C H

7 A P T E R

The pn Junction

U
p to this point in the text, we have been considering the properties of the semi-
conductor material. We calculated electron and hole concentrations in thermal
equilibrium and determined the position of the Fermi level. We then consid-
ered the nonequilibrium condition in which excess electrons and holes are present in
the semiconductor. We now wish to consider the situation in which a p-type and an
n-type semiconductor are brought into contact with one another to form a pn junction.
Most semiconductor devices contain at least one junction between p-type and
n-type semiconductor regions. Semiconductor device characteristics and operation
are intimately connected to these pn junctions, so considerable attention is devoted
initially to this basic device.
The electrostatics of the zero-biased and reverse-biased pn junction is consid-
ered in this chapter. The current–voltage characteristics of the pn junction diode are
developed in the next chapter. ■

7.0 | PREVIEW
In this chapter, we will:
■ Consider a uniformly doped pn junction, in which one region of the semicon-
ductor is uniformly doped with acceptor atoms and the adjacent region is uni-
formly doped with donor atoms.
■ Determine the energy-band diagram of a pn junction in thermal equilibrium.
■ Discuss the creation of a space charge region between the p and n regions.
■ Apply Poisson’s equation to determine the electric field in the space charge
region and calculate the built-in potential barrier.
■ Analyze the changes that occur in the pn junction when a reverse-biased voltage is
applied. Derive expressions for space charge width and depletion capacitance.
■ Analyze the voltage breakdown characteristics of a pn junction.
■ Consider the properties of a nonuniformly doped pn junction. Specific doping
profiles can lead to desirable properties of the pn junction.

241

nea29583_ch07_241-275.indd 241 12/11/10 11:32 AM

 242 CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction

7.1 | BASIC STRUCTURE OF THE pn JUNCTION

Figure 7.1a schematically shows the pn junction. It is important to realize that the en-
tire semiconductor is a single-crystal material in which one region is doped with ac-
ceptor impurity atoms to form the p region and the adjacent region is doped with
donor atoms to form the n region. The interface separating the n and p regions is
referred to as the metallurgical junction.
The impurity doping concentrations in the p and n regions are shown in Fig-
ure 7.1b. For simplicity, we will consider a step junction in which the doping concen-
tration is uniform in each region and there is an abrupt change in doping at the junc-
tion. Initially, at the metallurgical junction, there is a very large density gradient in
both electron and hole concentrations. Majority carrier electrons in the n region will
begin diffusing into the p region, and majority carrier holes in the p region will begin
diffusing into the n region. If we assume there are no external connections to the
semiconductor, then this diffusion process cannot continue indefinitely. As electrons
diffuse from the n region, positively charged donor atoms are left behind. Similarly,
as holes diffuse from the p region, they uncover negatively charged acceptor atoms.
The net positive and negative charges in the n and p regions induce an electric field
in the region near the metallurgical junction, in the direction from the positive to the
negative charge, or from the n to the p region.
The net positively and negatively charged regions are shown in Figure 7.2. These
two regions are referred to as the space charge region. Essentially all electrons and
holes are swept out of the space charge region by the electric field. Since the space
charge region is depleted of any mobile charge, this region is also referred to as the

Na negative Nd positive
p n charge charge

ⴚ ⴚ ⴚ ⴚ ⴙ ⴙ ⴙ ⴙ
Metallurgical ⴚ ⴚ ⴚ ⴚ ⴙ ⴙ ⴙ ⴙ
p n
junction ⴚ ⴚ ⴚ ⴚ ⴙ ⴙ ⴙ ⴙ
(a) ⴚ ⴚ ⴚ ⴚ ⴙ ⴙ ⴙ ⴙ

Space charge region

Na E-field
Hole Nd
diffusion “Diffusion “Diffusion
Electron force” on force” on
diffusion holes electrons

E-field E-field
x0 force on force on
holes electrons
(b)

Figure 7.1 | (a) Simplified geometry of

a pn junction; (b) doping profile of an Figure 7.2 | The space charge region, the electric field, and the
ideal uniformly doped pn junction. forces acting on the charged carriers.

nea29583_ch07_241-275.indd 242 12/11/10 11:32 AM

 7.2 Zero Applied Bias 243

depletion region; these two terms will be used interchangeably. Density gradients
still exist in the majority carrier concentrations at each edge of the space charge
region. We can think of a density gradient as producing a “diffusion force” that acts
on the majority carriers. These diffusion forces, acting on the electrons and holes at
the edges of the space charge region, are shown in the figure. The electric field in
the space charge region produces another force on the electrons and holes, which is
in the opposite direction to the diffusion force for each type of particle. In thermal
equilibrium, the diffusion force and the E-field force exactly balance each other.

7.2 | ZERO APPLIED BIAS

We have considered the basic pn junction structure and discussed briefly how the
space charge region is formed. In this section we will examine the properties of the
step junction in thermal equilibrium, where no currents exist and no external excita-
tion is applied. We will determine the space charge region width, electric field, and
potential through the depletion region.
The analysis in this chapter is based on two assumptions that we have consid-
ered in previous chapters. The first assumption is that the Boltzmann approximation
is valid, which means that each semiconductor region is nondegenerately doped. The
second assumption is that complete ionization exists, which means that the tempera-
ture of the pn junction is not “too low.”

