national calling, but the direction in VoIP is clearly
toward global coverage with unlimited minutes for a low monthly fee.
VoIP has also become increasingly popular within the gaming world, as a form of
communication between players. Popular gaming VoIP clients include Ventrilo
andTeamspeak, and there are others available also. The PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 also
offer VoIP chat features.
INTERNET ACCESS
Common methods of home access include dial-up, landline broadband (over coaxial cable,
fiber optic or copper wires), Wi-Fi, satellite and 3G technology cell phones.
Public places to use the Internet include libraries and Internet cafes, where computers with
Internet connections are available. There are also Internet access points in many public places
such as airport halls and coffee shops, in some cases just for brief use while standing. Various
terms are used, such as "public Internet kiosk", "public access terminal", and "Web
payphone". Many hotels now also have public terminals, though these are usually fee-based.
These terminals are widely accessed for various usage like ticket booking, bank deposit,
online payment etc. Wi-Fi provides wireless access to computer networks, and therefore can
do so to the Internet itself. Hotspots providing such access include Wi-Fi cafes, where would-
be users need to bring their own wireless-enabled devices such as a laptop or PDA. These
services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A hotspot need not be
limited to a confined location. A whole campus or park, or even an entire city can be enabled.
Grassroots efforts have led to wireless community networks. Commercial Wi-Fi services
covering large city areas are in place in London, Vienna, Toronto, San Francisco,
Philadelphia, Chicago and Pittsburgh. The Internet can then be accessed from such places as
a park bench.
Apart from Wi-Fi, there have been experiments with proprietary mobile wireless networks
like Ricochet, various high-speed data services over cellular phone networks, and fixed
wireless services.
High-end mobile phones such as smartphones generally come with Internet access through
the phone network. Web browsers such as Opera are available on these advanced handsets,
which can also run a wide variety of other Internet software. More mobile phones have
Internet access than PCs, though this is not as widely used. An Internet access provider and
protocol matrix differentiates the methods used to get online.

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SOCIAL IMPACT
The Internet has made possible entirely new forms of social interaction, activities and
organizing, thanks to its basic features such as widespread usability and access.
Social networking websites such as Facebook and MySpace have created a new form of
socialization and interaction. Users of these sites are able to add a wide variety of items to
their personal pages, to indicate common interests, and to connect with others. It is also
possible to find a large circle of existing acquaintances, especially if a site allows users to
utilize their real names, and to allow communication among large existing groups of people.
Sites like meetup.com exist to allow wider announcement of groups which may exist mainly
for face-to-face meetings, but which may have a variety of minor interactions over their
group's site at meetup.org, or other similar sites.
LEISURE ACTIVITIES
The Internet has been a major source of leisure since before the World Wide Web, with
entertaining social experiments such as MUDs and MOOs being conducted on university
servers, and humor-related Usenet groups receiving much of the main traffic. Today, many
Internet forums have sections devoted to games and funny videos; short cartoons in the form
of Flash movies are also popular. Over 6 million people use blogs or message boards as a
means of communication and for the sharing of ideas.
The pornography and gambling industries have both taken full advantage of the World Wide
Web, and often provide a significant source of advertising revenue for other websites.
Although many governments have attempted to put restrictions on both industries' use of the
Internet, this has generally failed to stop their widespread popularity. One main area of
leisure on the Internet is multiplayer gaming. This form of leisure creates communities,
bringing people of all ages and origins to enjoy the fast-paced world of multiplayer games.
These range from MMORPG to first-person shooters, from role-playing games to online
gambling. This has revolutionized the way many people interact and spend their free time on
the Internet.
While online gaming has been around since the 1970s, modern modes of online gaming
began with services such as GameSpy and MPlayer, to which players of games would
typically subscribe. Non-subscribers were limited to certain types of gameplay or certain
games.
Many use the Internet to access and download music, movies and other works for their
enjoyment and relaxation. As discussed above, there are paid and unpaid sources for all of
these, using centralized servers and distributed peer-to-peer technologies. Discretion is

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needed as some of these sources take more care over the original artists' rights and over
copyright laws than others.
Many use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and sports reports, to plan and book
holidays and to find out more about their random ideas and casual interests.
People use chat, messaging and e-mail to make and stay in touch with friends worldwide,
sometimes in the same way as some previously had pen pals. Social networking websites like
MySpace, Facebook and many others like them also put and keep people in contact for their
enjoyment. The Internet has seen a growing number of Web desktops, where users can access
their files, folders, and settings via the Internet.
Cyberslacking has become a serious drain on corporate resources; the average UK employee
spends 57 minutes a day surfing the Web at work, according to a study by Peninsula Business
Services.
MARKETING
The Internet has also become a large market for companies; some of the biggest companies
today have grown by taking advantage of the efficient nature of low-cost advertising and
commerce through the Internet, also known as e-commerce. It is the fastest way to spread
information to a vast number of people simultaneously. The Internet has also subsequently
revolutionized shopping—for example; a person can order a CD online and receive it in the
mail within a couple of days, or download it directly in some cases. The Internet has also
greatly facilitated personalized marketing which allows a company to market a product to a
specific person or a specific group of people more so than any other advertising medium.
Examples of personalized marketing include online communities such as MySpace,
Friendster, Orkut, Facebook and others which thousands of Internet users join to advertise
themselves and make friends online. Many of these users are young teens and adolescents
ranging from 13 to 25 years old. In turn, when they advertise themselves they advertise
interests and hobbies, which online marketing companies can use as information as to what
those users will purchase online, and advertise their own companies' products to those users.

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PART 3
CHAPTER 1 COMPUTER SECURITY
Many current computer systems have only limited security precautions in place. This unit
discusses computer insecurity; the current battlefield of computer security exploits and
defenses.
SECURITY AND SYSTEMS DESIGN
Most current real-world computer security efforts focus on external threats, and generally
treat the computer system itself as a trusted system. Some knowledgeable observers consider
this to be a disastrous mistake, and point out that this distinction is the cause of much of the
insecurity of current computer systems — once an attacker has subverted one part of a system
without fine-grained security, he or she usually has access to most or all of the features of that
system Because computer systems can be very complex, and cannot be guaranteed to be free
of defects, this security stance tends to produce insecure systems.
It should be noted that the Windows NT line of operating systems from Microsoft contain
mechanisms to limit this, such as services that run under dedicated user accounts, and Role-
Based Access Control (RBAC) with user/group rights, but the Windows 95 line of products
lack most of these functions. Before the release of Windows 2003 Microsoft has changed
their official stance, taking a more locked down approach. On 15 January 2002, Bill Gates
sent out a memo on Trustworthy Computing, marking the official change in company stance.
Regardless, Microsoft's operating system Windows XP is still plagued by complaints about
lack of local security and inability to use the fine-grained user access controls together with
certain software (esp. certain popular computer games).
FINANCIAL COST
Serious financial damage has been caused by computer security breaches, but reliably
estimating costs is quite difficult. Figures in the billions of dollars bracket have been quoted
in relation to the damage caused by malware such as computer worms like the Code Red
worm, but such estimates may be exaggerated. However, other losses, such as those caused
by the compromise of credit card information, can be more easily determined, and they have
been substantial, as measured by millions of individual victims of identity theft each year in
several nations, and the severe hardship imposed on victims, wiping out all of their finances,
preventing them from getting jobs, and the humiliations as if they were the criminals.
Volumes of victims of phishing and other scams may not be known.
Individuals who have been infected with spyware or malware likely go through a costly and

