Syllabus content

• Lecture 1: (6-Mar)
Introduction of optical communications
• Lecture 2: (13-Mar)
Optical fibers
• Lecture 3: (20-Mar)
Laser sources
• Lecture 4: (27-Mar)
Optical amplifiers, LED, Optical modulators
• Lecture 5: (3-Apr)
CA2 start, due on 9-Apr (20%)
Photodetectors and Receivers
• Lecture 6: (10-Apr)
Supplementary information and Revision
Lecture 1: System Application, System Evolution, and Basic Concepts;

Long-haul, short haul, 1st-5th generation, in Signal, multiplexing,

guided and unguided the past few decades modulation, BER
communication

Optical Transmitter Communication Channel Optical Receiver

Optical Optical Electrical

Electrical Fiber Fiber
Input Output (after
Demodulation)

Source Modulator Amplifier Photodetector

Lecture 2 Lecture 2
Lecture 3 Lecture 5
Lecture 4
Lecture 4

2
 Lecture 2
Optical Fibers

Nanxi Li
Office: E4-05-46
Phone: 8386 4716
Email: [email protected] 3
 Outline

1. Optical Fiber Structure

2. Wave Propagation in Step-Index Fibers

3. Fiber Dispersion

4. Fiber Loss

5. Fiber Nonlinearities

4
 Optical Fibers
Polyurethane outer Jacket

Typical dimension for silica fibers

Strength members
▪ Single-mode fiber (SMF):
8~9 m core, 125 m cladding
▪ Multi-mode fiber (MMF):
50, 62.5, 100 m core, 125 m cladding

Index profile
▪ Step index
Buffer Jacket ▪ Graded index
Silicon coating ▪ Multi-step index
Cladding (silica)
Core (silica) Optical fiber

5
Geometrical-Optics Description of
Optical Fibers

Total internal reflection inside PMMA

(source: HeNe laser)

The geometrical-optics is valid when the core

size is much larger than the light wavelength.

PMMA: Poly Methyl Methacrylate 6

Snell’s Law and Total Internal Reflection
❑ Snell’s law: n1 sin 1 = n2 sin  2
❑ If the incident angle is larger than a certain value 1 where
sin(1)=n2/n1, there is no refraction light and total internal
reflection occurs. The 1 is called the critical angle.

n2 (n2<n1)

1 − RF
2

n −n 
2
1 1 1
RF =  1 2 
 n1 + n2 
(Fresnel) reflection
coefficient Light source n1
7
Step-Index Fiber & Graded-Index Fiber

Cladding
b
b
Core
a a

n1 n1
n2 Index n2
Index

Radial distance Radial distance

8
Numerical Aperture of Step-Index Fiber

c

Critical angle Acceptance angle

n1 sin c = n2  r = 90 − c n0 sin  i = n1 sin  r

❑ Numerical aperture (NA), which represents the light-gathering capability
of an optical fiber, can be expressed as
NA = n0 sin  i = n1 sin (90 − c ) = n1 cos(c ) = n1 1 − sin (c )
2
max

n2 2
= n1 1 − ( ) = n12 − n22  n1 2
n1
where  = (n1 − n2 ) / n1 9
G. Agrawal, “Fiber-optic communication systems”, Wiley, 2010.
 Capacity Estimate of Step-Index Fiber
(Geometrical-Optics)
L

c
90 − c

❑ For a step-index fiber of length L, the shortest path (L) occurs for i=0
whereas the longest path (L/sin( c )) occurs for  i = sin −1n1 sin (90 − c ) / n0 . Thus,
the time difference between the two paths can be expressed using
geometrical-optics as
n1  L  n1 L  1  L n1 (n1 − n2 ) L n12
T =  − L  =  − 1 = = 
c  sin c  c  (n2 / n1 )  c n2 c n2
❑ Approximately, the time difference should be less than the bit duration, 1/B.
An order-of-magnitude estimation of bit rate: Rough estimation of
n2 c fundamental limitation of step
T  1 / B Hence, we have: BL  2 index fibers, which is originated
n1 
from intermodal dispersion
10
Smaller index step → higher bitrate-distance product.
 Example Question 1
(1) For a step index fiber, with n1=1.5, n2=1.4, please estimate
the upper limit of Bitrate-distance product.
(2) For another step index fiber, with n1=1.5 and ∆=2×10-3,
please estimate the upper limit of Bitrate-distance product.