7.2.1 Built-in Potential Barrier

If we assume that no voltage is applied across the pn junction, then the junction is
in thermal equilibrium—the Fermi energy level is constant throughout the entire
system. Figure 7.3 shows the energy-band diagram for the pn junction in thermal
equilibrium. The conduction and valance band energies must bend as we go through
the space charge region, since the relative position of the conduction and valence
bands with respect to the Fermi energy changes between p and n regions.

p n

Ec

eVbi

EFi
e␾Fp
EF EF
Ev e␾Fn
EFi

Figure 7.3 | Energy-band diagram of a pn junction in

thermal equilibrium.

nea29583_ch07_241-275.indd 243 12/11/10 11:32 AM

 244 CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction

Electrons in the conduction band of the n region see a potential barrier in

trying to move into the conduction band of the p region. This potential barrier
is referred to as the built-in potential barrier and is denoted by Vbi. The built-in
potential barrier maintains equilibrium between majority carrier electrons in the
n region and minority carrier electrons in the p region, and also between majority
carrier holes in the p region and minority carrier holes in the n region. This poten-
tial difference across the junction cannot be measured with a voltmeter because
new potential barriers will be formed between the probes and the semiconductor
that will cancel Vbi. The potential Vbi maintains equilibrium, so no current is pro-
duced by this voltage.
The intrinsic Fermi level is equidistant from the conduction band edge through
the junction; thus, the built-in potential barrier can be determined as the difference
between the intrinsic Fermi levels in the p and n regions. We can define the potentials
Fn and Fp as shown in Figure 7.3, so we have
Vbi  Fn  Fp (7.1)
In the n region, the electron concentration in the conduction band is given by


(Ec  EF)
n0  Nc exp __
kT  (7.2)

which can also be written in the form

n0  ni exp __
EF  EFi
kT  (7.3)

where ni and EFi are the intrinsic carrier concentration and the intrinsic Fermi energy,
respectively. We may define the potential Fn in the n region as
eFn  EFi  EF (7.4)
Equation (7.3) may then be written as

n0  ni exp __
(eFn)
kT  (7.5)

Taking the natural log of both sides of Equation (7.5), setting n0  Nd, and solving
for the potential, we obtain
kT ln _
Fn  _e
Nd
ni   (7.6)

Similarly, in the p region, the hole concentration is given by

p0  Na  ni exp __
kT
EFi  EF
 (7.7)

where Na is the acceptor concentration. We can define the potential Fp in the p re-
gion as
eFp  EFi  EF (7.8)

nea29583_ch07_241-275.indd 244 12/11/10 11:32 AM

 7.2 Zero Applied Bias 245

Combining Equations (7.7) and (7.8), we find that

Fp   _e
Na
kT ln _
ni  (7.9)

Finally, the built-in potential barrier for the step junction is found by substituting
Equations (7.6) and (7.9) into Equation (7.1), which yields

Vbi  _
 
NaNd
kT ln _
e n2i
NaNd
 Vt ln _
n2i   (7.10)

where Vt  kT/e and is defined as the thermal voltage.

At this time, we should note a subtle but important point concerning notation.
Previously in the discussion of a semiconductor material, Nd and Na denoted donor
and acceptor impurity concentrations in the same region, thereby forming a compen-
sated semiconductor. From this point on in the text, Nd and Na will denote the net
donor and acceptor concentrations in the individual n and p regions, respectively. If
the p region, for example, is a compensated material, then Na will represent the dif-
ference between the actual acceptor and donor impurity concentrations. The param-
eter Nd is defined in a similar manner for the n region.

Objective: Calculate the built-in potential barrier in a pn junction. EXAMPLE 7.1

Consider a silicon pn junction at T  300 K with doping concentrations of Na 
2  1017 cm3 and Nd  1015 cm3.

■ Solution
The built-in potential barrier is determined from Equation (7.10) as

 Na Nd
Vbi  Vt ln _
ni2  
(2  1017)(1015)
 (0.0259) ln ___
(1.5  1010)2 
 0.713 V

If we change the doping concentration in the p region of the pn junction such that the doping
concentrations become Na  1016 cm3 and Nd  1015 cm3, then the built-in potential barrier
becomes Vbi  0.635 V.

■ Comment
The built-in potential barrier changes only slightly as the doping concentrations change by
orders of magnitude because of the logarithmic dependence.

■ EXERCISE PROBLEM
Ex 7.1 (a) Calculate the built-in potential barrier in a silicon pn junction at T  300 K for
(i) Na  5  1015 cm3, Nd  1017 cm3 and (ii) Na  2  1016 cm3, Nd  2  1015 cm3.
(b) Repeat part (a) for a GaAs pn junction.
[Ans. (a) (i) 0.736 V, (ii) 0.671 V; (b) (i) 1.20 V, (ii) 1.14 V]

nea29583_ch07_241-275.indd 245 12/11/10 11:32 AM

 246 CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction

 (C/cm3)
p n
ⴙeNd

ⴙ
ⴚxp
ⴙxn
ⴚ

ⴚeNa

Figure 7.4 | The space charge density in

a uniformly doped pn junction assuming
the abrupt junction approximation.

7.2.2 Electric Field

An electric field is created in the depletion region by the separation of positive and
negative space charge densities. Figure 7.4 shows the volume charge density distri-
bution in the pn junction assuming uniform doping and assuming an abrupt junction
approximation. We will assume that the space charge region abruptly ends in the
n region at x  xn and abruptly ends in the p region at x  xp (xp is a positive
quantity).
The electric field is determined from Poisson’s equation, which, for a one-
dimensional analysis, is
2
(x)
d (x) __ d E(x)
__   _ s (7.11)
dx2 dx
where (x) is the electric potential, E(x) is the electric field, (x) is the volume charge
density, and s is the permittivity of the semiconductor. From Figure 7.4, the charge
densities are
(x)  eNa xp  x  0 (7.12a)
and
(x)  eNd 0  x  xn (7.12b)
The electric field in the p region is found by integrating Equation (7.11). We
have
 
(x) eNa eNa
E _ s dx   _
s dx  s x  C1
_ (7.13)

where C1 is a constant of integration. The electric field is assumed to be zero in the

neutral p region for x  xp since the currents are zero in thermal equilibrium. Since
there are no surface charge densities within the pn junction structure, the electric

nea29583_ch07_241-275.indd 246 12/11/10 11:32 AM

 7.2 Zero Applied Bias 247

field is a continuous function. The constant of integration is determined by setting