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time-consuming process of having their computer cleaned. Spyware is considered to be a

problem specific to the various Microsoft Windows operating systems, however this can be
partially explained by the fact that Microsoft controls a major share of the PC market and
thus represent the most prominent target.
REASONS FOR ATTACK ON THE COMPUTER SYSTEM
There are many similarities (yet many fundamental differences) between computer and
physical security. Just like physical security, the motivations for breaches of computer
security vary between attackers, sometimes called hackers or crackers. Some are teenage
thrill-seekers or vandals (the kind often responsible for defacing web sites); similarly, some
web site defacements are done to make political statements. However, some attackers are
highly skilled and motivated with the goal of compromising computers for financial gain or
espionage. An example of the latter is Markus Hess who spied for the KGB and was
ultimately caught because of the efforts of Clifford Stoll, who wrote an amusing and accurate
book, The Cuckoo's Egg, about his experiences. For those seeking to prevent security
breaches, the first step is usually to attempt to identify what might motivate an attack on the
system, how much the continued operation and information security of the system are worth,
and who might be motivated to breach it. The precautions required for a home PC are very
different from those of banks' Internet banking system, and different again from a classified
military network. Other computer security writers suggest that, since an attacker using a
network need know nothing about you or what you have on your computer, attacker
motivation is inherently impossible to determine beyond guessing. If true, blocking all
possible attacks is the only plausible action to take.
VULNERABILITIES
To understand the techniques for securing a computer system, it is important to first
understand the various types of "attacks" that can be made against it. These threats can
typically be classified into one of these seven categories:
EXPLOITS
An exploit (from the same word in the French language, meaning "achievement", or
"accomplishment") is a piece of software, a chunk of data, or sequence of commands that
take advantage of a bug, glitch or vulnerability in order to cause unintended or unanticipated
behaviour to occur on computer software, hardware, or something electronic (usually
computerized). This frequently includes such things as gaining control of a computer system
or allowing privilege escalation or a denial of service attack. Many development
methodologies rely on testing to ensure the quality of any code released; this process often

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fails to discover extremely unusual potential exploits. The term "exploit" generally refers to
small programs designed to take advantage of a software flaw that has been discovered, either
remote or local. The code from the exploit program is frequently reused in trojan horses and
computer viruses. In some cases, a vulnerability can lie in certain programs' processing of a
specific file type, such as a non-executable media file. Some security web sites maintain lists
of currently known unpatched vulnerabilities found in common programs.
EAVESDROPPING
Eavesdropping is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private conversation. Even machines
that operate as a closed system (ie, with no contact to the outside world) can be eavesdropped
upon via monitoring the faint electro-magnetic transmissions generated by the hardware such
as TEMPEST. The FBI's proposed Carnivore program was intended to act as a system of
eavesdropping protocols built into the systems of internet service providers.
SOCIAL ENGINEERING AND HUMAN ERROR
A computer system is no more secure than the human systems responsible for its operation.
Malicious individuals have regularly penetrated well-designed, secure computer systems by
taking advantage of the carelessness of trusted individuals, or by deliberately deceiving them,
for example sending messages that they are the system administrator and asking for
passwords. This deception is known as Social engineering.
DENIAL OF SERVICE ATTACKS
Unlike other exploits, denial of service attacks are not used to gain unauthorized access or
control of a system. They are instead designed to render it unusable. Attackers can deny
service to individual victims, such as by deliberately guessing a wrong password 3
consecutive times and thus causing the victim account to be locked, or they may overload the
capabilities of a machine or network and block all users at once. These types of attack are, in
practice, very hard to prevent, because the behaviour of whole networks needs to be
analyzed, not only the behaviour of small pieces of code. Distributed denial of service
(DDoS) attacks are common, where a large number of compromised hosts (commonly
referred to as "zombie computers", used as part of a botnet with, for example; a worm, trojan
horse, or backdoor exploit to control them.) are used to flood a target system with network
requests, thus attempting to render it unusable through resource exhaustion. Another
technique to exhaust victim resources is through the use of an attack amplifier — where the
attacker takes advantage of poorly designed protocols on 3rd party machines, such as FTP or
DNS, in order to instruct these hosts to launch the flood. There are also common
vulnerabilities in applications that cannot be used to take control over a computer, but merely

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make the target application malfunction or crash. This is known as a denial-of-service

exploit.
INDIRECT ATTACKS
An indirect attack is an attack launched by a third party computer. By using someone else's
computer to launch an attack, it becomes far more difficult to track down the actual attacker.
There have also been cases where attackers took advantage of public anonymizing systems,
such as the tor onion router system.
BACKDOORS
A backdoor in a computer system (or cryptosystem or algorithm) is a method of bypassing
normal authentication, securing remote access to a computer, obtaining access to plaintext,
and so on, while attempting to remain undetected. The backdoor may take the form of an
installed program (e.g., Back Orifice), or could be a modification to an existing program or
hardware device. A specific form of backdoors are rootkits, which replace system binaries
and/or hooks into the function calls of the operating system to hide the presence of other
programs, users, services and open ports. It may also fake information about disk and
memory usage.
DIRECT ACCESS ATTACKS
Common consumer devices that can be used to transfer data surreptitiously. Someone who
has gained access to your computer can install any type of devices to compromise security,
including operating system modifications, software worms, key loggers, and covert listening
devices. The attacker can also easily download large quantities of data onto backup media,
for instance CD-R/DVD-R, tape; or portable devices such as keydrives, digital cameras or
digital audio players. Another common technique is to boot an operating system contained on
a CD-ROM or other bootable media and read the data from the harddrive(s) this way. The
only way to defeat this is to encrypt the storage media and store the key separate from the
system.
REDUCING VULNERABILITIES
Computer code is regarded by some as just a form of mathematics. It is theoretically possible
to prove the correctness of computer programs though the likelihood of actually achieving
this in large-scale practical systems is regarded as unlikely in the extreme by some with
practical experience in the industry.
It is also possible to protect messages in transit (i.e., communications) by means of
cryptography. One method of encryption — the one-time pad — is unbreakable when
correctly used. This method was used by the Soviet Union during the Cold War, though flaws

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in their implementation allowed some cryptanalysis .The method uses a matching pair of key-
codes, securely distributed, which are used once- and-only-once to encode and decode a
single message. For transmitted computer encryption this method is difficult to use properly
(securely), and highly inconvenient as well. Other methods of encryption, while breakable in
theory, are often virtually impossible to directly break by any means publicly known today.
Breaking them requires some noncryptographic input, such as a stolen key, stolen plaintext
(at either end of the transmission), or some other extra cryptanalytic information.
Social engineering and direct computer access (physical) attacks can only be prevented by
non-computer means, which can be difficult to enforce, relative to the sensitivity of the
information. Even in a highly disciplined environment, such as in military organizations,
social engineering attacks can still be difficult to foresee and prevent.
In practice, only a small fraction of computer program code is mathematically proven, or
even goes through comprehensive information technology audits or inexpensive but
extremely valuable computer security audits, so it is usually possible for a determined cracker
to read, copy, alter or destroy data in well secured computers, albeit at the cost of great time
and resources. Extremely few, if any, attackers would audit applications for vulnerabilities
just to attack a single specific system. You can reduce a cracker's chances by keeping your
systems up to date, using a security scanner or/and hiring competent people responsible for
security. The effects of data loss/damage can be reduced by careful backing up and insurance.
SECURITY MEASURES
A state of computer "security" is the conceptual ideal, attained by the use of the three
processes:
1. Prevention,
2. Detection, and
3. Response.
• User account access controls and cryptography can protect systems files and data,
respectively.
• Firewalls are by far the most common prevention systems from a network security
perspective as they can (if properly configured) shield access to internal network services,
and block certain kinds of attacks through packet filtering.
• Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS's) are designed to detect network attacks in progress
and assist in post-attack forensics, while audit trails and logs serve a similar function for
individual systems.