11
 Graded-Index Fibers
ρ

Index

❑ Refractive index of -profile graded-index fibers, ρ is the axial position.

 
n1 1 − ( / a ) ;   a
n( ) = 
a is the core radius; α determines the index profile;

 n1 (1 −  ) = n2 ;   a
e.g. large α → step index profile;
α=2 → parabolic index fiber.

❑ Geometrical-optics description: The paraxial ray takes the shortest path

but travels most slowly. On the other hand, oblique rays have a large
part of their path in a medium of lower refractive index where they travel
faster → reduced intermodal dispersion, increased B·L product.
12
 Commercial Single-Mode Fiber

For example: (Corning SMF-28)

❑ ncore=1.4504, ncladding=1.4447 at 1550 nm

❑ NA = 0.13

❑ Acceptance angle = 7.35 degrees

Optical fiber
Acceptance angle

13
 Maxwell’s Equations
Propagation of light in optical fibers is governed by
Maxwell’s equations

❑ Maxwell’s Equations

Faraday’s law   Eˆ = −Bˆ / t E: Electric field vector (V/m)

  Hˆ = Jˆ + Dˆ / t
H: Magnetic field vector (A/m)
Ampere’s law
D: Electric flux density (Coulomb/m2)

  Dˆ =  B: Magnetic flux density (Webers/m2 or Tesla)

Gauss’s law J: Current density (A/m2)
  Bˆ = 0 : Charge density

❑ Constitutive Relations (relate flux density and field vector)

Dˆ =  0 Eˆ + Pˆ
P: Polarization vector
0: Vacuum Permittivity

Bˆ =  Hˆ + Mˆ
0
0: Vacuum Permeability
M: Magnetic polarization vector 14
 Wave Equation

  Eˆ = −Bˆ / t = −  0 Hˆ / t     Eˆ = −  0  (Hˆ / t )

= −  0  (  Hˆ ) / t
  Hˆ = Dˆ / t =  0 Eˆ / t
= −  0  ( 0 Eˆ / t ) / t
= −  0 0 ( 2 Eˆ / t 2 )
    Eˆ = (  Eˆ ) −  2 Eˆ
= − 2 Ê

So we have:  2 Eˆ −  0 0 ( 2 Eˆ / t 2 ) = 0

Wave equation in time domain

15
 Wave Equation
❑ Wave equation in time domain:

 2 Eˆ −  0 0 ( 2 Eˆ / t 2 ) = 0

❑ Silica optical fiber: isotropic and linear medium

Cylindrical coordinates * (, , and z)

 2 Ez 1 Ez 1  2 Ez  2 Ez
+ + 2 + 2 + n2 k02 Ez = 0
 2
    2
z

 n1 for   a
n=
n2 for   a


Similar equations for the other five components of E, E, Hz, H, and H

The solution of wave equation in cylindrical coordinates is a Bessel Function.

16
* W. Hayt & J. Buck, Engineering Electromagnetics, McGraw-Hill, 2006. Chapter 1
 Cutoff Condition
❑ A mode is uniquely identified by its propagation constant .
❑ Mode index (or effective index)
n1  n =  / k0  n2

❑ A mode ceases to be guided when n  n2 (cutoff condition).

❑ The normalized frequency V is defined as

𝑉 = 𝑘0 𝑎 ∙ 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑘0 𝑎 𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ≅ (2𝜋/𝜆)𝑎𝑛1 2∆

❑ We define a normalized propagation constant b as.