E  0 at x  xp. The electric field in the p region is then given by
eNa
E_s (x  xp) xp  x  0 (7.14)

In the n region, the electric field is determined from


(eNd) eNd
E _ s dx  s x  C2
_ (7.15)

where C2 is again a constant of integration and is determined by setting E  0 at

x  xn, since the E-field is assumed to be zero in the n region and is a continuous
function. Then
eNd
E_ s (xn  x) 0  x  xn (7.16)
The electric field is also continuous at the metallurgical junction, or at x  0. Setting
Equations (7.14) and (7.16) equal to each other at x  0 gives
Na xp  Nd xn (7.17)
Equation (7.17) states that the number of negative charges per unit area in the p re-
gion is equal to the number of positive charges per unit area in the n region.
Figure 7.5 is a plot of the electric field in the depletion region. The electric field
direction is from the n to the p region, or in the negative x direction for this geom-
etry. For the uniformly doped pn junction, the E-field is a linear function of distance
through the junction, and the maximum (magnitude) electric field occurs at the met-
allurgical junction. An electric field exists in the depletion region even when no volt-
age is applied between the p and n regions.
The potential in the junction is found by integrating the electric field. In the
p region then, we have
 
eNa
(x)   E(x)dx  _ s (x  xp) dx (7.18)

E
p n
ⴚxp xⴝ0 ⴙxn

Figure 7.5 | Electric field in the space

charge region of a uniformly doped pn
junction.

nea29583_ch07_241-275.indd 247 12/11/10 11:32 AM

 248 CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction

or
eNa _
(x)  _ x2
 
s 2  xp · x  C1 (7.19)

where C1 is again a constant of integration. The potential difference through the
pn junction is the important parameter, rather than the absolute potential, so we may
arbitrarily set the potential equal to zero at x  xp . The constant of integration is
then found as
eN
C1  _a x 2p (7.20)
2s
so that the potential in the p region can now be written as
eN
(x)  _a (x  xp)2 (xp  x  0) (7.21)
2s
The potential in the n region is determined by integrating the electric field in the
n region, or

eNd
(x)  _ s (xn  x)dx (7.22)

Then
eNd
(x)  _  x2 
s xn · x  2  C2
_
 (7.23)

where C2 is another constant of integration. The potential is a continuous function,

so setting Equation (7.21) equal to Equation (7.23) at the metallurgical junction, or
at x  0, gives
eN
C2  _a x2p (7.24)
2s
The potential in the n region can thus be written as
eNd
(x)  _  x2

eNa 2
s xn · x  2  2s xp
_ _ (0  x  xn) (7.25)

Figure 7.6 is a plot of the potential through the junction and shows the quadratic
dependence on distance. The magnitude of the potential at x  xn is equal to the built-
in potential barrier. Then from Equation (7.25), we have

e N x 2  N x2
2s  d n a p
Vbi  (x  xn)  _ (7.26)

The potential energy of an electron is given by E  e, which means that the
electron potential energy also varies as a quadratic function of distance through the
space charge region. The quadratic dependence on distance was shown in the energy-
band diagram of Figure 7.3, although we did not explicitly know the shape of the curve
at that time.

nea29583_ch07_241-275.indd 248 12/11/10 11:32 AM

 7.2 Zero Applied Bias 249


p n

Vbi

xp x0 xn

Figure 7.6 | Electric potential through the space charge

region of a uniformly doped pn junction.

7.2.3 Space Charge Width

We can determine the distance that the space charge region extends into the p and
n regions from the metallurgical junction. This distance is known as the space charge
width. From Equation (7.17), we may write, for example,
Nd xn
xp  _ (7.27)
Na
Then, substituting Equation (7.27) into Equation (7.26) and solving for xn, we obtain

 Na __
  
1 1 2
2sVbi _
xn  _ (7.28)
e Nd Na  Nd

Equation (7.28) gives the space charge width, or the width of the depletion region,
xn extending into the n-type region for the case of zero applied voltage.
Similarly, if we solve for xn from Equation (7.17) and substitute into Equa-
tion (7.26), we find

 Nd __
  
1 2
2sVbi _ 1
xp  _ (7.29)
e Na Na  Nd

where xp is the width of the depletion region extending into the p region for the case
of zero applied voltage.
The total depletion or space charge width W is the sum of the two components, or
W  xn  xp (7.30)
Using Equations (7.28) and (7.29), we obtain

 Na  Nd
2sVbi __
 
1 2
W _ e (7.31)
NaNd

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 250 CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction

The built-in potential barrier can be determined from Equation (7.10), and then the
total space charge region width is obtained using Equation (7.31).

EXAMPLE 7.2 Objective: Calculate the space charge width and electric field in a pn junction for zero bias.
Consider a silicon pn junction at T  300 K with doping concentrations of Na  1016 cm3
and Nd  1015 cm3.

■ Solution
In Example 7.1, we determined the built-in potential barrier as Vbi  0.635 V. From Equa-
tion (7.31), the space charge width is

 
Na  Nd
2sVbi __

1 2
W _ e Na Nd


2(11.7)(8.85  1014)(0.635) __

1016  1015

1 2
 _____
1.6  1019 (1016)(1015)
 0.951  104 cm  0.951 m

Using Equations (7.28) and (7.29), we can find xn  0.8644 m, and xp  0.0864 m.
The peak electric field at the metallurgical junction, using Equation (7.16) for example, is
eNd xn (1.6  1019)(1015)(0.8644  104)
Emax   _ s  
______  1.34  104 V/cm
(11.7)(8.85  1014)

■ Comment
The peak electric field in the space charge region of a pn junction is quite large. We must keep
in mind, however, that there is no mobile charge in this region; hence there will be no drift
current. We may also note, from this example, that the width of each space charge region is a
reciprocal function of the doping concentration: The depletion region will extend further into
the lower-doped region.

