MODULE 1: EARTHQUAKES AND FAULT MODULE 1: EARTHQUAKES AND FAULT

EARTHQUAKES - a feeble shaking to violent trembling of the ground produced by the EARTHQUAKES - a feeble shaking to violent trembling of the ground produced by the
sudden displacement of rocks sudden displacement of rocks
- is caused by a sudden slip on a fault, much like what happens when you snap your - is caused by a sudden slip on a fault, much like what happens when you snap your
fingers. fingers.
The same process goes on in an earthquake. Stresses in the earth's outer layer push the The same process goes on in an earthquake. Stresses in the earth's outer layer push the
sides of the fault together. The friction across the surface of the fault holds the rocks together sides of the fault together. The friction across the surface of the fault holds the rocks together
so they do not slip immediately when pushed sideways. Eventually enough stress builds up so they do not slip immediately when pushed sideways. Eventually enough stress builds up
and the rocks slip suddenly, releasing energy in waves that travel through the rock to cause and the rocks slip suddenly, releasing energy in waves that travel through the rock to cause
the shaking that we feel during an earthquake. the shaking that we feel during an earthquake.
- Occur in FAULT and is recorded by a seismic network - Occur in FAULT and is recorded by a seismic network

FAULT – fracture or break in the Earth’s crust where earthquakes are mostly to occur FAULT – fracture or break in the Earth’s crust where earthquakes are mostly to occur
- Can be centimeters to thousands of kilometers long - Can be centimeters to thousands of kilometers long
- Can be vertical, horizontal or at some angle and extends deep into the Earth - Can be vertical, horizontal or at some angle and extends deep into the Earth

HOW DO ROCKS MOVE? HOW DO ROCKS MOVE?

1. COMPRESSION – pushes rock together 1. COMPRESSION – pushes rock together
2. TENSION – stretches rocks 2. TENSION – stretches rocks
3. SHEARING – rocks past slide to each other 3. SHEARING – rocks past slide to each other

HOW DO WE KNOW A FAULT EXISTS? HOW DO WE KNOW A FAULT EXISTS?

- Past fault movement has brought together rocks that used to be farther apart; - Past fault movement has brought together rocks that used to be farther apart;
- Earthquakes on the fault have left surface evidence, such as surface ruptures or - Earthquakes on the fault have left surface evidence, such as surface ruptures or
fault scarps (cliffs made by earthquakes); fault scarps (cliffs made by earthquakes);
- Earthquakes recorded by seismographic networks are mapped and indicate the - Earthquakes recorded by seismographic networks are mapped and indicate the
location of a fault. location of a fault.

In an earthquake, the slip of a block of rock over another releases energy that makes the In an earthquake, the slip of a block of rock over another releases energy that makes the
ground vibrate. That vibration pushes the adjoining piece of ground, causing it to vibrate, and ground vibrate. That vibration pushes the adjoining piece of ground, causing it to vibrate, and
thus the energy travels out from the earthquake in a wave. As the wave passes by a seismic thus the energy travels out from the earthquake in a wave. As the wave passes by a seismic
station, that piece of ground vibrates and this vibration is recorded. station, that piece of ground vibrates and this vibration is recorded.

