SREE BUDDHA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(autonomous)
PATTOOR

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING

HANDOUT

NAME:.........................................................

SEMESTER: .........ROLL NO: .............

BRANCH: ……………………….

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

2024-25
BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE III

MODULE III
CIVIL ENGINEERING
SYLLABUS

Relevance of Civil Engineering in the overall infrastructural development of the

country.

Brief introduction to major disciplines of Civil Engineering.

Introduction to buildings:

Building rules and regulations: Relevance of NBC, KBR, CRZ norms (brief
discussion of relevance only)

Types of buildings according to character of occupancy as per NBC, Selection of

site for a residential building, components of a residential building and their
functions

Building Area Definitions: Built up area, Plinth area, Floor area, Carpet area,
and Floor area ratio of a building as per KBR

Environmental Laws and Regulations: Overview of environmental laws (Brief

Description only)

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 1

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE III

GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING

Civil Engineering is an art of directing the great resources of nature for the use and convenience
of man. It is a broad field of engineering dealing with the planning, design, construction,
maintenance and management of physical infrastructure networks.
American Society of Civil Engineering (ASCE) defines civil engineering as the
profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical and physical sciences gained by study,
experience and practice is applied for the progressive well-being of humanity by creating,
improving and protecting the environment, in providing facilities for community living, industry
and transportation etc.
Uniqueness of Civil Engineering
Unlike any other engineering profession, Civil engineering has always provided enduring
monuments and lasting legacies. Without Civil engineers, a society could not function; for they
are the ones who build our roads, bridges and airports and ensure that the houses we live in are
structurally sound. Hence, they play a vital role in the infrastructural development of a country.

RELEVANCE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING IN THE OVERALL INFRASTRUCTURAL

DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRY

Infrastructure is a framework of supporting system consisting transportation,

communication, energy, lifeline facilities, irrigation facilities that help a community or a
government to function, grow and develop. Infrastructure development in any country
contributes to the economic development of a particular nation. Higher the infrastructure
facilities, higher will be the growth prospects.
Role of Civil Engineers in the Infrastructural Development
 Construction of residential, commercial and industrial buildings for urban and rural areas
 Town and city planning to improve standard of living
 Construction of roads, railways, ports, harbors and airports
 Construction of dams for proper utilization of water resources and flood control

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 2

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE III

 Providing safe domestic, agricultural, industrial water supply

 Providing secure and scientific waste disposal
 Monitoring land, water and air pollution and take measures to control them
 Maintenance of facilities
 Rebuilding, rehabilitation, retrofitting and repair
 Diverse systems for control and efficient flow of traffic
 Provide and maintain solid waste disposal system
 Developing sustainable building practices
Major impacts of infrastructural development on a country
 Healthy and comfortable housing facility
 Improvement in communication and transportation
 Protecting from drought and flood
 Safe domestic and industrial water supply
 Safe and scientific waste disposal
 Generation of electricity from nuclear, hydel, thermal, solar or wind energy
 Increase in flood production
 Improved wealth, prosperity, standard of living
Large scale budget allocation for infrastructure leads to agricultural, industrial developments. It
provides employment, eradicated poverty and enhances per capita income thereby overall
development of the country.

DISCIPLINES OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Civil Engineering has various disciplines which are as follows. The main disciplines are as
follows:
(1) Structural Engineering: Structural engineers face the challenge of designing structures
that support their own weight and the loads they carry, and that resist extreme forces from
wind, earthquakes etc. Structural engineers develop appropriate combinations of steel,
concrete, timber, plastic etc. for construction. They also plan and design, visit project
sites to ensure the proper conduct of work.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 3

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE III

(2) Construction Engineering: Construction engineers turn designs into reality on time and
within budget using technical and management skills. They apply their knowledge of
construction methods and equipment, along with the principles of financing, planning and
managing to turn the designs of other engineers into successful facilities.
(3) Geotechnical Engineering: Geotechnical engineers analyze the properties of soil and
rock that support and affect the behavior of structure above it. They evaluate the potential
settlements of buildings, the stability of slopes and fills and the seepage of ground water
and effects of earthquake. They also take part in the design and construction of dams,
embankments and retaining walls.
(4) Environmental Engineering: Environmental engineers translate physical, chemical and
biological processes into systems to destroy toxic substances, remove pollutions from
water, reduce non- hazardous solid waste volumes, eliminate contaminants from the air
and develop ground water supplies. Environmental engineers resolve problems of
providing safe drinking water, cleaning up contaminated sites with hazardous materials,
disposing of waste water and managing solid wastes.

(5) Transportation Engineering: They design, construct and maintain all types of
transportation facilities including airports, highways, railroads, mass rapid transit system
and ports. An important part of transportation engineering is upgrading our transportation
facility by improving traffic control and by introducing high speed trains, people movers
and other inter modal transportation methods.
(6) Water Resources Engineering / Hydraulics: They deal with the physical control of
water. They work with others to prevent floods, supply water for cities, industry and
agriculture, to manage beaches or to manage and redirect rivers. They design, construct
and maintain hydroelectric power facilities, canals, dams and pipelines, pumping stations,
seaport facilities etc.
(7) Surveying and remote sensing: Surveying deals with determining the relative positions
of points on above, below the surface of Earth by means of direct or in direct
measurement of distances, elevations and directions. Survey is required for any project in
civil. Survey ranges from chain survey to advanced remote sensing.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 4

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE III

INTRODUCTION TO BUILDINGS

NATIONAL BUILDING CODE (NBC)

National Building Code (NBC) is a national instrument providing guidelines for regulating the
building construction activities across India. It serves as a Model Code for adoption by all
agencies involved in building construction works. The Code mainly contains administrative
regulations, development control rules and general building requirements; fire safety
requirements; stipulations regarding materials, structural design and construction, safety etc.

 It provides minimum standards for safety, health and general welfare including structural

integrity, mechanical integrity (including sanitation, water supply, light and ventilation),

means of egress, fire prevention and control, and energy conservation.

 Building codes provide safety.

 It ensures the economic well-being of the community by reducing potential spread of fire

and disease.

 Building codes conserve energy.

It protects future home purchasers who deserve reasonable assurance that the home they buy
will be safe.

RELEVANCE OF KERALA BUILDING RULES (KBR)

 Under the guidelines of NBC, every state has framed their own building rules.

 For framing the KBR norms, the climatic conditions, population density, geography,

topography etc are considered.

 It enables uniform building construction practice throughout the state. For example, hot

and humid climate of Kerala requires more ventilation for the buildings but for states

having cold climate requires only less ventilations.

 A minimum setback rules are framed to assure wind flow, sunlight and passage space

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 5

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE III

which are of at most importance.

 It helps for the future widening and development of streets and roads if necessary.

 Actions can be taken if these minimum criteria’s are not met and violation to these norms

is identified.

 For very special cases where the setback rules cannot be implemented fully, certain

considerations are allowed by the local bodies.

 It helps to avoid unnecessary disputes between people.