■ EXERCISE PROBLEM

Ex 7.2 A silicon pn junction at T  300 K with zero applied bias has doping concentrations
of Nd  5  1016 cm3 and Na  5  1015 cm3. Determine xn, xp, W, and Emax.
xp  4.11  105 cm, W  4.52  105 cm, Emax  3.18  104 V/cm)
(Ans. xn  4.11  106 cm,

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

TYU 7.1 Calculate Vbi, xn, xp, W, and Emax for a silicon pn junction at zero bias and T  300 K
for doping concentrations of (a) Na  2  1017 cm3, Nd  1016 cm3 and
(b) Na  4  1015 cm3, Nd  3  1016 cm3.
W  0.5064 m, Emax  2.76  104 V/cm]
Emax  4.77  104 V/cm; (b) Vbi  0.699 V, xn  0.0596 m, xp  0.4469 m,
[Ans. (a) Vbi  0.772 V, xn  0.3085 m, xp  0.0154 m, W  0.3240 m,
Emax  3.86  104 V/cm)
TYU 7.2 Repeat Exercise Problem Ex 7.2 for a GaAs pn junction.
(Ans. Vbi  1.186 V, xn  0.05590 m, xp  0.5590 m, W  0.6149 m,

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 7.3 Reverse Applied Bias 251

7.3 | REVERSE APPLIED BIAS

If we apply a potential between the p and n regions, we will no longer be in an equi-
librium condition—the Fermi energy level will no longer be constant through the
system. Figure 7.7 shows the energy-band diagram of the pn junction for the case
when a positive voltage is applied to the n region with respect to the p region. As
the positive potential is downward, the Fermi level on the n side is below the Fermi
level on the p side. The difference between the two is equal to the applied voltage in
units of energy.
The total potential barrier, indicated by Vtotal, has increased. The applied poten-
tial is the reverse-biased condition. The total potential barrier is now given by

Vtotal  Fn  Fp  VR (7.32)

where VR is the magnitude of the applied reverse-biased voltage. Equation (7.32) can
be rewritten as
Vtotal  Vbi  VR (7.33)

where Vbi is the same built-in potential barrier we had defined in thermal equilibrium.

7.3.1 Space Charge Width and Electric Field

Figure 7.8 shows a pn junction with an applied reverse-biased voltage VR. Also
indicated in the figure are the electric field in the space charge region and the electric
field Eapp , induced by the applied voltage. The electric fields in the neutral p and n re-
gions are essentially zero, or at least very small, which means that the magnitude of the
electric field in the space charge region must increase above the thermal-equilibrium
value due to the applied voltage. The electric field originates on positive charge and
terminates on negative charge; this means that the number of positive and negative

p n
Ec

EFi eVtotal
eFp
EFp
eVR Ec
Ev
EFn
e␾Fn
 EFi

Ev

Figure 7.7 | Energy-band diagram of a pn junction under

reverse bias.

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 252 CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction

Eapp

ⴚE ⴚ ⴙ ⴙ
ⴚ ⴚ ⴙ ⴙ
p ⴚ ⴚ ⴙ ⴙ n
ⴚ ⴚ ⴙ ⴙ
ⴚ ⴚ ⴙ ⴙ

 VR 

Figure 7.8 | A pn junction, with an applied reverse-biased

voltage, showing the directions of the electric field induced
by VR and the space charge electric field.

charges must increase if the electric field increases. For given impurity doping con-
centrations, the number of positive and negative charges in the depletion region can
be increased only if the space charge width W increases. The space charge width W
increases, therefore, with an increasing reverse-biased voltage VR. We are assuming
that the electric field in the bulk n and p regions is zero. This assumption will become
clearer in the next chapter when we discuss the current–voltage characteristics.
In all of the previous equations, the built-in potential barrier can be replaced by
the total potential barrier. The total space charge width can be written from Equa-
tion (7.31) as

 Na  Nd
2s(Vbi  VR) __
 
1 2
W  ___ (7.34)
e Na Nd

showing that the total space charge width increases as we apply a reverse-biased volt-
age. By substituting the total potential barrier Vtotal into Equations (7.28) and (7.29),
the space charge widths in the n and p regions, respectively, can be found as a func-
tion of applied reverse-biased voltage.

EXAMPLE 7.3 Objective: Calculate the width of the space charge region in a pn junction when a reverse-
biased voltage is applied.
Again consider a silicon pn junction at T  300 K with doping concentrations of Na 
1016 cm3 and Nd  1015 cm3. Assume that ni  1.5  1010 cm3 and VR  5 V.

■ Solution
The built-in potential barrier was calculated in Example 7.1 for this case and is Vbi  0.635 V.
The space charge width is determined from Equation (7.34). We have

 1016  1015
2(11.7)(8.85  1014)(0.635  5) __
 
1 2
W  ______
1.6  10 19 (1016)(1015)
so that

W  2.83  104 cm  2.83 m

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 7.3 Reverse Applied Bias 253

■ Comment
The space charge width has increased from 0.951 m at zero bias to 2.83 m at a reverse bias
of 5 V.

■ EXERCISE PROBLEM
Ex 7.3 (a) A silicon pn junction at T  300 K has doping concentrations of Na  5 
1015 cm3 and Nd  5  1016 cm3. A reverse-biased voltage of VR  4 V is applied.
Determine Vbi, xn, xp, and W. (b) Repeat part (a) for VR  8 V.
(b) Vbi  0.718, xn  0.1432 m, xp  1.432 m, W  1.576 m]
[Ans. (a) Vbi  0.718 V, xn  0.1054 m, xp  1.054 m, W  1.159 m;

The magnitude of the electric field in the depletion region increases with an ap-
plied reverse-biased voltage. The electric field is still given by Equations (7.14) and
(7.16) and is still a linear function of distance through the space charge region. Since
xn and xp increase with reverse-biased voltage, the magnitude of the electric field also
increases. The maximum electric field still occurs at the metallurgical junction.
The maximum electric field at the metallurgical junction, from Equations (7.14)
and (7.16), is
eNaxp
eNd xn __
Emax  __s  s (7.35)

If we use either Equation (7.28) or (7.29) in conjunction with the total potential bar-
rier, Vbi  VR, then


2e(Vbi  VR) __
 
1 2
Na Nd
Emax   ___ s (7.36)
Na  Nd

We can show that the maximum electric field in the pn junction can also be written as

2(Vbi  VR)
Emax  ___ (7.37)
W

where W is the total space charge width.