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• "Response" is necessarily defined by the assessed security requirements of an individual

system and may cover the range from simple upgrade of protections to notification of legal
authorities, counter-attacks, and the like. In some special cases, a complete destruction of the
compromised system is favoured, as it may happen that not all the compromised resources
are detected.
Today, computer security comprises mainly "preventive" measures, like firewalls or an Exit
Procedure. A firewall can be defined as a way of filtering network data between a host or a
network and another network, such as the Internet, and is normally implemented as software
running on the machine, hooking into the network stack (or, in the case of most UNIX-based
operating systems such as Linux, built into the operating system kernel) to provide realtime
filtering and blocking. Another implementation is a so called physical firewall which consists
of a separate machine filtering network traffic. Firewalls are common amongst machines that
are permanently connected to the Internet (though not universal, as demonstrated by the large
numbers of machines "cracked" by worms like the Code Red worm which would have been
protected by a properly-configured firewall). However, relatively few organisations maintain
computer systems with effective detection systems, and fewer still have organised response
mechanisms in place.
DIFFICULTY WITH RESPONSE
Responding forcefully to attempted security breaches (in the manner that one would for
attempted physical security breaches) is often very difficult for a variety of reasons:
• Identifying attackers is difficult, as they are often in a different jurisdiction to the
systems they attempt to breach, and operate through proxies, temporary anonymous dial-up
accounts, wireless connections, and other anonymising procedures which make backtracing
difficult and are often located in yet another jurisdiction.
If they successfully breach security, they are often able to delete logs to cover their tracks.
• The sheer number of attempted attacks is so large that organisations cannot spend time
pursuing each attacker (a typical home user with a permanent (e.g., cable modem) connection
will be attacked at least several times per day, so more attractive targets could be presumed to
see many more). Note however, that most of these attacks are made by automated
vulnerability scanners and computer worms.
• Law enforcement officers are often unfamiliar with information technology, and so lack
the skills and interest in pursuing attackers. There are also budgetary constraints. It has been
argued that the high cost of technology, such as DNA testing, and improved forensics mean

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less money for other kinds of law enforcement, so the overall rate of criminals not getting
dealt with goes up as the cost of the technology increases. In addition, the identification of
attackers across a network may require logs from various points in the network and in many
countries, the release of these records to law enforcement (with the exception of being
voluntarily surrendered by a network administrator or a system administrator) requires a
search warrant and, depending on the circumstances, the legal proceedings required can be
drawn out to the point where the records are either regularly destroyed, or the information is
no longer relevant.
COMPUTER VIRUSES
A virus is a program designed by a computer programmer (malicious hacker) to do a certain
unwanted function. The virus program can be simply annoying like displaying a happy face
on the user's screen at a certain time and date. It can also be very destructive and can damage
your computer's programs and files causing the computer to stop working.
The reasons why hackers create viruses are open to speculation. The most stated reason is
simply to see if it can be done. Other reasons are Ludite based "smash the machine"
motivations, anti-establishment/anti- corporate actions, criminal intent, and various others
that range into the "conspiracy theory" realm.
VIRUSES TAKE TWO BASIC FORMS
One is the boot sector viruses which infect the section of a disk that is first read by the
computer. This type of virus infects the boot or master section of any disks that it comes in
contact with. The second is the program virus that infects other programs when the infected
program is run or executed. Some viruses infect both and others change themselves
(polymorphic) depending on the programs they encounter.
Though viruses do not damage computer hardware, there have been attempts to create
programs that will do things like run the hard drive until it fails or lodges itself in the
computer's clock (which has a rechargeable battery) allowing it to remain active even months
after the computer has been unplugged. Other viruses affect certain microchips (BIOS chip
for instance). These microchips need to be modified under normal computer use but the virus
program can produce changes which cause them to fail. Other viruses will affect the
characters or images displayed on the screen which may give the impression of monitor
failure.
Viruses can cause a great deal of damage to the computers they infect and can cost a lot of
time and money to correct.

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Computer viruses have been around for a long time, even before computers became widely
used and they will likely remain with us forever. For that reason computer users will always
need ways to protect themselves from virus programs. The main, common feature of a virus
is that it is contagious! Their sole purpose is to spread and infect other computers.
A computer gets a virus from an infected file.
The virus might attach themselves to a game, a program (both shareware and commercial) or
a file downloaded from a bulletin board or the Internet.
You cannot get a virus from a plain email message or from a simple text file! That is because
the virus needs to be 'run' or executed before it can take effect. This usually happens when the
user tries to open an infected program, accesses an infected disk or opens a file with an
infected macro or script attached to it. A plain email message is made up of text which does
not execute or run when opened.
Modern email programs provide the ability to allow users to format email messages with
HTML and attach scripts to them for various purposes and it is possible for a malicious
hacker to attempt to spread a virus by building a virus script into an HTML type of email
message.
When you are accepting software or scripts on Internet sites or reading mail from unknown
senders it is best to run anti-virus program first before running them.
PROTECT YOURSELF
You can take safeguards against virus infection. The first thing is to get an anti-virus
program. Most reputable companies that create virus protection programs release an
evaluation copy that an Internet user can download for free and use for a certain amount of
time. This anti-virus program will be able to check your computer for viruses and repair
damage or delete files that are infected with viruses. You may have to replace infected files
that cannot be repaired.
The second thing you can do is purchase a copy of the program. The reason for this is that
viruses are constantly being created. When you purchase an anti-virus program you are also
purchasing periodical updates which keep your anti-virus program up-to-date and able to deal
with new viruses as they are encountered. Commercial virus programs also allow the user to
customize when and how the program will check the computer for viruses. You will need to
renew this updating service periodically.
If you find that your computer has been infected with a virus use an antivirus program to
clean your computer and make sure to check all the disks that you use. This includes all the

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hard drives on your computer(s) and all your floppy disks and CDs as well as any media that
you save information on. Remember that the virus can easily re-infect your computer from
one infected file!
If you have to reload your computer programs, use the original program disks. You may want
to check your original disks before reinstalling the software. If your original disks are
infected contact the distributor to get replacements.
Always take the time to ensure that your computer is properly protected. Spending money on
a good virus checking program could save you hundreds of dollars and lots of time later.
A discussion of viruses would not be complete without mentioning hoaxes. Malicious people
without programming skills will send out fake virus warnings causing people to take
unnecessary measures which often cause your computer harm. One example tries to get the
unsuspecting computer user to delete an important system file by warning them that it is a
virus. A legitimate virus warning will provide a link to a website operated by an anti-virus
company with more information about that virus. Don't forward a virus warning until you
have checked out whether it is legitimate.