 It can be used to categories different types of buildings and its uses.

RELEVANCE OF COASTAL REGULATION ZONE (CRZ) NORMS

The Rules, mandated under the Environment Protection Act, 1986, were first framed in 1991.The
regulation zone has been defined as the area up to 500 m from the high-tide line. Several kinds of
restrictions apply, depending on criteria such as population, ecological sensitivity, distance from
shore, etc. CRZ Rules govern human and industrial activity close to the coastline, in order to
protect the fragile ecosystems near the sea.

The restrict activities are:

 large constructions
 setting up of new industries
 storage or disposal of hazardous material
 Mining, or reclamation and bunding, within a certain distance from the coastline.

The basic idea is: because areas immediately next to the sea are extremely delicate, home to
many marine and aquatic life forms, both animals and plants, and are also threatened by climate
change, they need to be protected against unregulated development.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 6

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE III

CRZ along the country has been placed in four categories.

 CRZ-1: These are ecologically sensitive areas these are essential in maintaining the
ecosystem of the coast. They lie between low and high tide line. Exploration of natural gas
and extraction of salt are permitted
 CRZ-2: These areas are urban areas located in the coastal areas. Now under new coastal
zone regulations 2018, the floor space index norms have been de-freeze and permit FSI
(floor space index) for construction projects, which enable redevelopment of these areas to
meet the emerging needs.
 CRZ-3: Rural and urban localities which fall outside the 1 and 2. Only certain activities
related to agriculture even some public facilities are allowed in this zone
 CRZ-4: This lies in the aquatic area up to territorial limits. Fishing and allied activities are
permitted in this zone. Solid waste should be let off in this zone. 
If the regulations listed in the CRZ Notification are implemented properly, the coastal zones can
be safeguarded against encroachments.

DEFINITION AND TYPES OF BUILDINGS AS PER NATIONAL BUILDING CODE OF

INDIA
Definition of building as per NBC
Any structure for whatsoever purpose and of whatsoever materials constructed and every
part thereof whether used as human habitation or not and includes foundation, plinth, walls, floors,
roofs, chimneys, plumbing and building services, fixed platforms, verandah, balcony, cornice or
projection, part of a building or anything affixed thereto or any wall enclosing or intended to
enclose any land or space and signs and outdoor display structures. Tents/ shamianahs / pandals,
tarpaulin shelters, etc, erected for temporary and ceremonial occasions shall not be considered as
building.

Types of building as per NBC

Group A - Residential building, Group B - Educational building, Group C - Institutional
building, Group D - Assembly building, Group E - Business building, Group F - Mercantile

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 7

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE III

building, Group G - Industrial building Group, H - Storage building, Group J – Hazardous

building
Group A: Residential building
These shall include any building in which sleeping accommodation is provided for normal
residential purposes with or without cooking or dining or both facilities, except any building
classified under Group C.

Buildings and structures under Group A shall be further sub-divided as follows:

Sub-division A-1 Lodging or rooming houses
Sub-division A-2 One or two-family private dwellings
Sub-division A-3 Dormitories
Sub-division A-4 Apartment houses (flats)
Sub-division A-5 Hotels
Sub-division A-6 Hotels (Starred)

Group B: Educational Buildings

These shall include any building used for school, college, and other training institutions or
day- care purposes involving assembly for instruction, education or recreation for not less than
20 students.Buildings and structures under Group B shall be further sub-divided as follows:

Sub-division B-1 Schools up to senior secondary level

Sub-division B-2 All others/training institutions

Group C: Institutional Buildings

These shall include any building or part thereof, which is used for purposes, such as
medical or other treatment or care of persons suffering from physical or mental illness, disease or
infirmity; care of infants, convalescents or aged persons and for penal or correctional detention in
which the liberty of the inmates is restricted. Institutional buildings ordinarily provide sleeping
accommodation for the occupants. Buildings and structures under Group C shall be further sub-
divided as follows:
Sub-division C-1 Hospitals and sanatoria
Sub-division C-2 Custodial institutions

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 8

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE III

Sub-division C-3 Penal and mental institutions

Group D: Assembly Buildings

These shall include any building or part of a building, where number of persons not less
than 50 congregate or gather for amusement, recreation, social, religious, patriotic, civil, travel
and similar purposes, for example, theatres, motion picture houses, assembly halls, auditoria,
exhibition halls, museums, skating rinks, gymnasiums, restaurants, places of worship, dance
halls, club rooms, passenger stations and terminals of air, surface and marine public
transportation services, recreation piers and stadia, etc.

Group E: Business Buildings

These shall include any building or part of a building which is used for transaction of
business, for keeping of accounts and records and similar purposes, professional establishments,
service facilities, etc. City halls, town halls, court houses and libraries shall be classified in this
group so far as the principal function of these is transaction of public business and keeping of
books and records.
Eg: Offices, banks, offices of engineers, Police station etc.

Group F: Mercantile Buildings

These shall include any building or part of a building, which is used as shops, stores,
market, for display and sale of merchandise, either wholesale or retail.

Group G: Industrial Buildings

These shall include any building or part of a building or structure, in which products or
materials of all kinds and properties are fabricated, assembled, manufactured or processed, for
example, assembly plants, industrial laboratories, dry cleaning plants, power plants, generating
units, pumping stations, fumigation chambers, laundries, buildings or structures in gas plants,
refineries, dairies and saw-mills, etc.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 9

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE III

Group H: Storage Buildings

These shall include any building or part of a building used primarily for the storage or
sheltering (including servicing, processing or repairs incidental to storage) of goods, ware or
merchandise (except those that involve highly combustible or explosive products or materials)
vehicles or animals, for example, warehouses, cold storage, freight depots, transit sheds,
storehouses, truck and marine terminals, garages, hangers, grain elevators, barns and stables.

Group J: Hazardous Buildings

These shall include any building or part of a building which is used for the storage,
handling, manufacture or processing of highly combustible or explosive materials or products
which are liable to burn with extreme rapidity and or which may produce poisonous fumes or
explosions.

SITE SELECTION FOR BUILDINGS

The first and foremost step in construction is to select an appropriate site for the building.
A properly selected site of the building will increase the beauty of building without any extra
expense. The selection of site for a project depends upon the purpose of building, mode of
construction, available fund, future development if required, accessibility from road, school,
hospital etc. Marshy land or water-logged area will lead to higher expense on foundation and
there is a chance of settlement.
The following points are to be considered while selecting the site for any building:
(1) Selected site should not be undulating because it will increase the cost of levelling
(2) It should be very near to road otherwise transportation of the building material will lead to
additional expenses
(3) Civic services like water supply, electric lines, telephone lines, drainage sewers should be
near to the site
(4) It should not be a waterlogged area and ground water level should be atleast 1 m below the
ground level

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 10

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE III

(5) Soil existing at that site, should be of natural type. It should not be a made-up land
(6) Selected site should be large enough to provide sufficient light and air to the building
(7) The site should not be in a depression and it should have a general slope away from the
building for easy drainage
(8) The site should possess good soil at reasonable depth for reducing the cost offoundation
(9) The selected site should have adequate space to accommodate all the essential accessories
required in the building
(10) Site should not be located near workshop and factories since such locations
aresubjected to air and noise pollution
(11) Site along seashore is good from the entertainment point of view but sea breeze is
not good for health and metal fittings in the building will corrode
(12) Type of building also affects the selection of site. For example industrial building
should be situated outside the city, residential building must be near to schools and hospitals.
Public building should be located in open area so that all the requirements should be full
filled.