Objective: Design a pn junction to meet maximum electric field and voltage specifications. DESIGN
Consider a silicon pn junction at T  300 K with a p-type doping concentration of EXAMPLE 7.4
Na  2  1017 cm3. Determine the n-type doping concentration such that the maximum elec-
tric field is Emax   2.5  105 V/cm at a reverse-biased voltage of VR  25 V.

■ Solution
The maximum electric field is given by Equation (7.36). Neglecting Vbi compared to VR, we
can write

 2eV  NNNN  
1 2
Emax _R __
a d
s a d

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 254 CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction

or


2(1.6  1019 )(25) ___

(2  1017 )Nd

1 2
2.5  105  ____
(11.7)(8.85  10 ) 2  1017  Nd
14

which yields

Nd  8.43  1015 cm3

■ Conclusion
A smaller value of Nd results in a smaller value of Emax for a given reverse-biased voltage.
The value of Nd determined in this example, then, is the maximum value that will meet the
specifications.

■ EXERCISE PROBLEM
Ex 7.4 The maximum electric field in a reverse-biased GaAs pn junction at T  300 K is
to be limited to Emax  7.2  104 V/cm. The doping concentrations are Nd  5 
1015 cm3 and Na  3  1016 cm3. Determine the maximum reverse-biased voltage
(Ans. VR  3.21 V)
that can be applied.

7.3.2 Junction Capacitance

Since we have a separation of positive and negative charges in the depletion region, a
capacitance is associated with the pn junction. Figure 7.9 shows the charge densities in
the depletion region for applied reverse-biased voltages of VR and VR  dVR. An increase


p n
dQ

ⴙeNd

dxp ⴙ
ⴚxp
ⴙxn

ⴚdQ dxn
ⴚ

ⴚeNa

With applied VR

With applied VR  dVR

Figure 7.9 | Differential change in the space charge width with

a differential change in reverse-biased voltage for a uniformly
doped pn junction.

nea29583_ch07_241-275.indd 254 12/11/10 11:32 AM

 7.3 Reverse Applied Bias 255

in the reverse-biased voltage dVR will uncover additional positive charges in the n region
and additional negative charges in the p region. The junction capacitance is defined as
dQ
C _ (7.38)
dVR
where
dQ  eNd dxn  eNa dxp (7.39)
The differential charge dQ is in units of C/cm2 so that the capacitance C is in units
of farads per square centimeter F/cm2), or capacitance per unit area.
For the total potential barrier, Equation (7.28) may be written as

2s(Vbi  VR) _
  
1 2
Na __ 1
xn  ___ (7.40)
e Nd Na  Nd
The junction capacitance can be written as
dQ dx
C  _  eNd _n (7.41)
dVR dVR
so that

 esNaNd

1 2
C  ____ (7.42)
2(Vbi  VR)(Na  Nd)

Exactly the same capacitance expression is obtained by considering the space charge
region extending into the p region xp. The junction capacitance is also referred to as
the depletion layer capacitance.

Objective: Calculate the junction capacitance of a pn junction. EXAMPLE 7.5

Consider the same pn junction as that in Example 7.3. Again assume that VR  5 V.

■ Solution
The junction capacitance is found from Equation (7.42) as


(1.6  1019)(11.7)(8.85  1014)(1016)(1015)

1 2
C  ________
2(0.635  5)(1016  1015)
or
C  3.66  109 F/cm2

If the cross-sectional area of the pn junction is, for example, A  104 cm2, then the total junc-
tion capacitance is

C  C ⴢ A  0.366  1012 F  0.366 pF

■ Comment
The value of junction capacitance is usually in the pF, or smaller, range.

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 256 CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction

■ EXERCISE PROBLEM
Ex 7.5 Consider a GaAs pn junction at T  300 K doped to Na  5  1015 cm3 and Nd 
2  1016 cm3. (a) Calculate Vbi. (b) Determine the junction capacitance C for VR 
4 V. (c) Repeat part (b) for VR  8 V.
[Ans. (a) Vbi  1.16 V; (b) C  8.48  109 F/cm2; (c) C  6.36  109 F/cm2 ]

If we compare Equation (7.34) for the total depletion width W of the space
charge region under reverse bias and Equation (7.42) for the junction capacitance C ,
we find that we can write

C  _s (7.43)
W
Equation (7.43) is the same as the capacitance per unit area of a parallel plate capaci-
tor. Considering Figure 7.9, we may have come to this same conclusion earlier. Keep
in mind that the space charge width is a function of the reverse-biased voltage so that
the junction capacitance is also a function of the reverse-biased voltage applied to
the pn junction.

7.3.3 One-Sided Junctions

Consider a special pn junction called the one-sided junction. If, for example, Na 
Nd, this junction is referred to as a pn junction. The total space charge width, from
Equation (7.34), reduces to

 2 (VeN V ) 
1 2
W ___
s bi R
(7.44)
d

Considering the expressions for xn and xp, we have for the pn junction
xp  xn (7.45)
and
W xn (7.46)
Almost the entire space charge layer extends into the low-doped region of the junc-
tion. This effect can be seen in Figure 7.10.
The junction capacitance of the pn junction reduces to

 2(Ve N V ) 
1 2
C __
s d
(7.47)
bi R

The depletion layer capacitance of a one-sided junction is a function of the doping

concentration in the low-doped region. Equation (7.47) may be manipulated to give
2(V  V )
_
C 
2
1  __ bi R
(7.48)
e N s d

which shows that the inverse capacitance squared is a linear function of applied
reverse-biased voltage.