From the activity: Imagine the boxes as the ground, and the boundary between them as a From the activity: Imagine the boxes as the ground, and the boundary between them as a
fault. Energy from inside the Earth makes the ground move. You simulate this by pulling fault. Energy from inside the Earth makes the ground move. You simulate this by pulling
on the rubber band. There is no movement right away because of friction(tape). Once friction on the rubber band. There is no movement right away because of friction(tape). Once friction
is overcome, the ground suddenly moves and an earthquake occurs. Some scientists is overcome, the ground suddenly moves and an earthquake occurs. Some scientists
describe this process as stick and slip. At first, the rocks are stuck together due to friction. describe this process as stick and slip. At first, the rocks are stuck together due to friction.
Later, the rocks suddenly slip, generating an earthquake. Every time a fault slips, Later, the rocks suddenly slip, generating an earthquake. Every time a fault slips,
Earthquakes occur. Earthquakes occur.
MODULE 2: FOCUS AND EPICENTER MODULE 2: FOCUS AND EPICENTER
WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FOCUS AND EPICENTER? WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FOCUS AND EPICENTER?
SLIP – the amount of ground displacement in an earthquake SLIP – the amount of ground displacement in an earthquake
FOCUS – also known as HYPOCENTER FOCUS – also known as HYPOCENTER
- Where earthquake starts - Where earthquake starts
- The point underground where movement occurred which triggered the - The point underground where movement occurred which triggered the
earthquakes earthquakes
EPICENTER – directly above the focus on the Earth’s surface EPICENTER – directly above the focus on the Earth’s surface
- The place on the surface that would receive the most intense vibrations and - The place on the surface that would receive the most intense vibrations and
damage damage
FAULT LINE – is a line on a rock surface or the ground that traces a geological fault FAULT LINE – is a line on a rock surface or the ground that traces a geological fault
RICHTER SCALE - is an instrument used to measure the size of an Earthquake RICHTER SCALE - is an instrument used to measure the size of an Earthquake

MODULE 2: FOCUS AND EPICENTER MODULE 2: FOCUS AND EPICENTER

WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FOCUS AND EPICENTER? WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FOCUS AND EPICENTER?
SLIP – the amount of ground displacement in an earthquake SLIP – the amount of ground displacement in an earthquake
FOCUS – also known as HYPOCENTER FOCUS – also known as HYPOCENTER
- Where earthquake starts - Where earthquake starts
- The point underground where movement occurred which triggered the - The point underground where movement occurred which triggered the
earthquakes earthquakes
EPICENTER – directly above the focus on the Earth’s surface EPICENTER – directly above the focus on the Earth’s surface
- The place on the surface that would receive the most intense vibrations and - The place on the surface that would receive the most intense vibrations and
damage damage
FAULT LINE – is a line on a rock surface or the ground that traces a geological fault FAULT LINE – is a line on a rock surface or the ground that traces a geological fault
RICHTER SCALE - is an instrument used to measure the size of an Earthquake RICHTER SCALE - is an instrument used to measure the size of an Earthquake

MODULE 2: FOCUS AND EPICENTER MODULE 2: FOCUS AND EPICENTER

WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FOCUS AND EPICENTER? WHAT’S THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FOCUS AND EPICENTER?