(13) The site should suit the purpose of building and the extent of privacy needed.
(14) Availability of natural light, pollution free air and should be away from noise
pollution.
(15) Legal and financial aspects – proper ownership right and reasonable cost.
(16) The locality should be well developed or a fast developing one.
(17) Easy access to Transportation facilities like roads and railways.
(18) Availability of community services like police and fire protection, clearance of
waste, street cleaning etc.
(19) Amenities like schools, hospitals, libraries; recreation centres etc should be available
near the site.

For industrial building selection of site should be such that

(1) All most all raw materials should be available from the nearby area
(2) There may not be any problem for labour and labourers should be available from
nearby areas

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 11

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE III

(3) The site must have enough space for future expansion of industry and for the
construction of residential area for workers
(4) Suitable waste disposal plant must be available are reasonable distance
(5) Climate plays an important role in selecting the site for industrial buildings.
For example, a cool and moist weather is more favourable for weaving and textile mills

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 12

 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE III

COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

A building consists of two important components. They are:

1. Sub structure or foundation
2. Super structure

Sub structure – The portion of a structure below the ground level is defined as sub
structure.

Foundation
The sub structure below the ground level is foundation. Foundation is the part of building,
which transfers the entire load of the building to the sub soil. It is the lowest part of the
building below Ground level. It consists of footing and a thin layer of Plain Cement
Concrete course. It provides a level surface for the construction of the super structure.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 13

 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE III

Plinth: The portion of the building below the ground floor level and above the level of
ground is called plinth. The top level of plinth is called plinth level. Built up covered area at
the floor levelof the building is known as plinth area.

Super structure
Super structure includes the following components

a) Doors: Doors are opening provided in walls of a building to connect the internal rooms
and also used as means of movements inside and outside the building.
b) Windows and ventilators: Windows are openings provided in the outer wall of the
building for the entry of light and air to the room. Ventilators are provided on the top of
the wall for the escape of foul smell and dust from the room.
c) Walls: These are vertical components constructed to divide the space into various rooms.
Walls transfer load to the foundation.
d) Column: Columns can be defined as isolated vertical load bearing members.

e) Lintel: Lintels are RCC structures provided over the openings such as doors, windows
etc. They areused to transfer the load of wall above the opening to the supporting wall.
f) Sunshade: The slab projecting from the external wall just above the doors, windows etc is
called sunshade

g) Floor: Floors are horizontal surfaces which divides the building into different levels.

h) Roof: The top most part of a building which covers the space enclosed by the wall is called
roof.

i) Parapet: These are structures constructed over the roof slab or sunshade for better
appearance of buildingand for safe usage of roof surface.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 14

 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE III

BUILDING AREA
1. Plinth Area
The built covered area measured at the plinth level of the building is known as plinth
area. Plinth area is the covered built-up area measured at the floor level of any storey or
at the floor level of the basement. Plinth area is generally 10-20% more than carpet area.

2. Built Up Area
Built-up area is the carpet area plus the area covered by walls. The built-up area
includes balconies, terraces (with or without roof), mezzanine floors and other
detachable habitable areas. The walls which are shared with other units are factored in at
50 per cent while other walls are computed fully.
3. Carpet Area
Carpet area is the covered area of the usable spaces of rooms at any floor. It is
measured betweenwalls to walls within the building and is the sum of the actual areas of
the rooms where you can carpet.

4. Floor Area Ratio (FAR)

FAR means the quotient obtained by dividing the total floor area on all floors by the
area of the plot.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 15

 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE III

5. Floor area

The total floor area of a building shall be the sum of the floor areas in all floors,
including basement floors if any. Open platforms and terraces at ground floor and porches
shall not be included in the floor area.

Environmental Laws and Regulations: Overview of environmental laws

Environmental Law can be explained as a legal framework comprising principles,
directives, policies, and regulations founded by different local, national, or international
units. Its purpose is to safeguard and maintain the environment, verifying its
appropriateness for both present and future generations.

Environmental laws and regulations are policies and rules that aim to manage human
impact on the environment.

Examples of Environmental Laws

 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974

This act was passed to control water pollution and improve water quality in India.

 The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010

This act established the National Green Tribunal (NGT), a court that handles
environmental cases in India.

 Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972

This act protects wild animals, birds, and plants in India.

 The Biological Diversity Act, 2002

This act is one of many laws in India that aim to protect the environment and maintain
ecological balance.

 The Environment Protection Act of 1986

This act is one of many laws in India that aim to protect the environment and maintain
ecological balance.

Other Examples of Environmental Laws

 Clean Air Act

 Clean Water Act

 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 16

 BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE III

 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

(CERCLA) of 1980

 Endangered Species Act

Environmental laws are designed to ensure the ecological and environmental security of a
country.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSOR, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 17

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

MODULE IV
CIVIL ENGINEERING
SYLLABUS

Conventional construction materials - Bricks, stones, sand, cement and

timber- Classification of construction materials, Tests for construction
materials, Qualities of construction materials, Uses of construction
materials.

Cement concrete- Constituent materials, properties and types.

Steel: Steel sections and steel reinforcements, types and uses.

Soil- Origin of soil, weathering of rocks, types of weathering.

Environmental Systems and Sustainable Practices: Pollution control

technologies, Sustainable Development and Renewable Energy, Basics of
climate change and mitigation strategies (brief description only)

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 18

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
BRICKS
Brick is one of the oldest building materials made of burnt clay. Bricks are obtained by
moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and then by drying and burning them in
kilns.
Advantages:

 Light in weight, Simple to handle

 Durability

 Strength

 Low cost

 Easily available

Specification of Size of bricks:-

 BIS recommended size- Modular bricks (Standard size) (19 cm x 9 cm x 9 cm)

 Nominal size of brick includes the mortar thickness (20 cm X 10 cm X 10 cm)

 Bricks which are not standardized – traditional bricks

 Average weight of brick 3-3.5 kg

Classification of bricks:-

1. Unburned bricks: - These bricks are sundried. They have low strength and are
used in the temporary and cheap structures.
2. Burnt bricks: - these bricks are used in all construction works.

a) First class bricks:-

 It should have all the requirements of a good standard brick.

 Made of regular good earth, thoroughly burnt and have regular shape, uniform
reddish colour, and sharp edges.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 19

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

 They should not absorb more than 20% of its dry weight, when immersed in water
for 24 hours.
 The thickness of mortar joints does not exceed 10 mm.