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CHAPTER 2 HEALTH AND SAFETY

The impact of computer system on individuals varies widely. For some, new technology has
brought professional and personal gains. For others it has meant obsolescence and frustration.
For some, work has become easier or more enjoyable. For others it has become more difficult
and sometimes intolerable. In this unit we will explore impacts by identifying characteristics
of a healthy job and then look at related impacts on information systems.
Health and Safety are crucial to the effective operation of a computer. Stress is widely
accepted as a common and possibly the most dangerous aspect of using a computer.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HEALTHY JOB
People in healthy jobs use their skills in meaningful work, enjoy autonomy and social
relations with others, have personal rights including some control over demands of the job,
and can have enough time and energy to participate in family and community life. Based on
these characteristics, the least healthy type of work are those with continual pressure to
perform but little personal control. Example includes assembly-line workers, clerks who
process business transactions and telephone operators. These are jobs with rigid hours and
procedures, threats to layoff, little learning of new skills, and difficulty in taking a break or
time off for personal needs. Stereotyped high-stress jobs such as managers, electrical
engineers, and architects are healthier because professionals have more control over their
work.

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Table 1: Characteristics of a healthy Job

Job Characteristic Meaning to you as an Employee
Skills You can use and increase your skills.
Meaningfulness You understand and respect the importance of your
work and understand how it fits into the organization’s

Autonomy work.
You can control your work. You are not made to feel
childish by the method of supervision.
Social relations Your job includes collaboration and communication
with others.
Psychological Your job includes a mix of routine demands and new
demands but reasonable demands. You have some control over

Personal rights what demands to accept

You feel that you have appropriate personal rights at
work and have reasonable ways to settle grievances.
Integration with life The job does not interfere excessively with your ability
outside work to participate in family and community life.

HEALTH AND SAFETY

Researchers have found relationships between psychological well-being at work and physical
health. People with active jobs involving initiatives, discretion, and advancement have the
lowest heart attack rates, even though these jobs often involve stress. People in high strain
jobs at the bottom of the job ladder have the highest rates of heart attacks. Even when such
risk factors as age, race, education, and smoking are considered, those in the bottom 10% of
the job ladder are in the top 10% for illness. These workers have four to five times greater
risks of heart attack than those at the top 10% of the ladder, whose jobs give them a high
sense of control. The same pattern applies in the middle of the socio economic distribution. A
study conducted on 7,400 men and women with civil service jobs in London found that those
in low-grade position with little control over their responsibilities were at a 50% higher risk
in developing heart disease than those in high-level jobs.
Computer systems have an impact on health because they are part of the job environment.
The impact is positive if the system contributes to personal feelings of initiative, discretion,
advancement, and control. It is negative if the system reduces these feelings by diminishing
skills, meaningfulness of work, autonomy, and social relations. We will see examples in both
directions.
Even though they may have generally healthier jobs, some professionals and managers

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believe that their stress level has increased due to information overload. They believe
information technology applied in information system has contributed to this overload, and
that routine use of v-mail, e-mail, fax, and personal computers has not been liberating at all.
To the contrary they feel unremitting work pressure because the technology brings work
faster, and people expect immediate responses. The Nobel Prize winner Herbert Simon
describes this phenomenon eloquently: “what information consumes is rather obvious; it
consumes the attention of its recipients. Hence a wealth of information creates a poverty of
attention and a need to allocate efficiently among the overabundance of information sources
that might consume it”.
USING VIDEO DISPLAY UNIT AT WORK
An additional aspect of computer system that has come into question is the effect of personal
computers on intensive users. These individuals often suffer higher stress levels and related
physical problems than other workers in the same business. This stress has been attributed to
a combination of lack of control, feelings of being monitored, lack of social contact, and
physical discomforts such as eyestrain and physical tension. A study comparing clericals who
worked on video display terminals (VDTs) and clericals who did not work on VDTs, and
professionals who worked on VDTs revealed that clericals working on VDTs have the
highest stress. They had to follow rigid work procedures and had little control over what they
did. They felt a machine was controlling them. In contrast, the professional who used VDTs
experienced the list stress. They were newspaper reporters who found satisfaction in their
work and had flexibility in meeting deadlines. Impacts specifically related to the physical
relationship between people and their work environments are studied in the field of
ergonomics. Many VDT operators suffer eyestrain, backache, and muscle tension.
Some also suffer repetitive strain injury (RSI) such as carpal tunnel syndrome, which causes
severe pain due to nerve irritation in the wrist.
MUSCULOSKELETAL
Musculoskeletal problems can occur when improper office equipment is used. Chairs should
be adjustable so that legs are at a right angle. The back should have good support for the
spine and lower back. The seat should swivel and be made from fabric that is porous.
EYE STRAIN
Eye strain can be caused by staring at a fix object for extended periods of time (like a
computer). People who use glasses may have to get their prescriptions changed and people
who use bifocals can find that the line interferes with the screen and trifocals triple the
problem. Regular users of computers may develop focusing problems. Temporary colour

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distortion has also been reported.

WORKING ENVIRONMENT
A safe working environment is crucial. Ventilation is an integral part of the new
technological workplace. Though standards are set by the manufacturer of computer
equipment the modern office has many different pieces of equipment. All electronic
equipment emit some level of electromagnetic field which, on it's own, most likely is not a
concern but when combined with other equipment can create hazardous working
environments. Pregnant women should take extra care when working around electromagnetic
fields. Like any piece of equipment, computers should have scheduled maintenance.
STRESS
Stress is caused by many factors including poor or inadequate training, monitoring, fear of
new technology, lack of control over work, physical problems, hardware problems causing
delays, poor layout of work space and the myriad of other problems that people experience
that combine to create stressful situations.
LAPTOP RELATED HEALTH CHALLENGES
A study by State University of New York researchers says heat generated from laptops can
significantly elevate the temperature of the scrotum, potentially putting sperm count at risk.
The small study, which included little more than two dozen men ages 13 to 35, found that the
sitting position required to balance a laptop can raise scrotum temperature by as much as 2.1
°C (3.8 °F). Heat from the laptop itself can raise the temperature by another 0.7 °C (1.4 °F),
bringing the potential total increase to 2.8 °C (5.2 °F). However, further research is needed to
determine whether this directly affects sterility in men. A common practical solution to this
problem is to place the laptop on a table or desk.
Heat from using laptop on lap can also cause skin discoloration on the thighs.
Because of their small keyboard and trackpad pointing devices, the use of laptops can cause
RSI, and for this reason laptops have docks that are used with ergonomic keyboards to
prevent injury. The integrated screen often causes users to hunch over for a better view,
which can cause neck or spinal injuries. Some health standards require that ergonomic
keyboards be used in workplaces.
AUTONOMY AND POWER
Autonomy in a job is the degree of discretion individuals or groups have in planning,
regulating, and controlling their own work. Power is the ability to get others to do things.
Computer system can cause increases or decreases in either area.
Computer system may increase autonomy whenever the individual can control the use of the