SLIP – the amount of ground displacement in an earthquake SLIP – the amount of ground displacement in an earthquake
FOCUS – also known as HYPOCENTER FOCUS – also known as HYPOCENTER
- Where earthquake starts - Where earthquake starts
- The point underground where movement occurred which triggered the - The point underground where movement occurred which triggered the
earthquakes earthquakes
EPICENTER – directly above the focus on the Earth’s surface EPICENTER – directly above the focus on the Earth’s surface
- The place on the surface that would receive the most intense vibrations and - The place on the surface that would receive the most intense vibrations and
damage damage
FAULT LINE – is a line on a rock surface or the ground that traces a geological fault FAULT LINE – is a line on a rock surface or the ground that traces a geological fault
RICHTER SCALE - is an instrument used to measure the size of an Earthquake RICHTER SCALE - is an instrument used to measure the size of an Earthquake
MODULE 3: MAGNITUDE AND INTENSITY MODULE 3: MAGNITUDE AND INTENSITY
MAGNITUDE (M) – is a quantitative measure of its strength in terms of energy releases MAGNITUDE (M) – is a quantitative measure of its strength in terms of energy releases
- Measure of its size - Measure of its size
- Measured by means of RICHTER MAGNITUDE SCALE based on seismological - Measured by means of RICHTER MAGNITUDE SCALE based on seismological
records, and it is expresses in numerical values (whole no. and decimal fractions) records, and it is expresses in numerical values (whole no. and decimal fractions)
- Was developed in 1935 by an American seismologist, CHARLES RICHTER and his - Was developed in 1935 by an American seismologist, CHARLES RICHTER and his
friend, BENO GUTENBEG friend, BENO GUTENBEG
- Determines the magnitude of an earthquake from the logarithm of the amplitude - Determines the magnitude of an earthquake from the logarithm of the amplitude
(height) of the largest recorded waves at a specific distance to the epicenter (height) of the largest recorded waves at a specific distance to the epicenter
- Each whole number increases in magnitude corresponds to an increase of about - Each whole number increases in magnitude corresponds to an increase of about
31.6 times the amount of energy released; thus, representing a tenfold increase 31.6 times the amount of energy released; thus, representing a tenfold increase
- For example: increase of 1 inch is equal to 10 times increase in amplitude of the - For example: increase of 1 inch is equal to 10 times increase in amplitude of the
wave wave
- The larger the amplitude waves, the higher the magnitude of an earthquake, and the - The larger the amplitude waves, the higher the magnitude of an earthquake, and the
greater the severity greater the severity
INTENSITY- is measured qualitatively in terms of damages caused by it at a particular INTENSITY- is measured qualitatively in terms of damages caused by it at a particular
location, Larger earthquake, greater is the intensity location, Larger earthquake, greater is the intensity
- Is an indication of the severity of shaking generated at a given location - Is an indication of the severity of shaking generated at a given location
- It is measured with the MODIFIED MERCALLI SCALE which was revised by an - It is measured with the MODIFIED MERCALLI SCALE which was revised by an
Italian volcanologist GIUSEPPE MERCALLI from the original widely used simple ten- Italian volcanologist GIUSEPPE MERCALLI from the original widely used simple ten-
degree ROSSI-FOREL SCALE to twelve-degrees. The rating are expressed in degree ROSSI-FOREL SCALE to twelve-degrees. The rating are expressed in
Roman Numerals ranging from I (NO DAMAGE) to XII (GREATEST Roman Numerals ranging from I (NO DAMAGE) to XII (GREATEST
DESTRUCTION) DESTRUCTION)