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 7.3 Reverse Applied Bias 257


p n
ⴙeNd

ⴙ
ⴚxp 1 2
C
ⴙxn

ⴚ 2
Slope 
es Nd

ⴚeNa
Vbi 0 VR

Figure 7.10 | Space charge density of a Figure 7.11 | (1/C )2 versus VR of a

one-sided pn junction. uniformly doped pn junction.

Figure 7.11 shows a plot of Equation (7.48). The built-in potential of the junc-
tion can be determined by extrapolating the curve to the point where (1/C )2  0.
The slope of the curve is inversely proportional to the doping concentration of the
low-doped region in the junction; thus, this doping concentration can be experimen-
tally determined. The assumptions used in the derivation of this capacitance include
uniform doping in both semiconductor regions, the abrupt junction approximation,
and a planar junction.

Objective: Determine the impurity doping concentrations in a pn junction given the EXAMPLE 7.6
parameters from Figure 7.11.
Assume that the intercept and the slope of the curve in Figure 7.11 are Vbi  0.725 V and
6.15  1015 (F/cm2 )2 (V)1, respectively, for a silicon pn junction at T  300 K.

■ Solution
The slope of the curve in Figure 7.11 is given by 2/e s Nd, so we may write

Nd  _2 _ 1 2
e s ⴢ slope  (1.6  1019)(11.7)(8.85  1014)(6.15  1015)
________

or
Nd  1.96  1015 cm3
From the expression for Vbi, which is

 Na Nd
Vbi  Vt ln _
n 2i 
we can solve for Na as
n2
 
Vbi
Na  _i exp _
Nd Vt
 1.5  1010 2
 ___
1.963  1015  0.725
exp __
0.0259 

nea29583_ch07_241-275.indd 257 12/11/10 11:32 AM

 258 CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction

which yields
Na  1.64  1017 cm3

■ Comment
The results of this example show that Na  Nd; therefore the assumption of a one-sided
junction was valid.

■ EXERCISE PROBLEM
Ex 7.6 The experimentally measured junction capacitance of a one-sided silicon np junc-
tion biased at VR  3 V and at T  300 K is C  0.105 pF. The built-in potential
barrier is found to be Vbi  0.765 V. The cross-sectional area is A  105 cm2. Find
(Ans. Na  5.01  1015 cm3, Nd  3.02  1017 cm3)
the doping concentrations.

A one-sided pn junction is useful for experimentally determining the doping

concentrations and built-in potential.

TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING

TYU 7.3 (a) A silicon pn junction at T  300 K is reverse biased at VR  8 V. The doping
concentrations are Na  5  1016 cm3 and Nd  5  1015 cm3. Determine xn, xp,
W, and Emax. (b) Repeat part (a) for a reverse-biased voltage of VR  12 V.
xp  1.73  105 cm, W  1.90  104 cm, Emax  1.34  105 V/cm]
W  1.57  104 cm, Emax  1.11  105 V/cm; (b) xn  1.73  104 cm,
[Ans. (a) xn  1.43  104 cm, xp  1.43  105 cm,

TYU 7.4 A silicon pn junction at T  300 K has doping concentrations of Nd  3 

1016 cm3 and Na  8  1015 cm3, and has a cross-sectional area of A  5 
105 cm2. Determine the junction capacitance at (a) VR  2 V and (b) VR  5 V.
[Ans. (a) 0.694 pF; (b) 0.478 pF]

7.4 | JUNCTION BREAKDOWN

In the last section, we determined the effects of applying a reverse-biased voltage
across the pn junction. However, the reverse-biased voltage may not increase with-
out limit; at some particular voltage, the reverse-biased current will increase rapidly.
The applied voltage at this point is called the breakdown voltage.
Two physical mechanisms give rise to the reverse-biased breakdown in a pn junc-
tion: the Zener effect and the avalanche effect. Zener breakdown occurs in highly doped
pn junctions through a tunneling mechanism. In a highly doped junction, the conduction
and valence bands on opposite sides of the junction are sufficiently close during reverse
bias that electrons may tunnel directly from the valence band on the p side into the con-
duction band on the n side. This tunneling process is schematically shown in Figure 7.12a.
The avalanche breakdown process occurs when electrons and/or holes, moving
across the space charge region, acquire sufficient energy from the electric field to
create electron–hole pairs by colliding with atomic electrons within the depletion
region. The avalanche process is schematically shown in Figure 7.12b. The newly

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 7.4 Junction Breakdown 259

p region n region
Ec

p Space charge region n

EF
Ev
E-field
h e
 ()
()
Ec ()
EF ()
()
np pn
Diffusion () () Diffusion
Ev of electrons of holes
(a) (b)

Figure 7.12 | (a) Zener breakdown mechanism in a reverse-biased pn junction; (b) avalanche breakdown
process in a reverse-biased pn junction.

p Space charge region n

Ip0

Ip(x)

In(W )

In(x)
In0

x0 xW

Figure 7.13 | Electron and hole current

components through the space charge
region during avalanche multiplication.