 / k0 − n2
b=
n1 − n2
❑ Number of modes in a multi-mode fiber can be estimated by
M V 2 /2
17
Normalized Propagation Constant b
1.0 n1
Normalized Propagation Constant, b

0.8
Fundamental
Mode

0.6 LP01
LP21
n
LP11
0.4

LP31
0.2 LP21
2.4048 LP02 LP12
0 n2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Normalized Frequency, V
❑ Cut off frequency Vcut-off = 2.4048;
❑ For single-mode operation, V < 2.4048. 18
G. Agrawal, “Fiber-optic communication systems”, Wiley, 2010.
Step-Index Fiber Modes
(Linearly Polarized modes LPmn)

m=0, n=1 m=1, n=1 m=2, n=1 m=0, n=2

m=3, n=1 m=1, n=2 m=4, n=1 m=2, n=2

m=0, n=3 m=5, n=1 m=3, n=2 m=1, n=3

19
 Example Question 2
A multimode fiber with core radius of a=25 um, ∆=5×10-3
n1=1.45.
How much is its normalized frequency at λ=1.3 μm and 1.55
μm, respectively?
How many modes does it support at λ=1.3 μm and 1.55 μm,
respectively?

20
 Dispersion
❑ Different components of transmitted signal travel at different
velocities in the fiber and arrive at different time at the receiver;

❑ Modal dispersion (inter-modal dispersion)

▪ Different fiber modes travel at different velocities;
▪ Only at multi-mode fibers;

❑ Chromatic dispersion (intra-modal dispersion)

▪ Also called group-velocity dispersion (GVD);
▪ GVD has two contributions:
▪ Material dispersion: due to -dependence of fiber material;
▪ Waveguide dispersion: due to waveguide design;

❑ Polarization-mode dispersion
▪ Different polarization components of a pulse travel at different
velocities.
21
 Modal Dispersion
❑ As the different modes which constitute a pulse in a multimode fiber
travel along the channel at different group velocities, the pulse width
after transmission would be determined by the transmission time of
the slowest and fastest modes.
Intensity

Time

cladding
core
Amplitude

LP01 LP11 LP02 22

 Group-Velocity Dispersion
❑ As the signal propagates along the fiber (length=L), each spectral
component travels independently and undergoes a time delay of
T = L / vg, where vg is the group velocity defined as

vg = (d / d )
−1

❑ If the spectral width of the source is , the extent of pulse broadening
is governed by

dT d  L  d 2 d 2
T =  =  = L  = L 2  where  2 =
d 
d  vg  d 2
d 2
❑ When expressed by the range of wavelengths, the pulse broadening
can be written as 2c 2c
=  = − 2 
 
d  L  d  1  2c
T =  = DL where D= = − 2 2
d  vg  d  vg  
23
 Dispersion Limitations
❑ The effect of dispersion on bit rate B can be estimated by using the
following criteria:

BT  1
T = DL

BL D   1
It provides an order-of-magnitude estimation of the BL product by single
mode fiber.

24
 Phase Velocity vs. Group Velocity
Lp

t = t1

vp=Lp/(t2-t1)

t = t2

Lg

t = t1
vg=Lg/(t2-t1)

t = t2

25
 Material Dispersion
❑ Material dispersion occurs since the refractive index of the material used for
fiber fabrication (silica), changes with the optical frequency.
❑ Fundamental origin of the material dispersion comes from the characteristic
resonance frequencies at which material absorbs the electromagnetic wave.
❑ When the frequency (wavelength) is far from medium resonance, the
refractive index is well approximated by Sellmeier’s equation:
M B j 2j
n ( ) = 1 + 
2

j =1  2j −  2
ωj represents the resonance frequency, Bj represents the oscillator strength.
For optical fibers, ωj and Bj are obtained empirically by fitting the measured
dispersion curves to the above equation with M=3.
These coefficients vary with the amount of dopants within the fiber.

❑ Group index can be obtained:

ng = n +  (dn / d )

26
 Material Dispersion
❑ Figure below shows the wavelength dependence of n and ng for fused silica.
❑ Material dispersion, DM, is related to the slope of ng.
❑ dng/d=0 at 1.276 m. This wavelength is referred to as the zero-dispersion
wavelength λZD, as DM = 0.