MODULE 3: MAGNITUDE AND INTENSITY MODULE 3: MAGNITUDE AND INTENSITY

MAGNITUDE (M) – is a quantitative measure of its strength in terms of energy releases MAGNITUDE (M) – is a quantitative measure of its strength in terms of energy releases
- Measure of its size - Measure of its size
- Measured by means of RICHTER MAGNITUDE SCALE based on seismological - Measured by means of RICHTER MAGNITUDE SCALE based on seismological
records, and it is expresses in numerical values (whole no. and decimal fractions) records, and it is expresses in numerical values (whole no. and decimal fractions)
- Was developed in 1935 by an American seismologist, CHARLES RICHTER and his - Was developed in 1935 by an American seismologist, CHARLES RICHTER and his
friend, BENO GUTENBEG friend, BENO GUTENBEG
- Determines the magnitude of an earthquake from the logarithm of the amplitude - Determines the magnitude of an earthquake from the logarithm of the amplitude
(height) of the largest recorded waves at a specific distance to the epicenter (height) of the largest recorded waves at a specific distance to the epicenter
- Each whole number increases in magnitude corresponds to an increase of about - Each whole number increases in magnitude corresponds to an increase of about
31.6 times the amount of energy released; thus, representing a tenfold increase 31.6 times the amount of energy released; thus, representing a tenfold increase
- For example: increase of 1 inch is equal to 10 times increase in amplitude of the - For example: increase of 1 inch is equal to 10 times increase in amplitude of the
wave wave
- The larger the amplitude waves, the higher the magnitude of an earthquake, and the - The larger the amplitude waves, the higher the magnitude of an earthquake, and the
greater the severity greater the severity
INTENSITY- is measured qualitatively in terms of damages caused by it at a particular INTENSITY- is measured qualitatively in terms of damages caused by it at a particular
location, Larger earthquake, greater is the intensity location, Larger earthquake, greater is the intensity
- Is an indication of the severity of shaking generated at a given location - Is an indication of the severity of shaking generated at a given location
- It is measured with the MODIFIED MERCALLI SCALE which was revised by an - It is measured with the MODIFIED MERCALLI SCALE which was revised by an
Italian volcanologist GIUSEPPE MERCALLI from the original widely used simple ten- Italian volcanologist GIUSEPPE MERCALLI from the original widely used simple ten-
degree ROSSI-FOREL SCALE to twelve-degrees. The rating are expressed in degree ROSSI-FOREL SCALE to twelve-degrees. The rating are expressed in
Roman Numerals ranging from I (NO DAMAGE) to XII (GREATEST Roman Numerals ranging from I (NO DAMAGE) to XII (GREATEST
DESTRUCTION) DESTRUCTION)
MODULE 4: ACTIVE, INACTIVE AND TYPES OF FAULTS MODULE 4: ACTIVE, INACTIVE AND TYPES OF FAULTS
ACTIVE FAULT – one that has moved in the past and is expected to move again ACTIVE FAULT – one that has moved in the past and is expected to move again
- Has generated earthquakes before and can cause more in the future - Has generated earthquakes before and can cause more in the future
INACTIVE FAULT – structures that we can identify, but which do not have earthquakes INACTIVE FAULT – structures that we can identify, but which do not have earthquakes
HOW DO WE KNOW THAT THE FAULT IS ACTIVE? HOW DO WE KNOW THAT THE FAULT IS ACTIVE?
4. Checking country’s historical records 1. Checking country’s historical records
5. Studying the vibrations, past, present that come from faults 2. Studying the vibrations, past, present that come from faults
6. By observing the surroundings and animal behavior 3. By observing the surroundings and animal behavior
SEISMOGRAPH – instrument used to record the motion of the ground vibration / tremors SEISMOGRAPH – instrument used to record the motion of the ground vibration / tremors
VOLCANOLOGIST – (volcano scientist), is a geologist who focuses on the understanding the VOLCANOLOGIST – (volcano scientist), is a geologist who focuses on the understanding the
formation and eruptive activity of volcanoes formation and eruptive activity of volcanoes
SEISMOLOGIST - scientists who studies the earthquake SEISMOLOGIST - scientists who studies the earthquake
PHIVOLCS (Philippines Institute of Volcanology and Seismology) – is a service institute of the PHIVOLCS (Philippines Institute of Volcanology and Seismology) – is a service institute of the
Department of Science and Technology (DOST) that is principally mandated to mitigate disasters that Department of Science and Technology (DOST) that is principally mandated to mitigate disasters that
may arise from volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis and other related geotectonic phenomena may arise from volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis and other related geotectonic phenomena
TYPES of FAULTS TYPES of FAULTS
5. OBLIQUE SLIP FAULT – a fault that moves parallel to the strike or dip of the fault 1. OBLIQUE SLIP FAULT – a fault that moves parallel to the strike or dip of the fault
6. NORMAL SLIP FAULT – (DIP SLIP), is an inclined fracture where the rock mass above an 2. NORMAL SLIP FAULT – (DIP SLIP), is an inclined fracture where the rock mass above an
inclined fault (hanging wall) moves down inclined fault (hanging wall) moves down
7. STRIKE SLIP FAULT – a fracture in the rocks in which the rock masses slip past one another 3. STRIKE SLIP FAULT – a fracture in the rocks in which the rock masses slip past one another
parallel to the strike, the intersection of a rock surface with the surface of another horizontal parallel to the strike, the intersection of a rock surface with the surface of another horizontal
plane plane
8. REVERSE SLIP FAULT – (THRUST FAULT), a dip slip fault in which the upper block, above 4. REVERSE SLIP FAULT – (THRUST FAULT), a dip slip fault in which the upper block, above
the fault plane, moves up and over the lower block. the fault plane, moves up and over the lower block.