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tools. For example, a data analysis system might permit total independent analysis work by a
manager who previously had to ask for assistance for analysis of data. Likewise, professional
such as lawyers and engineers can use information system to do work for themselves that
previously would have required more collaboration and negotiation with others.
In contrast many computer systems are designed to reduce autonomy. The need for limited
autonomy is widely accepted in transaction processing and record keeping. Systems in these
areas are designed to ensure that everyone involved in repetitive process such as taking order
or producing paychecks, use the same rules for processing the same data in the same format.
If individuals could process transactions however they wanted to, tracking system and
accounting system would quickly degenerate into chaos.
In other situations, a competition-driven push towards consistency and cost-cutting is leading
toward increased electronic surveillance, especially where computerizations are used
continually as part of work. Even a decade ago a survey found that over six million American
workers were being monitored electronically. For jobs using telephone intensively, this
means someone may be listening in, for jobs involving sales transactions or anything else that
can be tracked, every completion of a unit of work may be recorded and available for analysis
by someone at a remote location. For data entry jobs, every keystroke may be monitored and
statistics taken for speed and accuracy of work, and even time spent on break.
As a case in point a company known as WinVista developed software that monitors a
personal computer and records every file that is opened, every web site that is visited, and
every e-mail message that is sent.
Computer systems that monitor workers closely and that decrease autonomy are often
experienced as threats. Consequently, systems that increase employee monitoring may lead to
resistance and may result in turnover of personnel, especially if autonomy is traditional in the
work setting. In the trucking industry, for example, many formally independent drivers are
now among the most closely monitored U.S. workers. A decade ago, truckers were able to set
their own schedules as long as they occasionally called a dispatcher from a pay telephone.
Today, 75% of trucking firms have computers on board each rig, and many trucks have
antennae used to monitor the truck’s exact location. The truck’s engines are programmed for
efficient gear shifting, optimum idle times, and top speed. Truck drivers are happy to use
cellular phones instead of lining up at a pay phone, but some object to the monitoring and the
limits on how they drive. Some have taken evasive action such as blocking their truck’s
satellite dishes or parking under a wide overpass to escape surveillance from the sky.
Capabilities to monitor minute details of work may create the temptation to misuse the

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available information, but the way the information is used determines whether participants
feel as though ‘big brother’ is watching. For example recording conversations by
telemarketers can help resolve disputes with customers even if it is never used for day-to-day
monitoring of individuals. Similarly, random samples of calls can be used for training rather
than for punishment. Given the natural tendency to imagine whether such systems are being
misused, it is especially important for managers to explain whether they will be used for
monitoring work, and if so, how they will be used.
INFORMATION SYSTEM AND POWER
Just as computer system can affect autonomy, they can also affect power by redistributing
information, changing responsibilities, and shifting the balance of power in an organization.
Across the entire organizational spectrum, information systems have increased the power of
people who operate largely on facts and technical competence, and have reduced the ability
of people to give orders based on power of their position. The availability of information
across business functions has also made it easier to resolve conflicts based on facts rather
than on opinions and power.
Computer systems have had an important impact in reducing the power of many middle
managers. High-level executives can often use their MIS or EIS directly to get some of the
information they once received from middle managers. In addition, they can use
communication systems such as e-mail and v-mail to bypass middle managers and go directly
to the individuals who know the most about a particular situation or issue. Middle managers
therefore may see information systems squeezing them from below and above.
USE OF VALUED SKILLS
Computer systems may have either positive or negative effects on people’s skills. As a simple
example, consider what happens when you rely on pocket calculator to do arithmetic.
Although you usually get the right answer more quickly, your ability to do arithmetic without
the calculator deteriorates through disuse. The calculator has the positive effect of helping
you calculate more quickly and the negative effect of allowing your skills to decline.
New computer systems have enhanced the skills in wide range of jobs. MIS and EIS have
provided information to managers that help them learn how to manage based on analyzing
facts rather than just on intuition. DSS and executive systems such as CAD have helped
professionals analyze data, define alternatives, and solve problems in new ways.
Introducing computer system has also had the opposite effect in some cases, especially when
the system automated the judgment and discretion in the work. Such systems redefined jobs
by replacing the individual’s autonomy and authority with computer-enforced consistency

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and control. Now, less skilled people could do the same task, and previous skills have less
value. Reducing the value of skills previously needed to do specific types of work is called
de-skilling.
Tasks most susceptible to de-skilling call for repetition, endurance and speed, rather that
flexibility, creativity and judgement. Such tasks are highly structured and can be described in
terms of procedures. In general they could involve processing data or could involve physical
actions such as spray painting a new car. In some specific cases, de-skilling has occurred with
the partial automation of decision processes once thought of as requiring years of experience.
For example, managers of insurance once believed it took five years to become a reasonable
group health insurance underwriter (An underwriter determines rates for insurance
premiums). The mystery in training new underwriters disappeared when a new system
automated standard underwriting calculations. Although the system’s purpose was to provide
better customer service and reduce the stress of year end peak loads, it also de-skilled the job.
New underwriters could be productive on same cases within months, and the knowledge of
the more experienced underwriters was less valued.
Automating significant job components also tend to reduce people’s skills by encouraging
mental disengagement and peripheralization, a feeling that one is at the periphery of action.
Consider the way automatic flight control systems built into new airlines allow pilots to
almost become spectators. Many aviation experts wonder whether pilots of highly automated
planes will be able to react quickly enough in emergencies. The quandary of how much
control to put into automatic systems came up when an airliner with highly automatic system
crashed into an unsafe maneuver at an air show, killing three people and injuring 50.
Although the automatic system was suspect, it is also possible that the pilot error caused the
crash and that the automatic system prevented a worst crash by keeping the wing level after
the engine hit a group of trees. Regardless of how much training pilots receive in realistic
flight simulators on the ground, there is also the question of whether this practice is enough.
Computer systems may require that workers learn new skills. For professionals the skill may
involve new analytic methods or new ways to obtain information. For non-professional
workers, the necessary skill may be simple literacy. Many companies are installing flexible
manufacturing systems to permit the same manufacturing line to produce different products.
When these systems were being installed, many companies found that their workers were not
literate enough to read the instructions for product changes or new machine set-ups. In some
cases, the employees were foreigners who could not read English. In others, the employees
were good workers who had not learnt to read in school. In response to this problem, many

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companies now provide literacy training for employees.

MEANINGFULNESS OF WORK
Computer systems can affect the meaningfulness of work in several ways. First, an
information system can be set up to either expand or limit the scope, variety, and significance
in the user’s job. In addition, the mere fact that work takes place through the medium of a
computer may affect the way people experience their work.
VARIETY AND SCOPE OF WORK
The range of different types of things people do at work is called task variety. Most people
desire variety in their work environments and get bored if the work becomes too routine and
repetitive. Task scope is the size of the task relative to the overall purpose of the organization.
Installing a single door lock on an automobile assembly line is a task with minimal scope.
Assembling the entire door is a task of large scope., information systems can either increase
or decrease the variety and scope of work.
Computer systems reduce variety if they force the worker to focus on a small aspect of work.
Consider what happened with the implementation of a computer-based dental claims system
at an insurance company. With the previous paper-based system, the benefit analyst pulled
information about each account from a set of paper files, checked contract limitations,
completed the necessary paperwork, and returned the account information to the files.
Analysts were often hired based on their prior knowledge of dental procedures, and they
frequently discussed cases with their supervisors and other analysts. With the new
computerized system, much of the information was on the computer, which also ran
programs that assured claims were processed in a standard way. The analysts spent more time
entering claim data into computers and less time using their knowledge and judgment. Within
a year the system had increased productivity 30% to 40%, but at the cost of job satisfaction
for the analysts.
NATURE OF COMPUTER-MEDIATED WORK
The fact that work is done through computer may affect its meaningfulness to participants.
Work done using computers, rather than through direct physical contact with the object of
task, is often called computer-mediated work.
There are many situations in which working through computer affects the way workers
experience their work. The abstractness of work is a related issue because computer-mediated
work doesn’t involve direct physical contact with the object of the task. This work is
designed to focus on symbols on a computer screen rather than a more tangible reality.
Consider the example of a bank auditor. With a new system, he had less need to travel to the

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branches, talk with people, and examine financial paperwork. Although some tasks were
quicker, he felt it more difficult to define what information he needed. With nothing in front
of him except numbers, he has a limited basis for figuring out what the numbers meant. The
job had become abstract and for better or worse did not feel like the kind of auditing he had
done before.
SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
Social interaction at work is an important part of many people’s lives that work systems can
affect. In some cases computerized systems may create new possibilities for interaction by
automating repetitive paperwork and calculations, thereby giving people more time to work
on the issues that require interaction with others. Furthermore, communication systems such
as e-mail and v-mail support additional contact between people separated geographically or
organizationally.
Impacts of computerized systems on social relationships may also be negative, however. Jobs
that require sitting at VDTs all day long tend to reduce social interaction. Trends toward
downsizing and telecommuting amplify isolation and alienation because they reduce the
number of people working in organizations and permit these people to work from their
homes.