1.49
Normal Anomalous
dispersion dispersion
1.48
DM < 0 DM > 0
Refractive Index

Group index, ng
1.47

1.46

n
1.45

1.44
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Wavelength (m)
27
G. Agrawal, “Fiber-optic communication systems”, Wiley, 2010.
 Waveguide Dispersion
❑ Waveguide structure of fiber also contributes to fiber dispersion.
❑ The waveguide dispersion, DW, depends upon V parameter and b, and is
negative in the entire wavelength range 0~1.6 m.
❑ Since the waveguide dispersion depends on fiber parameters, it is
possible to change the total fiber dispersion by tailoring the waveguide
structure.
Intensity

Time

cladding
core

f2 f1

f1 < f2 28
Dispersion of Conventional SMF
Overall chromatic dispersion: D(λ) = Dmat(λ) + Dwg(λ)
30

DM
20
Dispersion (ps/nm/km)

10 D=DM+DW

DW
-10

-20
Normal Anomalous
ZD
-30
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
Wavelength (m)
29
 Example Question 3
A conventional single-mode fiber has a dispersion of 16~18 ps/nm/km at
1550 nm.
Suppose a very narrow optical pulse with a spectral bandwidth of 3 nm is
launched at one end of a 2-km conventional single-mode fiber. After
transmission, please estimate the pulse broadening in terms of ps.

? ps

2 km

30
Dispersion of Optical Fibers

31
G. Agrawal, “Fiber-optic communication systems”, Wiley, 2010.
Dispersion of Commercial Optical Fibers
24
DFF: Dispersion-flattened fiber

20 DSF: Dispersion-shifted fiber

Fiber Dispersion (ps/nm-km)

SSMF: Standard single-mode fiber

16

12

-4
1475 1500 1525 1550 1575 1600 1625
Wavelength (nm)

LEAF by Corning; TureWave  by Lucent Technologies; Teralight  by Alcatel. 32

 Dispersion Compensation
❑ Fiber dispersion is a linear effect and thus can be compensated by using
a fiber with the opposite dispersion.
Low  High 
(high f ) (low f )

Time
Normal dispersion

Low  High 
(high f ) (low f )

Time

Anomalous dispersion

33
 Polarization-Mode Dispersion (PMD)
❑ PMD occurs when the circular symmetry of fiber is broken and fiber becomes
birefringent: difference polarization see different refractive index.
❑ Input pulse excites both polarization components, it will become broader.

y Fiber axis
x ❑ It is a random effect due to random
intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
Differential group delay ❑ PMD is a source of pulse
(DGD)
broadening and one of the limiting
factors for high-speed optical fiber
communication systems.
❑ Typical birefringence of fiber,
|nx-ny|, is ~10-7.
34
 Attenuation Coefficient
❑ Change in the average optical power P of a bit stream propagating inside the
fiber follows Beer’s law:
dP / dz = −P
where  (unit: m-1 or km-1) is the attenuation coefficient. If Pin is the power
launched at the input end of a fiber with length L, the output power Pout can be
written as
Pout = Pin e −L

❑ It is customary to express  in units of dB/km.

P 
 dB / km = −
10
log10  out
10
( )
 = − log10 e −L = 10 log10 e  4.343
L  Pin  L
❑ Typical fiber loss at 1.55 m is 0.2 dB/km, which means 95.5% of photons
survive after 1-km transmission. This value is close to the fundamental limit of
0.16 dB/km.

35
Attenuation Spectra for the Intrinsic
Loss Mechanisms in Pure Glass

36
G. Agrawal, “Fiber-optic communication systems”, Wiley, 2010.
 Fiber Loss
❑ Material Absorption
▪ Intrinsic absorption by SiO2: electronic resonance in ultraviolet at  < 0.4 m;
vibrational resonance in infrared at  > 7.0 m;
▪ Extrinsic absorption by impurities (transition metal elements);
▪ Extrinsic absorption by OH- ion (main source for extrinsic absorption):
vibrational resonance of OH- ion at ~2.7 m and its harmonics and
combination tones at 1.39 m, 1.24 m, 0.95 m.
❑ Rayleigh Scattering
▪ Microscopic fluctuation of silica molecule density → random fluctuation of the
refractive index on a scale smaller than optical wavelength .
▪ Loss proportional to 1/4.
❑ Mie Scattering (Waveguide Imperfection)
▪ Imperfection of waveguide (e.g., irregularities in the core-cladding interface,
diameter fluctuations);
▪ Index inhomogeneity on a scale larger than optical wavelength 
37
 Low Water Peak Fiber
2.1
SMF: Single mode fiber
1.8 LWPF: Low water peak fiber
(dry fiber)
1.5
Loss (dB/km)