MODULE 4: ACTIVE, INACTIVE AND TYPES OF FAULTS MODULE 4: ACTIVE, INACTIVE AND TYPES OF FAULTS
ACTIVE FAULT – one that has moved in the past and is expected to move again ACTIVE FAULT – one that has moved in the past and is expected to move again
- Has generated earthquakes before and can cause more in the future - Has generated earthquakes before and can cause more in the future
INACTIVE FAULT – structures that we can identify, but which do not have earthquakes INACTIVE FAULT – structures that we can identify, but which do not have earthquakes
HOW DO WE KNOW THAT THE FAULT IS ACTIVE? HOW DO WE KNOW THAT THE FAULT IS ACTIVE?
1. Checking country’s historical records 4. Checking country’s historical records
2. Studying the vibrations, past, present that come from faults 5. Studying the vibrations, past, present that come from faults
3. By observing the surroundings and animal behavior 6. By observing the surroundings and animal behavior
SEISMOGRAPH – instrument used to record the motion of the ground vibration / tremors SEISMOGRAPH – instrument used to record the motion of the ground vibration / tremors
VOLCANOLOGIST – (volcano scientist), is a geologist who focuses on the understanding the VOLCANOLOGIST – (volcano scientist), is a geologist who focuses on the understanding the
formation and eruptive activity of volcanoes formation and eruptive activity of volcanoes
SEISMOLOGIST - scientists who studies the earthquake SEISMOLOGIST - scientists who studies the earthquake
PHIVOLCS (Philippines Institute of Volcanology and Seismology) – is a service institute of the PHIVOLCS (Philippines Institute of Volcanology and Seismology) – is a service institute of the
Department of Science and Technology (DOST) that is principally mandated to mitigate disasters that Department of Science and Technology (DOST) that is principally mandated to mitigate disasters that
may arise from volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis and other related geotectonic phenomena may arise from volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis and other related geotectonic phenomena
TYPES of FAULTS TYPES of FAULTS
1. OBLIQUE SLIP FAULT – a fault that moves parallel to the strike or dip of the fault 5. OBLIQUE SLIP FAULT – a fault that moves parallel to the strike or dip of the fault
2. NORMAL SLIP FAULT – (DIP SLIP), is an inclined fracture where the rock mass above an 6. NORMAL SLIP FAULT – (DIP SLIP), is an inclined fracture where the rock mass above an
inclined fault (hanging wall) moves down inclined fault (hanging wall) moves down
3. STRIKE SLIP FAULT – a fracture in the rocks in which the rock masses slip past one another 7. STRIKE SLIP FAULT – a fracture in the rocks in which the rock masses slip past one another
parallel to the strike, the intersection of a rock surface with the surface of another horizontal parallel to the strike, the intersection of a rock surface with the surface of another horizontal
plane plane
4. REVERSE SLIP FAULT – (THRUST FAULT), a dip slip fault in which the upper block, above 8. REVERSE SLIP FAULT – (THRUST FAULT), a dip slip fault in which the upper block, above
the fault plane, moves up and over the lower block. the fault plane, moves up and over the lower block.
MODULE 5: WHAT’s INSIDE THE EARTH? MODULE 5: WHAT’s INSIDE THE EARTH?
The vibrations are more properly called seismic waves. As seismic waves travel The vibrations are more properly called seismic waves. As seismic waves travel
deeper into the crust, they speed up. That means that at depth the rocks are denser. In the deeper into the crust, they speed up. That means that at depth the rocks are denser. In the
upper part of the mantle, the waves slow down. That means the rocks there are partially upper part of the mantle, the waves slow down. That means the rocks there are partially
molten. molten.
As the waves reach the core, one kind of seismic waves (s-waves) disappear. That As the waves reach the core, one kind of seismic waves (s-waves) disappear. That
means that the outer core is liquid. At certain depths, the waves are reflected and refracted means that the outer core is liquid. At certain depths, the waves are reflected and refracted
(bent). That means the Earth must be layered. (bent). That means the Earth must be layered.
Different Types of Seismic Waves Different Types of Seismic Waves
Seismic waves are usually generated by tectonic plate movement or earthquakes Seismic waves are usually generated by tectonic plate movement or earthquakes
when rocks within break producing a tremendous amount of energy, but they may also result when rocks within break producing a tremendous amount of energy, but they may also result
to explosion, landslide, and volcanic activity. Seismic comes from the Greek word “seismo” to explosion, landslide, and volcanic activity. Seismic comes from the Greek word “seismo”
which means earthquake. Seismic waves are recorded in a seismograph. which means earthquake. Seismic waves are recorded in a seismograph.
Body waves originate from the focus and can travel through Earth’s interior before Body waves originate from the focus and can travel through Earth’s interior before
the surface waves emitted by the earthquake. These waves have higher frequency than the surface waves emitted by the earthquake. These waves have higher frequency than
surface waves which can only move along very near the earth’s surface. surface waves which can only move along very near the earth’s surface.