created electrons and holes move in opposite directions due to the electric field and
thereby create a reverse-biased current. In addition, the newly generated electrons
and/or holes may acquire sufficient energy to ionize other atoms, leading to the ava-
lanche process. For most pn junctions, the predominant breakdown mechanism will
be the avalanche effect.
If we assume that a reverse-biased electron current In0 enters the depletion region
at x  0 as shown in Figure 7.13, the electron current In will increase with distance
through the depletion region due to the avalanche process. At x  W, the electron
current may be written as
In (W )  Mn In0 (7.49)

nea29583_ch07_241-275.indd 259 12/11/10 11:32 AM

 260 CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction

where Mn is a multiplication factor. The hole current is increasing through the deple-
tion region from the n to p region and reaches a maximum value at x  0. The total
current is constant through the pn junction in steady state.
We can write an expression for the incremental electron current at some point x as
dIn(x)  In(x)n dx  Ip(x)p dx (7.50)
where n and p are the electron and hole ionization rates, respectively. The ioniza-
tion rates are the number of electron–hole pairs generated per unit length by an elec-
tron (n) or by a hole (p). Equation (7.50) may be written as
dIn(x)
_  In(x)n  Ip(x)p (7.51)
dx
The total current I is given by
I  In(x)  Ip(x) (7.52)
which is a constant. Solving for Ip(x) from Equation (7.52) and substituting into
Equation (7.51), we obtain
dIn(x)
_  (p  n)In(x)  pI (7.53)
dx
If we make the assumption that the electron and hole ionization rates are equal so
that
n  p  (7.54)
then Equation (7.53) may be simplified and integrated through the space charge
region. We will obtain
 W
In(W)  In(0)  I  dx (7.55)
0

Using Equation (7.49), Equation (7.55) may be written as

Mn In0  In(0)  W
___   dx (7.56)
I
0

Since Mn In0 I and since In(0)  In0, Equation (7.56) becomes


1_ 1  W  dx (7.57)
Mn
0

The avalanche breakdown voltage is defined to be the voltage at which Mn approaches

infinity. The avalanche breakdown condition is then given by
 W
dx  1 (7.58)
0

The ionization rates are strong functions of electric field and, since the electric field is
not constant through the space charge region, Equation (7.58) is not easy to evaluate.
If we consider, for example, a one-sided pn junction, the maximum electric
field is given by
eNd xn
Emax  __ s (7.59)

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 7.4 Junction Breakdown 261

Critical field at breakdown (105 V/cm)

20
18 One-sided abrupt junction at 300 K
16
14
12
10
8 GaAs
Tunneling
6
4
Avalanche
2 Si
0
1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 51018
NB (cm3)

Figure 7.14 | Critical electric field at breakdown in a one-

sided junction as a function of impurity doping concentrations.
(From Sze and Ng [14].)

The depletion width xn is given approximately as

 2eV N 
1 2
xn _
s R 1
ⴢ_ (7.60)
d

where VR is the magnitude of the applied reverse-biased voltage. We have neglected

the built-in potential Vbi.
If we now define VR to be the breakdown voltage VB, the maximum electric field,
Emax, will be defined as a critical electric field, Ecrit, at breakdown. Combining Equa-
tions (7.59) and (7.60), we may write

s E2crit
VB  _ (7.61)
2eNB

where NB is the semiconductor doping in the low-doped region of the one-sided junc-
tion. The critical electric field, plotted in Figure 7.14, is a slight function of doping.
We have been considering a uniformly doped planar junction. The breakdown
voltage will decrease for a linearly graded junction. (See Section 7.5.) Figure 7.15
shows a plot of the breakdown voltage for a one-sided abrupt junction and a linearly
graded junction. If we take into account the curvature of a diffused junction as well,
the breakdown voltage will be further degraded.

Objective: Design an ideal one-sided np junction diode to meet a breakdown voltage DESIGN
specification. EXAMPLE 7.7
Consider a silicon pn junction diode at T  300 K. Assume that Nd  3  1018 cm3.
Design the diode such that the breakdown voltage is VB  100 V.

■ Solution
From Figure 7.15, we find that the doping concentration in the low-doped side of a one-sided
abrupt junction should be approximately 4  1015 cm3 for a breakdown voltage of 100 V.

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 262 CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction

Impurity concentration NB (cm3)

1014 1015 1016 1017 1018
1000 1000
T  300 K

Breakdown voltage VB (V)

GaAs One-sided
100 abrupt 100
junction
Si

10 Linearly 10
graded
junction

1 1
1020 1021 1022 1023 1024
Impurity gradient a (cm4)

Figure 7.15 | Breakdown voltage versus impurity concen-

tration in uniformly doped and linearly graded junctions.
(From Sze [14].)

For a doping concentration of 4  1015 cm3, the critical electric field, from Figure 7.14, is
approximately 3.7  105 V/cm. Then, using Equation (7.61), we find the breakdown voltage as
s E2crit ______
(11.7)(8.85  1014)(3.7  105)2
VB  _   110 V
2eNB 2(1.6  1019)(4  1015)
which correlates very well with the results from Figure 7.15.
■ Conclusion
As Figure 7.15 shows, the breakdown voltage increases as the doping concentration decreases
in the low-doped region.

■ EXERCISE PROBLEM
Ex 7.7 A one-sided, planar, uniformly doped silicon pn junction diode is required to have
a reverse-biased breakdown voltage of VB  60 V. What is the maximum doping
concentration in the low-doped region such that this specification is met?
8  1015 cm3) (Ans. NB

*7.5 | NONUNIFORMLY DOPED JUNCTIONS

In the pn junctions considered so far, we have assumed that each semiconductor
region has been uniformly doped. In actual pn junction structures, this is rarely true.
In some electronic applications, specific nonuniform doping profiles are used to ob-
tain special pn junction capacitance characteristics.