1.2

0.9

Conventional
0.6
SMF

0.3
LWPF
0
1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
Wavelength (nm)

38
 Bending Loss
❑ Fiber bends constitute to another kind of scattering loss;
❑ At a fiber bend, the propagation conditions change and light rays which could propagate
in a straight fiber are lost in the cladding;
❑ Macro-bending: loss proportional to exp(-R/Rc); Rc=a/(n12-n22); for SMF, Rc typical value
is 0.2-0.4 μm;
❑ Macro-bending is negligible in practice since most of macro bends exceed R= 5mm;
❑ Micro-bending is random axial distortion that occur during fiber cabling when the fiber is
pressed against a surface that is not perfectly smooth;
❑ Micro-bending can be decreased by designing fiber to increase the confinement within
the core region.

Macro-bending Micro-bending

39
 Geometrical-Optics Description of
Macro-bending
❑ Geometrical-optics description used with multimode fiber provides
approximate explanation;
❑ At a sharp bend, light rays which propagate by total internal reflection on a
straight fiber are lost into cladding;
❑ Result is optical power loss and thus attenuation.

 < c  > c
Cladding

 > c

Core

c: Critical angle

40
 Example Question 4

For a silica glass, its Rayleigh scattering loss is 1.9 dB/km at 850 nm.
Estimate its Rayleigh scattering loss at 1310 nm and 1550 nm.

41
 Fiber Nonlinearities
❑ Stimulated Light Scattering
▪Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
▪ Acoustic phonon (vsound, GHz);
▪ Backward direction;
▪ Frequency shift by about 11 GHz (Stokes shift);
▪ Gain spectrum extremely narrow (<100 MHz);
▪Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
▪ Optical phonon (c, THz);
▪ Both directions;
▪ Frequency shift by about 13 THz (Stokes shift);
▪ Gain spectrum extends over 20-30 THz;

❑ Nonlinear Refractive Index

▪ Self-Phase Modulation (SPM)
▪ Cross-Phase Modulation (XPM)
▪ Four-Wave Mixing (FWM) 42
 Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
❑ Strong light can produce acoustic vibrations (acoustic phonon) in the
fiber via electrostriction, which in turn gives rise to microscopic optical
density variations. Then, the light may undergo scattering from these
vibration usually in opposite direction to the incoming light;
❑ Electrostriction is a property of all dielectrics, that causes them to change
their shape under the application of an electric field;
❑ The Brillouin-gain spectrum for silica fiber is narrow (<100 MHz);
❑ The frequency of scattered light is shifted downward by ~11 GHz for silica
fiber at 1.55 m;
❑ The threshold power is about 6 mW for conventional single-mode fiber.

43
 Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)
Energy conservation Momentum conservation →
ks →
 s =  p − a → →
ks = k p − ka
→
ka
 /2
→
Scattered Pump Acoustic
frequency frequency frequency
Scattered Pump wave Acoustic kp
wave vector vector wave vector

Dispersion relation
Acoustic →
→ velocity 2v a k p
 a = k a va a
→ →
k p  ks fa = = →
k p = 2n /  p
2 2
→
= 2va k p sin( / 2) 2va (2n /  p )
=
Angle between pump 2
→ and scattered wave v A = 5.96km / s
= 2v a k p In optical fiber, only forward (θ=0) and = 2v a n /  p n = 1.45
backward (θ=π) wave propagation
 p = 1.55m
= 11.1GHz
44
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS)

 s =  p − a
To enhance the ❑ Positive feedback enables
amplitude of the efficient energy transfer
a
acoustic wave
from pump wave to
scattered wave;
❑ It is a stimulated process
p
(similar to laser).
To enhance the
Positive feedback
amplitude of
loop
scattered wave

Beat signal
s Spontaneous
scattered wave

p
45
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
Light
injection

Backscattered wave Transmitted light

Backscattered Optical Power (dBm)

Received Optical Power (dBm)
Linear Nonlinear

SBS Threshold
~6 mW

Transmitter Optical Power (dBm)