2 Types of Body Waves: 2 Types of Body Waves:

• Primary waves (P-waves) are the fastest seismic waves because they are the first • Primary waves (P-waves) are the fastest seismic waves because they are the first
waves detected by the seismograph, and they can travel at greatest velocity penetrating the waves detected by the seismograph, and they can travel at greatest velocity penetrating the
gases, fluid (like water and liquid layers of the Earth), and solid rocks. They can pass through gases, fluid (like water and liquid layers of the Earth), and solid rocks. They can pass through
the solid rocks at over 225 miles per hour and through liquid at about one third of that speed. the solid rocks at over 225 miles per hour and through liquid at about one third of that speed.
They can travel as fast as 1.6 to 8 km/sec or 1 to 5 miles per second in Earth’s crust. This They can travel as fast as 1.6 to 8 km/sec or 1 to 5 miles per second in Earth’s crust. This
wave is also known as compressional waves or longitudinal waves. wave is also known as compressional waves or longitudinal waves.
• Secondary waves (S-waves) are transverse waves also known as shear waves • Secondary waves (S-waves) are transverse waves also known as shear waves
that follow the P-waves and the second to arrive at seismic recording station and travel half that follow the P-waves and the second to arrive at seismic recording station and travel half
the speed of P-waves but can be more dangerous due to larger amplitude causing the ground the speed of P-waves but can be more dangerous due to larger amplitude causing the ground
to rapidly split and move in different direction. These waves can only penetrate the solid to rapidly split and move in different direction. These waves can only penetrate the solid
materials and so they stop at the liquid layer of the Earth because they depend upon a materials and so they stop at the liquid layer of the Earth because they depend upon a
resistance to shear materials or the property called rigidity which is absent in a fluid (gas, resistance to shear materials or the property called rigidity which is absent in a fluid (gas,
water, molten rocks, or Earth’s core). This property of S-waves led the seismologists to the water, molten rocks, or Earth’s core). This property of S-waves led the seismologists to the
conclusion that the outer core is liquid. conclusion that the outer core is liquid.
Surface waves are easily distinguished on a seismogram for being the last waves Surface waves are easily distinguished on a seismogram for being the last waves
that arrive due to their lower frequency. They have lesser velocity than body waves and they that arrive due to their lower frequency. They have lesser velocity than body waves and they
cause more destruction because of the long duration and larger amplitude of the waves. cause more destruction because of the long duration and larger amplitude of the waves.
These waves are to blame for most of earthquake’s effect to the people and to their These waves are to blame for most of earthquake’s effect to the people and to their
properties. These kinds of waves are what the people feel during earthquakes. These waves properties. These kinds of waves are what the people feel during earthquakes. These waves
are usually generated when the source of earthquake is from shallow focus or near the are usually generated when the source of earthquake is from shallow focus or near the
Earth’s surface. Earth’s surface.

2 Basic Types of Surface Waves: 2 Basic Types of Surface Waves:

• Love waves (L waves) was named after a British mathematician, Augustus Edward • Love waves (L waves) was named after a British mathematician, Augustus Edward
Hough Love, who made the mathematical model of this wave in 1911. These waves are Hough Love, who made the mathematical model of this wave in 1911. These waves are
similar to S-waves in terms of its shearing motion. similar to S-waves in terms of its shearing motion.
They move the ground horizontally, causing it to twist from side to side but a right angle of They move the ground horizontally, causing it to twist from side to side but a right angle of
their propagation and have the greatest amplitude (and decreases with depth) which their propagation and have the greatest amplitude (and decreases with depth) which
damages the foundations of structures. A long wave travels with slower velocity, and it was damages the foundations of structures. A long wave travels with slower velocity, and it was
the third conspicuous wave detected by the seismograph. the third conspicuous wave detected by the seismograph.
• Rayleigh waves (R waves) travel slower than the L waves thus, have lower • Rayleigh waves (R waves) travel slower than the L waves thus, have lower
velocity. The existence of these waves was first predicted and was mathematically described velocity. The existence of these waves was first predicted and was mathematically described
in 1885 by John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh also known as Lord Rayleigh. These in 1885 by John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh also known as Lord Rayleigh. These
waves exist at any free surface in a continuous body; they may be generated by large waves exist at any free surface in a continuous body; they may be generated by large
earthquakes moving in rolling motion. These waves are dispersive, propagating circularly earthquakes moving in rolling motion. These waves are dispersive, propagating circularly
along surfaces from a source point (from the earth’s surface) and the amplitude generally along surfaces from a source point (from the earth’s surface) and the amplitude generally
decreases with depth in the earth. These waves are generally observed on both radial and decreases with depth in the earth. These waves are generally observed on both radial and
vertical mechanisms on seismograph. However, when these waves emanate from the vertical mechanisms on seismograph. However, when these waves emanate from the
epicenter, the waves travel along Earth’s surface at about ten times the speed of sound epicenter, the waves travel along Earth’s surface at about ten times the speed of sound
waves. waves.