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CHAPTER 3 INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Information and Communications Technology - or technologies (ICT) is an umbrella term
that includes all technologies for the manipulation and communication of information. The
term is sometimes used in preference to Information Technology (IT), particularly in two
sectors: education and government.
Although, in the common usage it is often assumed that ICT is synonymous with IT; ICT in
fact encompasses any medium to record information (magnetic disk/tape, optical disks
(CD/DVD), flash memory etc. and arguably also paper records); technology for broadcasting
information - radio, television; and technology for communicating through voice and sound
or images - microphone, camera, loudspeaker, telephone to cellular phones. It includes the
wide variety of computing hardware (PCs, servers, mainframes, networked storage); the
rapidly developing personal hardware market comprising mobile phones, personal devices
such as the BlackBerry; MP3 players such as Apple's iPod, and much more; the full gamut of
application software from the smallest home-developed spreadsheet to the largest enterprise
packages such as SAP and online software services such as salesforce.com; and the hardware
and software needed to operate networks for transmission of information, again ranging from
a home network to the largest global private networks operated by major commercial
enterprises and, of course, the Internet. Thus, "ICT" makes more explicit that technologies
such as broadcasting and wireless mobile telecommunications are included.
ICT capabilities vary widely from the sophistication of major western economies to lesser
provision in the developing world. But the latter are catching up fast, often leapfrogging older
generations of technology and developing new solutions that match their specific needs.
PC-BASED ICT
A PC (personal computer) connected to the Internet has become a vital tool for
communicating, within the past few decades of its introduction. However, while this mode of
ICT has achieved much, it has its operational limitations.
ACHIEVEMENTS
The Internet
The Internet has opened up many opportunities, from finding out information, to conducting
communications globally, e.g. through email, voice mail, skype, e-commerce or generally
just having fun through on line chats or instant messaging. One often wonders: How did
people manage before the introduction of the Internet? How much harder was it for people to
communicate and find out information they needed, quickly and easily? A PC connected to

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the Internet whether through a dialup connection, broadband or Wi-Fi has indeed made it a
facile act for many people.
TEACHING
PC-Intemet based ICT is currently used within the English school curriculum. This kind of
ICT (amongst others) is now seen as a core subject that is taught in some primary and
secondary schools. The major advantage of this development is that ICT has become a
transferable subject. Computers or interactive whiteboards are now used across most school
subjects as well as innovative schools using more technology like PDA's, Mobile (cell)
phones and some games consoles. The interaction created by the use of this ICT makes
lessons much more effective and allow children to learn in a way that they enjoy.. Recent
initiatives such as the One Laptop per Child program are contributing to this development.
COMMUNICATIONS
Apart from Internet, a PC allows communication of information through Compact Discs, pen
drives, printers - whether laser or inkjet, flash memory cards and exchange of information
within a Local Area Network (LAN).
As communications scholars Gasher and Lorimer articulated:
We depend on technology for our communications with others-whether they are just a house
or two away or halfway around the world. In the second half of the twentieth century it
became almost impossible to live without a television in our homes, much less without a
telephone, and now we can hardly live without personal computers through which we gain
Internet access and send and receive e-mail.
The realty of new communications technology is that anyone is able to get in touch with
anyone else, anywhere, at any time, for very little money-at least in the developed world.
(Gasher and Lorimer, Communications Technology and Society: Theory and Practice)
Work Related Aspects
As well as benefiting school students to gather information for assignments, PC based ICT is
often used in other jobs such as in the police, within libraries, in offices or even shops. It has
also emerged as a source of employment in many emerging economies through Business
process outsourcing or Knowledge process outsourcing from companies in the developed
world. People now have the chance to conduct remote logon, in which they can access their
work computers (For example in an office) from home. This has opened up many more
opportunities for those that struggle to find time to leave their house to go to work, so they
can now just work from home.

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LIMITATIONS
Previous information communication technologies not been cost effective especially in
developing nations hence; teachers in developing countries often use no more than a
blackboard and chalk to pass on information about any subject to the students. Printed papers
in the form of books, magazines or newspapers have become part of daily routine of many
educated citizens, as are broadcast media such as radio and television. The photocopy
machine is widely used by students to access information from books they cannot afford to
buy. The cost of a PC connected to the Internet is often prohibitive in developing countries.
Power needs, physical space and connectivity issues are also factors that add to the challenge
of getting these technologies to take root in developing countries.
Limitations of PC-Internet based ICT are:
Bandwidth: The time taken to access a particular piece of information on the Internet depends
on the bandwidth available to the user at that time. Often, it takes several minutes, using an
economical connection, to download a piece of information. Thus a user may have to spend
substantial time before s/he finds the information s/he seeks.
Language: At present most of the information available on the Internet is in English, a
limiting factor at the very least.
Text/Voice: Most information on the Internet requires action by the user as opposed to the
passive nature of television and radio. As most of the Internet's information is textual, the
user must be able to read it. Even more passive forms of Internet information such as video-
sharing Websites require action (and reading) by the viewer for navigation.
Disruptive Software: Internet users are often susceptible to computer viruses. Commercial
anti-virus software is often prohibitively priced. Thin client technology is a small, but
growing alternative.
Participation
Social networks and increased user-managed information stores have emerged in the early
part of this century. Increased interaction between the content (whether it be delivered via
Internet, television or radio) is leading to an information revolution.
SECURITY
Internet safety is an issue that impacts on every online user from small children to
international corporations. When ABC went into public service broadcasting online in the
early 1990’s, the safety of their users was its top priority. As ABC representatives stated,
“[the] relationship between liberty and security was crucial to the implementation of ABC
Online interactive sites. The internet is an equalizer in that every user is vulnerable and in a

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sense, arel at the same level.

The emergence of weblogs, Internet forums and wikis is often grouped under the new
technology umbrella term Web 2.0, and has helped to usher in a greater level of global
participation.
DEVELOPMENT
ICT can become a revolutionary vehicle in developing countries, provided technological
innovations emerge on the following lines.
Local content in local languages: The need of the hour is to enable the intelligentsia to
develop information sources that are exclusively for fulfilling the needs of local communities.
The content on the Internet that can fulfil these conditions is minuscule at present. Conditions
have to emerge in which people are enthused to contribute towards the development of
information databases that are exclusively disseminated through local networks, in
languages/dialects that are popular in the region. The various modes of ICT need to be
integrated with one another, so that a meaningful volume of information can be generated in
the minimum possible time.
ICT IN POVERTY REDUCTION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Few would argue that lack of access to information and communications technologies (ICTs)
is an element of poverty in the way that insufficient nutrition or inadequate shelters are. If
being poor is defined as lacking access to the Internet, for example, no one in the world
escaped poverty before 1969, when the first network was built. But, ICTs are increasingly
central in the effort to escape poverty. This unit will discuss the use of ICTs in poverty
alleviation, the poor’s limited access to ICTs, and government policies that might help to
overcome this ‘digital divide.’
ICTs and Poverty Alleviation
We have forty years of evidence on the utility of broadcast media as a tool for improving
incomes. A survey of some of the 21,000 farmers enrolled in radio-backed farm forums in
Zambia showed that 90 percent found programs relevant and more than 50 percent credited
the programs and forums with increasing their crop yields.
Building telephone centers is another significant means for creating income. In the Indian
state of Punjab, for example, one study found over
1. Staffed telecenters had sprung up by 1996—generating close to 9.0 USD in gross
revenue per center, much of which went to salaries. In Bangladesh, Grameen Phone gives
loans to low-income women entrepreneurs in rural areas to provide payphone services based