46
 Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
❑ Interaction of light with high-frequency optical phonon (vibrating
silica molecules);
❑ Raman scattering can occur at any direction (isotropic) as acoustic
wave is not involved. In optical fiber, only forward and backward
scattered light can be guided;
❑ The frequency of scattered light is shifted up to 40 THz (Gain peak
occurs when Raman shift at ~13 THz);
❑ The threshold power is about 570 mW for conventional single-mode
fiber; (channel power on optical communication system is <10 mW);
❑ When the power is higher than threshold power, stimulated emission
will happen (positive feedback loop similar to SBS);
❑ Stimulated emission can be used to amplify optical signals (i.e.,
Raman amplifiers).
47
 Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)
hi

hR
3
2
1
Vibrational 0
S1
energy

Energy
Inelastic Scattering
3
• Energy transferred 2
from incident light to
1
molecular vibrations
0
• Emitted light has Rayleigh Raman S0
decreased energy Scattering Scattering
(i<R) (elastic) (Inelastic) difference
in energy
Nature (1928), “A New Type of Secondary Radiation”
The Nobel Prize in Physics (1930) to Professor Sir C.V. Raman 48
 Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)

❑ The broadband nature of the Raman spectrum is due to the amorphous

structure of glass;
❑ The vibrational energy levels of silica molecules merges to form wide
energy bands. 49
G. Agrawal, “Fiber-optic communication systems”, Wiley, 2010.
 Nonlinear Index of Refraction
(Kerr effect in optical fiber)
❑ Material refractive index will change nonlinearly at high optical intensities.
❑ Fundamentally, the origin of the effect arises from the anharmonic response
of electrons to high intensity optical fields.

n=n0+n2I Phase change by the Kerr effect is

k0 n2 P( z )
 P(z )dz
L k0 n2 L
n0=1.44  NL =  dz =
0 Aeff Aeff 0

n2=2.610-20 m2/W

Nonlinear index coefficient

of silica fiber

50
 Self-Phase Modulation (SPM)
❑ Refractive index varies with pulse intensity (Kerr effect).

❑ Intensity modulation of signal modulates refractive index which,

in turn, modulates the signal phase.

❑ Since the nonlinear phase modulation is self-induced, the nonlinear

phenomenon is called SPM.

❑ Phase modulation broadens signal spectrum due to the generation

of new frequency through nonlinear effect.

❑ SPM leads to additional pulse broadening due to dispersion.

❑ SPM limits the performance of lightwave system. Peak power

should be limited to reduce the impact of SPM.

51
 Cross-Phase Modulation (XPM)
❑ Refractive index varies with pulse intensity (Kerr effect);

❑ Intensity variations of adjacent channels change the refractive index

of fiber, which in turn, modulates the signal phase;

❑ XPM happens when two or more optical channels are transmitted

through an optical fiber using WDM technique.

❑ Induces interference in closely spaced channel systems.

❑ Induces amplitude distortion and timing jitter.

Amplitude distortion

Timing jitter

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 Four-Wave Mixing (FWM)

Output spectrum after 25 km of DSF ❑ Three optical fields with

carrier frequencies ω1, ω2
Input power = 3 dBm/channel and ω3 co-propagate inside
the fiber, generates a fourth
field ω4, through third order
nonlinear susceptibility (ꭕ(3));
❑ ω4 = ω1  ω2  ω3, where ωi
(i=1, 2, 3) is the frequency of
wave i.
❑ FWM can be used for
wavelength conversion.

R. W. Tkach et al., J. Lightwave Technol., May 1995

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Lecture 1: System Application, System Evolution, and Basic Concepts;

Long-haul, short haul, 1st-5th generation, in Signal, multiplexing,

guided and unguided the past few decades modulation, BER
communication
1. Geometrical-Optics and 2. Dispersion: Modal;
Wave Optics; Step index; Chromatic (GVD) –
NA; Cutoff frequency Material & Waveguide;
PM dispersions
Optical Transmitter Communication Channel Optical Receiver

Optical Optical Electrical

Electrical Fiber Fiber
Input Output (after
Demodulation)

Source Modulator Amplifier Photodetector

Lecture 2 Lecture 2
Lecture 3 Lecture 5
Lecture 4
Lecture 4
3. Loss: Absorption; 4. Nonlinearities:
Rayleigh & Mie Scattering; Scattering -- SRS, SBS;
Bending loss – Micro & Macro Kerr -- SPM, XPM, FWM.

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