 Its compressive strength should be greater than 100 kg/cm2.

 They are table moulded and burnt in kilns.

 It is used for quality work.

b) Second class bricks:-

 These bricks are moulded on ground and are burnt in kilns.

 Surface of brick is rough and shape is irregular.

 Water absorption should not be more than 22% of its weight.

 Thickness of mortar joints is 12 mm.

 Minimum compressive strength 80 kg/ cm2.

 Used at places where the brickwork is to be provided with a coat of plaster

and for internal walls.
c) Third class bricks:-

 They are not hard.

 Rough surfaces with irregular edges.

 Half burnt bricks of uniform reddish colour.

 Defects in colour, shape and size.

 Water absorption not more than 25%.

 Minimum compressive strength 45 kg/ cm2

 These bricks give dull sound when struck together.

 Used for unimportant and temporary structures and at places where the rainfall
is not heavy.
d) Fourth class bricks:-

 Over burnt, irregular shape, dark colour.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 20

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

 Used as aggregate for concrete.

Properties of Good Bricks: - (Tests)

 The bricks should confirm to the IS Specification (Indian standard specification) with
respect to shape, size, strength and water absorption.
 It should be uniform in shape and of standard size.

 Colour should be uniform ( uniform deep red)

 It should have a homogeneous and uniform compact structure free from voids when
broken.

 Water absorption should not be greater than 20 % of dry weight.

 It should emit clear ringing sound when struck with each other.

 It should not break, if the brick is drop from a height of 1 m.

 It should be sufficiently hard. No impression should be made when scratched with nails.

 Low thermal conductivity and sound insulation.

 It should have perfect edges, well burnt in kilns, copper coloured, free from
cracks with sharp and square edges.
 It should not have crushing strength below 10.5 N/mm2.

Uses
 Construction of walls of any size

 Construction of floors

 Construction of arches and cornices

 Construction of brick retaining wall

 Making Khoa (Broken bricks of required size) to use as an aggregate in concrete

CEMENT

Cement is a construction material which possesses very good adhesive and cohesive
properties making it good for bonding mineral fragments in to a strong compact mass.

 It is a finely ground powder, when mixed with water produce a very hard and strong

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 21

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

binding medium. It provides an exothermic reaction.

 Cement is obtained by burning a mixture of calcareous (CaCo3) and argillaceous
materials (clay) in 4:1 proportion at a very high temperature.

 Portland cement is commonly used.

 On setting, cement resembles a type of sand stone found in Portland of England and is
known as ordinary Portland cement.

Ingredients or composition of Cement

Percentage
Ingredient Function
composition
Lime CaO 60 - 65 % Gives strength
Silica SiO2 17 - 25 % Gives strength
Alumina Al2O3 3-8% Quick setting property
Iron Oxide Fe2O3 2-4% Gives strength & imparts colour
Gives strength, but excess presence is
Magnesium Oxide MgO 1-5% harmful
Sulphur trioxide SO3 Small amount provide sound cement,
1-3% excess presence is harmful
Alkalies 0.3 - 1.5 % Cause efflorescence when in excess

Physical properties

(Tests)

a. Colour: Uniform grey colour with light greenish shade, free from lumps and should be cool
when felt with hand.
b. Fineness: Fineness is the measure of mean size of grains in cement. When sieved
through 90 µ sieve, the quantity of residue left after sieving should not exceed 10%.

c. Setting time: Setting is the process of hardening of the cement paste into a hard solid mass.
The initial setting time should not be less than 30min and the final setting time should not be
more than 600min.
d. Soundness: Cement paste after setting should not undergo large change in volume which may
lead to disintegration and cracking. This property is known as soundness. This expansion should
be less than 10 mm.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 22

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

Chemical properties

1. Ratio of percentage of alumina to iron oxides should not be < 0.66

2. Ratio of percentage of lime to that of Alumina, iron oxides and silica should not be <
0.66 and should not be > 1.02
3. Total loss on ignition should not be > 5%

4. Sulphur content should not be > 2.5%

5. Weight of insoluble residues in cement should not be > 4%.

Types of cement
1) Portland Cement

Cement obtained by burning and crushing of argillaceous and calcareous materials,

which on setting if resembles a variety of sandstone found in Portland of England; such
cement is known as ordinary Portland cement.
2) Quick Setting Cement

It is produced by adding small percentage of aluminium sulphate and reduces the

percentage of gypsum. The setting time of this type of cement occurs within 30min. it
is usually used for laying concrete under water.
3) Low Heat Cement

Low Heat Cement is special made cement which generates low heat of hydration
during setting. It is produced by the addition of lower percentage of tricalcium
aluminate and higher percentage of dicalcium silicate. It is mainly used for concreting
dams, abutments etc.

4) High Alumina Cement

It is produced by the addition of high percentage of bauxite and lime. The total alumina
content in this type of cement should not be less than 32%. In this cement, the initial
setting is > 3.5 hrs and final setting time is 5hrs. It can resist frosts, acids and can
withstand high temperatures. It attains the maximum strength within short period. It is
mainly used for making refractory concrete, insulation of furnace etc.
5) Expanding Cement

It is produced by adding an expanding medium (sulpho aluminate) and a stabilizing

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 23

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

agent. It is mainly used for repairing damaged concrete surfaces due to cracks,
constructing water retaining structures etc.

6) Rapid Hardening Cement

It is produced by burning the ingredients at high temperature and with high lime
content. It attains high strength within few days (same initial and final setting time as
that of OPC). It is used for those works which is to be completed speedily and
economically.
7) Sulphate Resisting Cement

In this type of cement, the percentage of tricalcium aluminate is <5%. It has high
sulphate resisting power. It is used for structures which may be damaged due to severe
alkaline conditions.
8) White Cement

It is prepared from raw materials free from any colouring agents such as oxides of
iron, manganese and chromium. It is used for floor finish, plastic work, ornamental
work etc.
9) Coloured Cement

It is produced by mixing mineral pigments (colouring agents) with ordinary cement. It

is used for finishing floors, external walls, stairs, trails etc.
10) Water Proof Cement

It is produced by adding water proof substances like calcium stearate, aluminium

stearate and gypsum treated with tannic acid to OPC. It is mainly used for plastering
water retaining structures, roof etc.

Uses of cement

o Cement mortar for Masonry work, plaster and pointing etc.

o Concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, weather-shed,
stairs, pillars etc.

o Construction for important engineering structures such as bridge, culverts, dams,

tunnels, light house, clocks, etc.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 24

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

o Construction of water, wells, tennis courts, septic tanks, lamp posts, telephone cabins etc.

o Making joint for joints, pipes, etc.

o Manufacturing of precast pipes, garden seats, flower pots, etc.

o Preparation of foundation, water tight floors, footpaths, etc.