They move the ground horizontally, causing it to twist from side to side but a right angle of They move the ground horizontally, causing it to twist from side to side but a right angle of
their propagation and have the greatest amplitude (and decreases with depth) which their propagation and have the greatest amplitude (and decreases with depth) which
damages the foundations of structures. A long wave travels with slower velocity, and it was damages the foundations of structures. A long wave travels with slower velocity, and it was
the third conspicuous wave detected by the seismograph. the third conspicuous wave detected by the seismograph.
• Rayleigh waves (R waves) travel slower than the L waves thus, have lower • Rayleigh waves (R waves) travel slower than the L waves thus, have lower
velocity. The existence of these waves was first predicted and was mathematically described velocity. The existence of these waves was first predicted and was mathematically described
in 1885 by John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh also known as Lord Rayleigh. These in 1885 by John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh also known as Lord Rayleigh. These
waves exist at any free surface in a continuous body; they may be generated by large waves exist at any free surface in a continuous body; they may be generated by large
earthquakes moving in rolling motion. These waves are dispersive, propagating circularly earthquakes moving in rolling motion. These waves are dispersive, propagating circularly
along surfaces from a source point (from the earth’s surface) and the amplitude generally along surfaces from a source point (from the earth’s surface) and the amplitude generally
decreases with depth in the earth. These waves are generally observed on both radial and decreases with depth in the earth. These waves are generally observed on both radial and
vertical mechanisms on seismograph. However, when these waves emanate from the vertical mechanisms on seismograph. However, when these waves emanate from the
epicenter, the waves travel along Earth’s surface at about ten times the speed of sound epicenter, the waves travel along Earth’s surface at about ten times the speed of sound
waves. waves.