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on cellular technology. Villagers reported that the introduction of the service has allowed
rural farmers to check livestock prices and coordinate medical needs, and has challenged the
traditional power that wealthy landowners and intermediaries have held over rural economies
and politics. Also, the phones themselves have become important new business sector in the
villages, generating jobs and income where none previously existed. The average income per
village telephone operator has been estimated at $700 per annum. Small manufacturers of
traditional handicrafts are also discovering how ICTs can assist in the marketing and
distribution of their wares to a worldwide client base. In Kenya, the Naushad Trading
Company which sells local woodcarvings, pottery, and baskets, has seen revenue growth
from US$ 10,000 to over US$ 2 million in the two years since it went online. Consumers and
shopkeepers can access constantly updated color pictures of NTCLimited’s product line,
place orders, and make inquiries of other types of handicrafts.
The impact of ICTs on the lives of poor people goes far beyond income generation, however.
In education, at the primary and secondary levels, radio and television are an increasingly
important means of reaching the rural poor. Educational radio has been utilized in:
• Mexico and Mali, for literacy training;
• Thailand, to teach mathematics to school children, and for teacher training and other
curricula; and
• The Dominican Republic and Paraguay, in support of primary education.
There are also a number of Internet-based education programs, including ENLACES in Chile
and the World Bank’sWorldLinks program. Information technology also has a role in
improving the quality of health services. A significant percentage of healthworkers in Uganda
(54 percent) and Kenya (20 percent/year) have taken part in radio-backed training courses
and there are consistent reports and surveys suggesting that these result in improved
knowledge, attitudes and practices. ICTs can also significantly cut the cost of education and
health care through the improvement of management systems using net-worked computers.
ICTs also have a role in supporting environmental awareness programs and publicizing the
actions of polluters, in preserving and disseminating cultural information and practices, and a
range of other development tasks.
Finally, ICTs also have a major role in reducing the vulnerability of the poor especially to
natural disasters and powerlessness. One of the reasons for this is the part that ICTs can play
in amplifying the voices of the poor. ICTs bridge the distance between remote communities
and service providers—markets, government departments, and aid agencies. They can allow

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the opinions of the poor and the needs of the poor to be heard. For example, in India, the
women’s rights NGO ‘Sakashi’ had faced difficulties in lobbying for sexual harassment
legislation. With help from international women’s networks provided over the Internet,
Sakashi was able to receive advice and technical assistance on legal issues surrounding
sexual harassment. As a result, the group succeeded in convincing the Supreme Court to
establish sexual harassment guidelines in the workplace and brought the issue within the
purview of human rights violations.
THE DIGITAL DIVIDE
Despite these potential links between ICTs and poverty reduction, direct access by the poor to
more advanced ICTs in particular, is extremely limited. Radio is listened to every week by as
much as 80 percent of the populations of many developing countries. The poorest developing
countries also have more televisions per capita than would be suggested by their income
level. But citizens of poor countries have significantly less access to telephones and the
Internet than those living in rich countries, while poorer people within countries are even
further excluded. For example, Rwanda has a population of over 6.5million. In 1998, it had
11,000 telephones—about half the number of telephones as Gibraltar, with a population of
27,000. Within Rwanda, these telephones were almost exclusively concentrated in Kigali.
There were 4 telephones per hundred people in the capital city, compared to 4 per 10,000 in
the rest of the country. Looking at the Internet, in 1998, Bangladesh had a population of 125
million, with just over 1,000 Internet users. The unavailability of local content on the Internet
is a further pointer to the dominance of industrial countries. A recent host survey shows that
Africa generates only 0.4 percent of global content. Excluding South Africa, the rest of
Africa generates a mere 0.02 percent.
And, especially for the Internet, use is dominated by a tiny educational elite. Ninety-eight
percent of Ethiopian Internet users had a university degree—in a country where 65 percent of
the adult population is illiterate. Finally, women have less access to ICTs than men. Only 38
percent of the population polled in urban Latin America who use a computer and Internet are
women. The numbers are even more skewed in Africa: a survey of African users found that
86, 83, and 64 percent of Internet users in Ethiopia, Senegal, and Zambia, respectively, were
male.
SHOULD THERE BE CONCERN?
Having said that, the mere existence of a gap in levels of ICT services between the rich and
poor across and within countries does not imply that ICTs should be a priority for
government action; after all, poor countries also have fewer factories, fewer cars, fewer

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doctors and nurses, and lower calorie intakes per capita than wealthy countries. That said,
there are a number of reasons why a growing gap in the provision of advanced ICTs should
be of concern:
The gap in provision is already large, and for advanced ICTs it is much larger than income
disparities. This represents a majority of people around the world—and especially the poor—
having no access to modern networking technologies. And the gap is growing at a time when
the trends in other determinants of development, such as levels of education, health, and
access to transport, are converging.
Threshold effects are at work. Two linked economic features suggest that low provision could
force people and countries into poverty traps— network externalities, where there are
increasing benefits to a connection the more those others are connected, and bottlenecks. In
the same way that a weak port infrastructure reduces the attractiveness of all merchandise
trade with a country, it might be that a weak information infrastructure will reduce the
competitiveness of an even wider range of goods and services. Weak information
infrastructure might then act as a bottleneck to trade-led development.
Evidence is growing that a range of ICTs is vital for taking part in trading, and the lack of
such technology really does act as a bottleneck. For example, surveys in Botswana and
Zimbabwe suggest that areas lacking telephone access see significantly less entrepreneurial
activity than those with access.
Within-country gaps in service provision worsen existing inequities. If the opportunities for
improved income generation and access to services provided by the new ICTs are limited to
the wealthy, this will perpetuate and strengthen a number of disparities, including gender
inequality and the inequalities faced by the disabled.
POLICIES TO ENSURE ACCESS FOR THE POOREST
The first step to begin fulfilling the communications needs of the poor is to leverage the full
potential of market mechanisms in reaching out to poor communities, by allowing the
establishment of a competitive, private sector-led market. A range of studies suggest that
there can be dramatic increases in access to telephone and Internet services, through a
telecommunications-sector reform program based on three pillars: privatization, competition,
and independent regulation.
PRIVATIZATION
Privatized open telecommunications markets in the Asian region saw basic line rollout
approximately three times as fast as countries with a state monopoly and twice as fast as
those with private monopolies. A liberalized telecommunications sector is also vital to