STONES

Stone is a natural construction material. It is obtained from rocks by quarrying. A Building

Stone is a piece of rock quarried and worked into a specific size and shape for a particular
purpose. The properties of stones depend upon the mother rock from which they are
extracted. Stones, quarried fresh from the rock are irregular in shape and size and are soft.
They are cut into to desired shape & size and seasoned before put to use in construction.
Stones are long lasting and naturally available in large quantities.

Types of stones

1. Basalt and trap

These are igneous rocks. They are used as road metals, aggregates for concrete. They
are also used for rubble masonry works for bridge piers, river walls and dams. They are
used as pavement material.
2. Granite

Granites are also igneous rocks. The colour varies from light grey to pink. They are hard
and durable. They are used primarily for bridge piers, river walls, and for dams. They
are used in kerbs and pedestals. The use of granite for monumental and institutional
buildings is common. Polished granites are used as table tops, cladding for columns and
wall. They are used as coarse aggregates in concrete.
3. Sand stone

They are found in various colours like white, grey, red, buff, brown, yellow and even
dark grey. Weathering of rocks renders it unsuitable as building stone. It is desirable to
use sand stones with silica cement for heavy structures, if necessary. They are used for
masonry work, for dams, bridge piers and river walls.
4. Slate

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 25

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

These are metamorphic rocks. They are composed of quartz, mica and clay minerals.
The structure is fine grained. The colour varies from dark gray, greenish gray, purple
gray to black. They are used as roofing tiles, slabs, pavements etc.

5. Laterite

It is a metamorphic rock. It contains high percentage of iron oxide. Its colour may be
brownish, red, yellow, brown and grey. It can be easily quarried in blocks. When used
as building stone, its outer surface should be plastered.
6. Marble

This is a metamorphic rock. It can take good polish. It is available in different pleasing
colours like white and pink. It is used for facing and ornamental works. It is used for
columns, flooring, steps etc.
7. Quartzite

Quartzites are metamorphic rocks. They are available in different colours like white,
gray, yellowish. They are used as building blocks and slabs. They are also used as
aggregates for concrete.

A good building stone should have the following properties:

1. Appearance: Good building stone should be of uniform colour, and free from clay
holes, spots of other colour bands etc capable of preserving the colour for longtime.
2. Crushing Strength: A good building stone should have sufficient crushing strength to
withstand the load of superstructure .In general; it should not be less than 1000 kg /cm2
3. Hardness, Toughness and resistance to Abrasion: The stone to be used in stairs,
pavements, as railway ballast or road metal must be sufficiently hard, tough and
resistant to abrasion, it must be able to resist wear and tear. (Coefficient of hardness
>14. Toughness index > 13).
4. Durability: A good building stone must be durable enough to resist the effect of
weathering agencies like rain, wind, temperature etc. It should have fine grained,
compact and crystalline structure.
5. Texture: A good building stone should have a close grained and compact texture.
Seasoning: Stones should be well seasoned before putting into use. A period of about 6
to 12 months is considered to be sufficient for proper seasoning. Seasoning is best done

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 26

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

by keeping the stones in open sheds for about 6 to 12months.

6. Workability: The stone to be used for ornamental carving and architectural
appearance should be easily and economically dressed.
7. Porosity: A good building stone should be less porous. It should not absorb more than
5% water by weight after 24 hours. Any stone absorbing 10% of water should be
rejected.

8. Resistance to fire: A good building stone should be fire proof. Sandstone,

Argillaceous stone resists fire quite well.
9. Specific gravity: it is a measure of weight of the stone. The stone to be used on heavy
engineering works, docks, harbours, gravity dams etc. must have high specific gravity.
It varies from 2.4 to 2.8.
Uses of stones
1. Structure

Stones are used for foundations, walls, columns, lintels, arches, roofs, floors, damp
proof course etc.
2. Face works

Stones are adopted to give massive appearance to the structure. Facing of Walls of
bricks is done in stones of desired shades. This is known as composite masonry.
3. Paving stones

These are used to cover floor of buildings of all types. They are also adopted to form
paving of roads, foot paths etc.
4. Basic material

Stones are disintegrated and converted to form a basic material for cement concrete,
moorum of roads, calcareous cements, artificial stones, hallow blocks etc.
5. Miscellaneous

Stones are also used for (i) ballast for railways (ii) flux in blast furnace (iii) Blocks in the
construction of bridges, piers, abutments, retaining walls

SAND

Sand is a mixture of small grains of rock and granular materials which is mainly defined by

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 27

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand is formed by the weathering of rocks.
Sand is a non-renewable resource over human timescales, and sand suitable for making
concrete is in high demand.
Types of Sand

1. Pit Sand:

This sand is obtained by forming pits in soils. It is excavated from a depth of about 1-2
m from the ground level. This sand is found as deposits in soil and it consists of sharp
angular grains, which are free from salts. It serves as an excellent material for mortar or
concrete work. Pit sand must be made free from clay and other organic materials before
it can be used in mortar. A coating of oxide of iron over the sand grains should be
removed.
2. River sand

This sand is widely used for all purposes. It is obtained from the banks or beds of rivers
and it consists of fine rounded grains. The presence of fine rounded grains is due to
mutual attrition under the action of water current. The river sand is available in clean
conditions. The river sand is almost white in color. It is mainly used for plastering. In
north India, Yamuna banks are a great source of River sand
3. Sea Sand

This is obtained from sea shores. It is brown in color and it also has the fine rounded
grain. As it is obtained from sea it contains salt, which is used in attracting moisture
from atmosphere. Such absorption causes dampness and disintegration of work. It is
generally not used for engineering purpose due to its retards setting action of cement. It
is normally used for non structural purposes.
4. Artificial Sand

This sand is manufactured by crushing either granite or basalt rock using 3 stage
crushing process. This is known as robo-sand. This is not widely used due to high cost
but now a day it is used in cities for construction purposes.

5. Volcanic Sand

Volcanically affected regions have their own type of dark-colored sand with a different
type of characteristics. And sometimes coal is found in that.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 28

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

Properties of good sand

o The grains should be sharp, angular and coarse.

o The sand should be free from clay material and organic matters.

o The grains should be of durable minerals.

o It should be free from salts.

o The gradation of grains size should be such as that it will give minimum voids.

o It should be clean and free from coatings of clay and silt.

o It should not contain organic matter.

o It should be chemically.

o Sand is loose particles of hard broken rock, it comprises of grains from the
disintegrated rock.
o Sand should be such size that it should pass through I.S. sieve No.-480 [4.75mm]and
should retain on I.S. No-5[0.05mm] as per Indian standards[I.S]
TIMBER

Timber is one of the oldest materials used in construction. It is

not only used in construction, but also it caters other needs of human beings.
The t i m b e r was used in the raw form in ancient days, but it is treated,
converted, preserved and used now. Timber is obtained from trees.

Classification of Trees
1. Exogenous trees: These trees grow outwards and increase in bulk by forming concentric
rings from the centre. These are used for engineering construction.
E.g.: Teak, deodar and sal.