They move the ground horizontally, causing it to twist from side to side but a right angle of They move the ground horizontally, causing it to twist from side to side but a right angle of
their propagation and have the greatest amplitude (and decreases with depth) which their propagation and have the greatest amplitude (and decreases with depth) which
damages the foundations of structures. A long wave travels with slower velocity, and it was damages the foundations of structures. A long wave travels with slower velocity, and it was
the third conspicuous wave detected by the seismograph. the third conspicuous wave detected by the seismograph.
• Rayleigh waves (R waves) travel slower than the L waves thus, have lower • Rayleigh waves (R waves) travel slower than the L waves thus, have lower
velocity. The existence of these waves was first predicted and was mathematically described velocity. The existence of these waves was first predicted and was mathematically described
in 1885 by John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh also known as Lord Rayleigh. These in 1885 by John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh also known as Lord Rayleigh. These
waves exist at any free surface in a continuous body; they may be generated by large waves exist at any free surface in a continuous body; they may be generated by large
earthquakes moving in rolling motion. These waves are dispersive, propagating circularly earthquakes moving in rolling motion. These waves are dispersive, propagating circularly
along surfaces from a source point (from the earth’s surface) and the amplitude generally along surfaces from a source point (from the earth’s surface) and the amplitude generally
decreases with depth in the earth. These waves are generally observed on both radial and decreases with depth in the earth. These waves are generally observed on both radial and
vertical mechanisms on seismograph. However, when these waves emanate from the vertical mechanisms on seismograph. However, when these waves emanate from the
epicenter, the waves travel along Earth’s surface at about ten times the speed of sound epicenter, the waves travel along Earth’s surface at about ten times the speed of sound
waves. waves.
MODULE 6: WHY IS PHILIPPINES PRONE TO TYPHOONS? MODULE 6: WHY IS PHILIPPINES PRONE TO TYPHOONS?
The Philippines is located in the North Pacific Ocean where the greatest number of cyclones The Philippines is located in the North Pacific Ocean where the greatest number of cyclones
form. An average of 22 cyclones form in this area every year, about 20 of which enter the Philippine form. An average of 22 cyclones form in this area every year, about 20 of which enter the Philippine
Area of Responsibility (PAR). It issues warning signals bulletins about a typhoon only when it is within Area of Responsibility (PAR). It issues warning signals bulletins about a typhoon only when it is within
the PAR. the PAR.
What is a Typhoon? What is a Typhoon?
The term typhoon is used only in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean. In the The term typhoon is used only in the northwestern part of the Pacific Ocean. In the
northeastern part of the Pacific Ocean and in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean, the equivalent northeastern part of the Pacific Ocean and in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean, the equivalent
term is hurricane. Thus, a hurricane on one side of the Pacific Ocean will be called a typhoon if it term is hurricane. Thus, a hurricane on one side of the Pacific Ocean will be called a typhoon if it
crosses into the other side. crosses into the other side.
In the Philippines, we use the same word for all categories of tropical cyclones. We call it In the Philippines, we use the same word for all categories of tropical cyclones. We call it
bagyo whether it is a tropical depression, a tropical storm or a typhoon. bagyo whether it is a tropical depression, a tropical storm or a typhoon.
A typhoon’s structure is divided into four parts namely: outer rainbands, inner rainbands, eyewall and A typhoon’s structure is divided into four parts namely: outer rainbands, inner rainbands, eyewall and
the eye. the eye.

Category Maximum Wind Speed Category Maximum Wind Speed

kilometres per hour (kph) kilometres per hour (kph)
Tropical Depression 64 Tropical Depression 64
Tropical Storm 118 Tropical Storm 118
Typhoon 200 Typhoon 200
Supertyphoon Greater than 200 Supertyphoon Greater than 200

Tropical cyclones started out in the Pacific Ocean where there is warm water. The temperature should Tropical cyclones started out in the Pacific Ocean where there is warm water. The temperature should
be 26.5 ᵒC or more. The warm ocean water heats up the air above it. The warm air then rises. The be 26.5 ᵒC or more. The warm ocean water heats up the air above it. The warm air then rises. The
rising warm air results in low-pressure area. Air in the surroundings will then move toward the area. rising warm air results in low-pressure area. Air in the surroundings will then move toward the area.
Not all tropical cyclones move this way. But this is the general rule for those that start from the Pacific Not all tropical cyclones move this way. But this is the general rule for those that start from the Pacific
Ocean. Note where the tropical cyclones start: at the latitude of the Visayas and Mindanao. So when a Ocean. Note where the tropical cyclones start: at the latitude of the Visayas and Mindanao. So when a
tropical cyclone moves to the northwest, it ends up in Luzon. tropical cyclone moves to the northwest, it ends up in Luzon.
This is the reason why Mindanao is not commonly hit by the tropical cyclones. Unless the following This is the reason why Mindanao is not commonly hit by the tropical cyclones. Unless the following
happens: a) the tropical cyclone starts at a latitude closer to the equator, or b) the tropical cyclone happens: a) the tropical cyclone starts at a latitude closer to the equator, or b) the tropical cyclone
moves directly to the west, instead of moving to the northwest. moves directly to the west, instead of moving to the northwest.
Tropical cyclones weaken when they hit land. They die out over land because they need warm water to Tropical cyclones weaken when they hit land. They die out over land because they need warm water to
sustain them. They need water vapor to keep them going. Even when the tropical cyclone is still in a sustain them. They need water vapor to keep them going. Even when the tropical cyclone is still in a
body of water, it may weaken and die out if the water is cold. body of water, it may weaken and die out if the water is cold.