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making access to advanced information technology more affordable, because a large part of
the costs of Internet access are accounted for by telecommunications. A recent study of
African Internet service providers suggests that countries with a highly liberalized
telecommunications network had costs of Internet access eight times lower than those with a
completely closed market. Countries with more open telecommunications sectors also had
more host sites, lower monthly Internet charges, a greater number of providers, and higher
rates of Internet penetration.
Opening the broadcast sector to independent operators can also have a dramatic impact on the
range and quality of programming. In Columbia, for example, over 1,000 new licenses were
issued to community stations in 1995. This should be part of a broader move to issue
spectrum licenses to local and national stations, which can dramatically increase listener
choice and information flow.
COMPETITION
Gaining full benefit from private-sector participation and liberalization also requires the
regulatory environment of the communications industry to be conducive to a well-
functioning competitive market. In the telecommunications sector, this can be achieved
through legal and regulatory mechanisms that promote, among other things: fair
interconnection and revenue-sharing arrangements between telecommunications operators;
moving toward cost-oriented tariffs and the elimination of internal cross-subsidies, with the
limited exception of carefully designed subsidies to ensure access and use for the poor; as
well as recourse to a strong and truly independent regulatory agency, capable of enforcing
rules.
REGULATION
Moving to private competitive markets is unlikely to be enough to ensure that the poor have
access to ICTs, however. A combination of regulatory requirements, carefully designed
privatization and license contracts, and bidding procedures and financial support for private
provision of public access will be required to meet this goal. Service requirements are a
simple method used by regulatory agencies to ensure a certain minimum level or distribution
of telecommunications development within a country. They are primarily written as
conditions into the license of an operator. They can involve teledensity or rollout targets for
public and private lines, along with conditions on the quality and speed of service.
Regulations can also support access by the disabled, supporting enhanced accessibility
features to allow use by those with visual and auditory impairment. Service requirements
should be set bearing in mind their commercial feasibility: requirements that are

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unrealistically ambitious may jeopardize financial performance and thus operators’ ability to
meet the targets and improve access.
In license-tendering processes, build-out targets are increasingly used as an important,
sometimes primary, bid evaluation criterion, alongside the bid price. This approach, if
preceded by careful analysis of the target users’ capacity to pay, ensures that the rollout
targets are indeed feasible. For example, in both Uganda and India, bid evaluations included
rollout or coverage criteria. If license conditions are to be met, enforcement procedures to
follow up on the accomplishment of committed targets and a plan of sanctions for failure are
essential. To make licenses with rollout conditions more attractive, a range of options are
available, including bundling, packaging areas, and free choice of technology.
POTENTIAL BENEFITS
Using regulatory and policy support for public access, be it to a telephone line, to a radio, TV
screen, or to an Internet terminal, countries can aggregate demand so that a large number of
people benefit from one or a few connections. This allows sustainable provision of ICT
services even where incomes are low. In Senegal, for example, more than 6,000 privately
operated and highly profitable telecenters have come into existence since the early 1990s.
Public access to a telephone has more than doubled. India, Peru, South Africa, and Thailand
have also seen dramatic growth in privately owned and operated telecenters providing rural
inhabitants with new information sources and opportunities.
In a competitive environment, the costs of providing public access in environments where
private returns to provision are likely to be low can be financed through special funds. These
funds are set up as a transitory mechanism to help partially defray the initial investment costs
of network expansion in rural and poor areas. A prime regulatory objective in setting up
universal access funds is to maximize the impact of the subsidies awarded, which is why the
funds should be allocated to operators in a competitive way. The introduction of competition
through a bidding process for the use of funds encourages operators to look for the best
technology and other cost-savings practices.
This tends to minimize the need for subsidies, if they are required at all. The choice of a
funding strategy can also support a level playing field among operators so that none of the
operators is overly compensated or unfairly burdened by the funding mechanism.
In such a competitive bidding process, the fund administrator determines the target areas to
be served, normally based on socioeconomic studies and on consultation with the local
authorities and population. New entrants and sometimes existing operators compete for
subsidies for network build-out in these areas. The subsidy is then awarded to the operator

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with the lowest required subsidy or the highest service roll- out commitment, or a
combination of both.
In Chile, for example, just over US$ 2 million in public funds leveraged US$ 40 million in
private investment to install telephones in 1,000 localities, at about ten percent of the costs of
direct public provision. Very few areas received no bids and thus remained unserved.
Although the initial focus of these types of universal access funds was to support the
provision of public telephones by telecommunications operators, some countries are using
this approach to support the establishment of public Internet access points, notably through
telecenters. This has been the approach followed in South Africa, where the Universal
Service Agency has used the funds to franchise telecenters around the country. Peru has
recently started using a similar mechanism to support the public provision of telecenters and
Internet terminals in poor city neighbourhoods.
THE FUTURE
It should be noted that the ICT movement is still in its early stages in developing countries,
and it has faced some set- backs. One study of a pilot program of the Ministry of
Environment, Natural Resources, and Fisheries in Mexico, for example, found that of 23
telecenters set up in rural areas around the country, only five remained functional after two
years. Problems encountered included insufficient maintenance funding, inadequate political
interest and will, and cultural constraints that hampered community interest in the projects.
This suggests the importance of participatory design and continued government support.
Local communities need to be involved in the design of universal access programs by
participating in decisions about particular information access outlets. Indeed, most studies
find that the most effective way of ensuring the economic success of ICTs in rural areas is to
encourage local participation and create social institutions in support of the new technologies.
This can be achieved through a participatory approach, to complement technical and
economic calculations of telephone placement. Further, given the cost and skills demands of
Internet access, it is likely that direct access by the poorest in developing countries will
remain limited. Through the more affordable intermediary of the radio, however, some of the
benefits of Internet access can be provided to those without direct access. In Kothmale, Sri
Lanka, a joint project between UNESCO, the Ministry of Posts, Telecommunications and the
Media, the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation, and the Sri Lanka Telecommunication
Regulatory Commission, uses radio as an interface between rural people and the Internet. A
daily one hour live radio program in which an announcer and a panel of resource persons
browse the Internet at the requests of listeners, has proven to be capable of overcoming

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linguistic barriers in using the Internet by non-English speakers. The radio station adds value
to the information by interpreting it into a local context, by broadcasting it in vernacular
languages, and by providing a platform for feedback through local discussion and networks
of local correspondents. In addition to the radio program, the Kothmale Community radio
station is developing a rural database.
It should be noted that provision of infrastructure is only the first step in exploiting ICTs for
development. Without appropriate content, for example, the Internet will not be relevant to
the poor in developing countries. There is also a large role for government to support the
creation of appropriate content in broadcasting media. Same-language subtitling for
television broadcasts supports language and literacy goals, and radio-based educational
programming across a range of subjects and topics (math, language, health, and agriculture)
have been found to be highly cost-effective. Utilizing private investment and
entrepreneurship to its full extent, then providing government support to ‘fill in the gaps,’
developing countries can go a long way in overcoming the digital divide and use ICT as a
powerful tool of poverty relief.
The ICT may not survive in its present form for long. Sooner than later developing countries
would get over the PC mania prevalent now in the developed world, unless there is a
remarkable change in the economy of owning a PC. Any technology that requires the masses
to own a PC, in its present form, to access information is unlikely to be successful in the
foreseeable future. Possibilities appear to exist, however, in the mobile phone technology,
which is fast becoming very affordable by the masses, is voice based and can be integrated
with the Information Technology at the server end of a computer network. For example, in
the field of education people can ask question through a mobile phone, a database of answers
to such questions can be generated using the technologies used currently in Wikipedia and
call centers and the text in these databases could be converted into voice, by developing text
to voice technologies in the various languages. The person seeking information can be
informed when the answer is available and better answers sought based on his/her feedback.
The emerging 3G and 4G mobile phone technologies can indeed facilitate such
developments. An alternative technology could be to integrate the mobile phone with the
television screen, so that visual information can be viewed easily. Similarly, there is a
possibility for developing interactive radio, on the lines of interactive TV.

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