These are further classified into conifers (soft wood) and deciduous (hard wood).
Conifers are evergreen trees. These are soft, light and weak. But deciduous are broad
leaf trees. They are hard, heavy, dark coloured and durable.
2. Endogenous trees: These trees grow inwards by depositing each fresh layer of fibrous
mass in longitudinal direction. E.g. Bamboo.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 29

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

Properties of Timber
1. Strength: Timber should be strong enough to effectively act as a structural member
such as beam, rafter etc.
2. Hardness: Timber should be hard such that it will be in a position to offer resistance
when it is being penetrated by another body.
3. Fire resistant: Timber is a bad conductor of heat. A good timber should not contain
resins & other inflammable oils since they accelerate the action of fire.
4. Structure: It should possess uniform structure. Annular rings should be regular &
closely located.
5. Elasticity: Timber should possess this property as such a property is essential
when timber is used for bows, carriage shafts, etc.
6. Durability: Timber should have a long life. It should be capable during its life
span to resist the action of fungi insects, chemicals, physical & mechanical agencies.
7. Defects: It should be free from defects such as shakes, dead knots, flaws or any kind.

8. Weights: A quality timber should be of heavy weight & uniform along the length
under consideration.

9. Fibres: it should possess straight & close fibres when signify uniformity in the timber.

10. Workability: Timber should be easily workable. It should not clog to the teeth of the saw.

Uses of Timber
 Wood has been an important construction material since humans began building
shelters, houses and boats.
 It is used for all wood construction, including beams, walls, doors, and floors.

 It is used to make solid wood doors

 It is used in both residential and commercial buildings as structural and

aesthetic materials.
 It is used in roof construction, in interior doors and their frames, and as exterior cladding.

 Wood is also commonly used as shuttering material to form the mold into which
concrete is poured during reinforced concrete construction.
 It is used for construction work such as railway sleepers or the construction of piers.

 Wood may be cut into thin sheets which are subsequently glued together to form a light

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 30

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

but strong material called plywood, which is much used for internal construction such
as doors, built-in furniture and so on.

CEMENT CONCRETE

Concrete is one of the most commonly used building materials. Concrete is a composite
material made from several readily available constituents (aggregates, sand, cement, water).
Concrete is a versatile material that can easily be mixed to meet a variety of special needs
and formed to virtually any shape.
Constituent Materials

 Cement

 Water

 Fine Aggregate

 Coarse Aggregate

 Admixtures

Portland Cement - The cement and water form a paste that coats the aggregate and sand in
the mix. The paste hardens and binds the aggregates and sand together.
Water- Water is needed to chemically react with the cement (hydration) and too provide
workability with the concrete.
Aggregates- Sand is the fine aggregate. Gravel or crushed stone is the coarse aggregate in
most mixes.
Admixtures are additions to the mix used to achieve certain goals. Some of the admixtures
are:

 Accelerating admixture-accelerators are added to concrete to reduce setting time of

the concrete and to accelerate early strength.
 Retarding admixtures-Are often used in hot weather conditions to delay setting time.

Properties of Concrete

 Durability: Ability of hardened concrete to resist deterioration caused by

weathering, chemicals, and abrasion
 Workability: Ease of placing, handling, and finishing

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 31

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

 Weather Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused by freezing and

thawing, wetting and drying, and heating and cooling
 Erosion Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused by water flow, traffic, and
wind blasting
 Chemical Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused by de-icing salts, salt
water, sulfate salts
 Water Tightness: Resistance to water infiltration

 Strength

 Economy: Since the quality depends mainly on the water to cement ratio, the water
requirement should be minimized to reduce the cement requirement (and thus reduce
the cost).
Types of Concrete

1. Plain Cement Concrete (PCC)

The intimate mixture of cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water is known as plain
cement concrete. Uses of plain cement concrete are listed below:
PCC is used -

• As bed concrete below the wall footings, column footings and on walls below
beams.
• As sill concrete to get a hard and even surface at window and ventilator sills.

• As coping concrete over the parapet and compound walls.

• For flagging the area around the buildings.

• For making pavements.

• For making tennis courts, basket ball courts etc.

2. Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)

Concrete is good in resisting compressive stress but is very weak in resisting tensile stresses.
Hence reinforcement is provided in the concrete wherever tensile stress is expected. The best
reinforcing material is steel, since its tensile strength is high and bond between steel and
concrete is good. The composite material of steel and concrete, called R.C.C. acts as a
structural member and can resist tensile as well as compressive forces efficiently.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 32

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

Uses of Reinforced cement concrete are listed below:

1. Footing, Columns, Beams, lintels
2. Water tanks, Dams
3. Bridges
4. Multistorey buildings
5. Towers
6. Highway pavements
7. Airport pavements

STEEL
Steel is a common building material used in the construction works. It forms a skeleton
and holds the structures together. It is 100% recyclable. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon
with traces of other elements. Total carbon content in steel varies from 0.25-1.5%.
Types of steel

Depending on the carbon content in it:

 Mild steel or soft steel - Carbon upto 0.25%. Used in construction purposes, for
making motor body, sheet metal, plates etc.
 Medium carbon steel - Carbon 0.25-0.75%. Used for making rails, tyres,
hammers, springs, etc.
 High carbon steel - Carbon 0.75-1.25%. Used for making chisels, hammer, saw, axes
etc.
 Extra hard steel/stainless steel. Carbon >1.25%. Used for making architectural
panels, handrails etc.
Types of Reinforcing Bars Used in Construction

Steel bars used in reinforced cement concrete are called reinforcing bars. Mainly two types of
reinforcing bars are used in building constructions:
(a) Plain Steel bars

(b) HYSD bars

i. Cold Twisted Deformed (CTD) bars / Tor steel bars

ii. Thermo Mechanically Treated (TMT) bars

(a) Plain Steel bars

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 33

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

Plain bars are round in section, made up of mild steel, medium tensile steel or high
tensile steel Used in reinforced cement concrete. Available sizes vary from 5mm to
32mm. eg: Mild Steel bars are strong in compression and tension. They are plain in
surface and are round sections of diameter 6-50mm. These rods are manufactured in
long lengths and can be cut quickly and also be bent easily without any damage.

Uses of Mild steel bars

 Used as rolled steel sections like I-section, T-section, channel section, angle section etc.

 Used as reinforcement bars in RCC

 Plain and corrugated sheets of mild steel are used as roof coverings

 Construction of buildings, ships, railways, automobiles and electrical industries.

(b) High yield strength deformed bars (HYSD bars)

They are deformed bars of high strength. They are rods of steel produced with ribs or
deformations on the surface of the bar. They have more tensile stresses and bond
strengths. They are produced by either hot working or cold working. These bars have
more tensile strength than mild steel.

Advantages
1. These bars have good bonding capacity

2. Used for major reinforcement works

3. Better structural properties

4. Yield strength of these bars is high

5. Substantial saving in reinforcement

6. These bar can be bent for 180 degree without any cracks

7. These bars can be welded

Uses
 Used as reinforcement bars in construction of buildings, bridges, pile foundation etc

 Used in the manufacture of smaller member cross sections.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 34

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

i. Cold Twisted Deformed (CTD) bars / Tor steel bars

 CTD bars are available in the market in the name of TOR.

 TOR is a brand name which stands for Toristeg Steel Corporation of

Luxembourg.

 Round plain steel bars (mild steel) dominated the industry till seventies.

 Thereafter, CTD (TOR) steel dominated the industry till nineties.

 Nowadays, TMT or hot treated bars are the most popular due to its advantages
over CTD (TOR) such as high strength and corrosion resistance.

ii. Thermo Mechanically Treated (TMT) bars

´ TMT bars are manufactured by quenching (sudden cooling by spraying of water)

and tempering process which allows the outer surface to cool much faster than inner
core and hence TMT bars have a hard outer surface and softer core. TMT bars are
also rolled to have ribs to increase the bond strength.

Advantages of TMT

 more ductile

 have high yield strength

 possess good bendability, weldability

 more corrosion resistance, fire resistance

Types & Market Forms of Steel

The various forms in which rolled steel sections are available are as follows:
(1) Angle sections: This section has two legs. If the two legs are equal, they are called equal
angle section. If the two legs are unequal, they are called unequal angle sections. Angle
sections are used in the construction of steel roof trusses, steel columns, beams etc.
(2) Channel sections: This section consists of a web and two flanges. These are used as
structural members of steel framed structures. These are used in the construction of built
in columns, beams and steel bridges.
(3) T- section: These are used as members of steel roof trusses, built up sections, chimneys,
steel bridges etc.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 35

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

(4) I- section: Also known as rolled steel joists. These are suitable for beams, columns,
lintels. Unequal I- sections with heavy weights are used as rails.
(5) Flat bars: Available in widths varying from 3-40mm. Used in the construction of steel
grill works, windows and gates.

(6) Square bars: They are bars with square cross section. Size varies from 5mm to 25mm.
weight ranges from 2N/m – 49N/m. These are used in the construction of steel grill works,
windows and gates etc.
(7) Round bars: These are bars with circular cross section. Diameter varies from 5-25mm
and weight varies from 1.5-38N. These are used as reinforcement in concrete structures,
construction of steel grill works etc.
(8) Expanded metals: These are formed by cutting and expanding either plain sheets or
ribbed sheets. It has an appearance of diamond mesh. Mesh size varies from 30mm –
150mm across shorter length. These are available in the length of 1 – 3m and width 5m.
Used as reinforcing foundations, road floors, bridges etc and also used as lathing
materials.
(9) Plates: These are available with varying thickness from 5-500 mm weight ranges from
392 N/mm2 - 3925 N/mm2. These are used to connect steel beams for extension of length
and for carrying tensional forces in roof trusses.
10. Corrugated sheets: These sheets are formed by passing steel sheet through groves, the
groves bend and sheets are pressed and thus corrugations are formed. These are used as
roof covering materials.
11. Pipes, tubes and steel sheets: Pipes are used for light columns and other structural
purposes and as liquid conduits. Tubes are used for framing roof truss and for light
structural works, scaffolding etc

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 36

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

ORIGIN OF SOIL

 The term "soil" can have different meanings, depending upon the field in which it is
considered.
 To a geologist, it is the material in the relative thin zone of the Earth's surface within
which roots occur, and which are formed as the products of past surface processes. The
rest of the crust is grouped under the term "rock".
 To a pedologist, it is the substance existing on the surface, which supports plant life.
To an engineer, it is a material that can be:

 built on: foundations of buildings, bridges

 built in: basements, culverts, tunnels

 built with: embankments, roads, dams

 supported: retaining walls

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 37

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

Soil Mechanics is a discipline of Civil Engineering involving the study of soil, its
behaviour and application as an engineering material. Soil Mechanics is the application of
laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering problems dealing with sediments and other
unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles, which are produced by the mechanical and
chemical disintegration of rocks, regardless of whether or not they contain an admixture of
organic constituents.

Soil consists of a multiphase aggregation of solid particles, water, and air. This
fundamental composition gives rise to unique engineering properties, and the description of
its mechanical behaviour requires some of the most classic principles of engineering
mechanics. Engineers are concerned with soil's mechanical properties: permeability, stiffness,
and strength. These depend primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the current stress, the
water content and unit weight.

Formation of Soils

Soil is formed from rock due to erosion and weathering action. Igneous rock is the
basic rock formed from the crystallization of molten magma. This rock is formed either
inside the earth or on the surface. These rocks undergo metamorphism under high
temperature and pressure to form metamorphic rocks. Both Igneous and metamorphic rocks
are converted in to sedimentary rocks due to transportation to different locations by the
agencies such as wind, water etc. Finally, near the surface millions of years of erosion and
weathering converts rocks in to soil.

Soils are formed from materials that have resulted from the disintegration of rocks by various
processes of physical and chemical weathering.

Weathering of Rocks

 Weathering describes the breaking down or dissolving of rocks and minerals on the
surface of Earth.
 Water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in temperature are all agents of
weathering. Once a rock has been broken down, a process called erosion transports the
bits of rock and mineral away.
 No rock on Earth is hard enough to resist the forces of weathering and erosion.
Weathering and erosion constantly change the rocky landscape of Earth.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 38

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

 Weathering wears away exposed surfaces over time. The length of exposure often
contributes to how vulnerable a rock is to weathering.
 Rocks, such as lavas, that are quickly buried beneath other rocks are less vulnerable to
weathering and erosion than rocks that are exposed to agents such as wind and water.
Types of Weathering

1. Physical Or Mechanical Weathering

Physical weathering, also called mechanical weathering or disaggregation, is a class of
processes that cause rocks to break up without chemical change. The primary process in
physical weathering is abrasion (the process by which clips and other particles are reduced in
size). Temperature, pressure, freezing and so on. Physical weathering may occur for reasons.

For example, cracks resulting from physical weathering will increase the surface area
exposed to the chemical effect, thereby increasing the rate of disintegration.

(This is an example of Freeze-thaw weathering which occurs on snowy mountains.)

2. Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering changes the composition of rocks, often transforming them when
water interacts with minerals to create various chemical reactions. Chemical weathering is
a gradual and ongoing process as the mineralogy of the rock adjusts to the near surface

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 39

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

environment. New or secondary minerals develop from the original minerals of the rock.
In this the processes of oxidation and hydrolysis are most important. Chemical
weathering is enhanced by such geological agents as the presence of water and oxygen, as
well as by such biological agents as the acids produced by microbial and plant-root
metabolism.

Dissolution: Chemical weathering during which minerals dissolve into water is called
dissolution. Dissolution primarily affects salts and carbonate minerals , but even quartz
dissolves slightly.

Hydrolysis: During hydrolysis, water chemically reacts with minerals and breaks them
down to form other minerals. For example, hydrolysis reactions in feldspar produce clay.

Oxidation: Oxidation reactions in rocks transform iron bearing minerals (such as biotite
and pyrite) into a rusty brown mixture of various iron-oxide and iron-hydroxide minerals.
In effect, iron-bearing rocks can “rust.”

Hydration: the absorption of water into the crystal structure of minerals, causes some
minerals, such as certain types of clay, to expand. Such expansion weakens rock.

3. Organic or Biological Weathering

A number of plants and animals may create chemical weathering through release of acidic
compounds, i.e. the effect of moss growing on roofs is classed as weathering. Mineral
weathering can also be initiated or accelerated by soil microorganisms. Lichens on rocks are
thought to increase chemical weathering rates. Some plants and animals can cause chemical

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 40

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

weathering through the release of acidic compounds, i.e, classification of algae grown on the
roof as degradation. Mineral weathering can also be initiated or accelerated by soil
microorganisms. It is thought that lichens on the rocks increase the chemical weathering
rates.

The most common forms of biological weathering are the release of chelating compounds (i.e
, organic acids, siderophores) and acidifying molecules (i.e, protons, organic acids) to break
down aluminium and iron-containing compounds in soils beneath plants. The decomposition
of the remains of dead plants in the soil can form organic acids which, when dissolved in
water, cause chemical weather conditions. Excessive release of chelating compounds can
easily affect the surrounding rocks and soils and lead to soils podsolization.

Factors affecting weathering

Weathering is affected by several factors, including climate, rock type, and natural agents.
Here’s a brief discussion of each of these factors:

1. Climate: The climate of a particular area can greatly influence the type and rate of
weathering that occurs. In regions with high rainfall and high humidity, chemical
weathering is more common, as water reacts with minerals in rocks to create new
compounds. In contrast, areas with extreme temperature changes, such as those that
experience freeze-thaw cycles, experience mechanical weathering due to the expansion
and contraction of water in rocks. Additionally, areas with strong winds can cause
abrasion and wear on exposed rock surfaces.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 41

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

2. Rock type: The type of rock being weathered is also an important factor. Some rocks,
such as granite and basalt are more resistant to weathering due to their dense and hard
composition. In contrast, sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone and limestone, are often
more susceptible to weathering due to their porous nature and the presence of minerals
that can dissolve in water. Additionally, rocks that contain iron and other minerals that are
prone to oxidation are more susceptible to chemical weathering.
3. Natural agents: Natural agents such as water, wind, and living organisms can greatly
influence the rate and type of weathering that occurs. Water can cause both mechanical
and chemical weathering, as it can freeze and thaw in rocks, and it can also dissolve
minerals over time. Wind can cause abrasion and wear on exposed rock surfaces, while
living organisms such as plant roots and burrowing animals can physically break down
rocks and minerals.

ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS AND SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES

"Environmental systems and sustainable practices" refers to the study and implementation
of methods to manage and protect natural ecosystems while ensuring their long-term
health and usability for future generations, including practices like responsible resource
consumption, waste reduction, renewable energy usage, and biodiversity conservation, all
aimed at minimizing environmental impact and promoting sustainability.
KEY ASPECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS AND SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES
Ecosystem preservation:
Protecting and restoring natural habitats, including forests, wetlands, and coral reefs, to
maintain biodiversity and ecological balance.
Resource management:
Utilizing natural resources like water, land, and minerals efficiently to minimize waste and
depletion.
Pollution control:

Reducing emissions of pollutants like greenhouse gases, chemicals, and waste into the
environment.

Renewable energy:

Transitioning to energy sources like solar, wind, and hydropower to decrease reliance on
fossil fuels.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 42

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

Sustainable agriculture:

Implementing farming practices that minimize environmental impact, such as crop rotation,
integrated pest management, and soil conservation.

Waste reduction and recycling:

Minimizing waste generation through responsible consumption and recycling programs.

Climate change mitigation:

Taking actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate
change.

Urban planning:
Designing cities that promote sustainable transportation, green spaces, and energy
efficiency.
Examples of sustainable practices:

 Planting trees: Helps to absorb carbon dioxide and improve air quality.

 Conserving water: Implementing water-saving technologies in homes and

businesses.

 Using energy-efficient appliances: Reducing energy consumption in homes and

buildings.

 Composting organic waste: Recycling food scraps to create nutrient-rich soil.

 Supporting local and sustainable businesses: Choosing products with minimal

environmental impact.

 Walking, cycling, or using public transportation: Reducing reliance on cars and

their associated emissions
Key aspects of pollution control measures within environmental systems and
sustainable practices include:

 Pollution prevention:

Prioritizing the reduction or elimination of waste at its source, rather than just managing it
after it's produced.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 43

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

 Waste management:

Implementing systems to reduce waste generation, reuse materials where possible, and
properly dispose of remaining waste in an environmentally friendly manner.

 Resource conservation:

Optimizing the use of natural resources like water and energy to minimize consumption and
associated pollution.

 Renewable energy sources:

Transitioning to energy sources like solar, wind, and hydropower to reduce reliance on
fossil fuels and associated emissions.

 Sustainable agriculture:

Employing practices like crop rotation, organic farming, and reduced chemical use to
protect soil quality and minimize water pollution.

 Emission control technologies:

Installing equipment on industrial facilities to capture and reduce air pollutants before they
are released into the atmosphere.

 Water treatment:

Implementing processes to clean wastewater before discharge, including sewage treatment

plants and industrial effluent treatment.

 Environmental policy and regulations:

Establishing legal frameworks to enforce pollution control standards and incentivize
sustainable practices across industries.
 Implementing sustainable practices within environmental systems:

By using renewable energy sources, managing water usage efficiently, and practicing
responsible land use, we can maintain the health of natural ecosystems and support
sustainable development.

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 44

BASIC CIVIL ENGINEERING MODULE IV

Renewable energy as a key driver of sustainability

Transitioning to renewable energy sources is a major step towards achieving sustainable
development by significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
Examples of sustainable practices related to renewable energy:

 Installing solar panels on rooftops to generate electricity from sunlight

 Building wind farms to harness wind power

 Developing hydroelectric dams to generate electricity from flowing water

 Utilizing geothermal energy from the Earth's heat

CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change mitigation is the process of reducing greenhouse gas emissions to slow
climate change. Sustainable practices include using renewable energy, conserving resources,
and protecting ecosystems.

Climate change mitigation

 Reduce emissions: Cut greenhouse gases from power plants, factories, cars, and
farms

 Use renewable energy: Switch to clean energy sources like solar, wind, wave, tidal,
and geothermal power

 Conserve energy: Use energy more efficiently in homes and transportation

 Protect forests: Restore and conserve forests, which absorb and store greenhouse
gases

 Practice sustainable agriculture: Adopt regenerative agricultural practices

 Develop sustainable transportation: Use more sustainable transportation options

 Develop sustainable buildings: Design buildings to be more sustainable

SREELEKSHMI S, ASST. PROFESSORS, DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, S.B.C.E., PATTOOR 45