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 7.5 Nonuniformly Doped Junctions 263

7.5.1 Linearly Graded Junctions

If we start with a uniformly doped n-type semiconductor, for example, and dif-
fuse acceptor atoms through the surface, the impurity concentrations will tend to be
like those shown in Figure 7.16. The point x  x on the figure corresponds to the
metallurgical junction. The depletion region extends into the p and n regions from
the metallurgical junction as we have discussed previously. The net p-type doping
concentration near the metallurgical junction may be approximated as a linear func-
tion of distance from the metallurgical junction. Likewise, as a first approximation,
the net n-type doping concentration is also a linear function of distance extending
into the n region from the metallurgical junction. This effective doping profile is
referred to as a linearly graded junction.
Figure 7.17 shows the space charge density in the depletion region of the lin-
early graded junction. For convenience, the metallurgical junction is placed at x  0.
The space charge density can be written as
(x)  eax (7.62)
where a is the gradient of the net impurity concentration.
The electric field and potential in the space charge region can be determined
from Poisson’s equation. We can write
dE  _(x) _ eax
s  s
_ (7.63)
dx
so that the electric field can be found by integration as

E _ ea  x2  x2 
eax dx  _ (7.64)
s 2s 0

The electric field in the linearly graded junction is a quadratic function of distance
rather than the linear function found in the uniformly doped junction. The maximum
electric field again occurs at the metallurgical junction. We may note that the electric
field is zero at both x  x0 and at x  x0. The electric field in a nonuniformly

 (C/cm3)
p region n region
p region n region
Impurity concentration

Na
ⴙ
x0
Nd x0 x0
ⴚ

Surface xx

Figure 7.16 | Impurity concentrations of

a pn junction with a nonuniformly doped Figure 7.17 | Space charge density in a
p region. linearly graded pn junction.

nea29583_ch07_241-275.indd 263 12/11/10 11:32 AM

 264 CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction

doped semiconductor is not exactly zero, but the magnitude of this field is small, so
setting E  0 in the bulk regions is still a good approximation.
The potential is again found by integrating the electric field as

(x)   E dx (7.65)

If we arbitrarily set   0 at x  x0, then the potential through the junction is

ea _
(x)  _
2s 3 
x3  x2x  _
0
ea x3
3s 0  (7.66)

The magnitude of the potential at x  x0 will equal the built-in potential barrier for
this function. We then have that
2·_eax30
(x0)  _  Vbi (7.67)
3 s

Another expression for the built-in potential barrier for a linearly graded junc-
tion can be approximated from the expression used for a uniformly doped junction.
We can write


Nd (x0)Na(x0)
Vbi  Vt ln ___
n2i  (7.68)

where Nd(x0) and Na(x0) are the doping concentrations at the edges of the space
charge region. We can relate these doping concentrations to the gradient, so that

Nd (x0)  ax0 (7.69a)

and
Na(x0)  ax0 (7.69b)

Then the built-in potential barrier for the linearly graded junction becomes

 
ax0 2
Vbi  Vt ln _ni (7.70)

There may be situations in which the doping gradient is not the same on either side
of the junction, but we will not consider that condition here.
If a reverse-biased voltage is applied to the junction, the potential barrier in-
creases. The built-in potential barrier Vbi in the above equations is then replaced by
the total potential barrier Vbi  VR. Solving for x0 from Equation (7.67) and using the
total potential barrier, we obtain
s

3·_

1 3
x0  _ (V  VR) (7.71)
2 ea bi

The junction capacitance per unit area can be determined by the same method that
we used for the uniformly doped junction. Figure 7.18 shows the differential charge

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 7.5 Nonuniformly Doped Junctions 265

 (C/cm3) dQ  (x0) dx0  eax0 dx0

dx0
ⴙ
x0
x0
ⴚ x0

dx0
dQ

Figure 7.18 | Differential change in space charge width with

a differential change in reverse-biased voltage for a linearly
graded pn junction.

dQ , which is uncovered as a differential voltage dVR is applied. The junction capaci-

tance is then
dQ dx
C  _  (eax0) _0 (7.72)
dVR dVR
Using Equation (7.71), we obtain1

ea2s

1 3
C  ___ (7.73)
12(Vbi  VR)
We may note that C is proportional to (Vbi  VR)1 3 for the linearly graded
junction as compared to C (Vbi  VR)1 2 for the uniformly doped junction. In the
linearly graded junction, the capacitance is less dependent on reverse-biased voltage
than in the uniformly doped junction.

7.5.2 Hyperabrupt Junctions

The uniformly doped junction and linearly graded junction are not the only possible
doping profiles. Figure 7.19 shows a generalized one-sided pn junction where the
generalized n-type doping concentration for x 0 is given by
N  Bxm (7.74)
The case of m  0 corresponds to the uniformly doped junction, and m  1 cor-
responds to the linearly graded junction just discussed. The cases of m  2 and
m  3 shown would approximate a fairly low-doped epitaxial n-type layer grown

1
In a more exact analysis, Vbi in Equation (7.73) is replaced by a gradient voltage. However, this analysis
is beyond the scope of this text.

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 266 CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction

p n

x0

m  3 m  2
5
m 3
n-type m  2
3
m  1
doping
profiles

Bx 0m m0

m  1

x0 x0

Figure 7.19 | Generalized doping profiles of a one-sided

pn junction.
(From Sze [14].)

on a much more heavily doped n substrate layer. When the value of m is negative, we
have what is referred to as a hyperabrupt junction. In this case, the n-type doping is
larger near the metallurgical junction than in the bulk semiconductor. Equation (7.74)
is used to approximate the n-type doping over a small region near x  x0 and does not
hold at x  0 when m is negative.
The junction capacitance can be derived using the same analysis method as be-
fore and is given by

 eB(m1)

1 (m2)
C  ___ s
(7.75)
(m  2)(Vbi  VR)
When m is negative, the capacitance becomes a very strong function of reverse-biased
voltage, a desired characteristic in varactor diodes. The term varactor comes from
the words variable reactor and means a device whose reactance can be varied in a
controlled manner with bias voltage.
If a varactor diode and an inductance are in parallel, the resonant frequency of
the LC circuit is

fr  __1 ___ (7.76)

2 LC

The capacitance of the diode, from Equation (7.75), can be written in the form

C  C0(Vbi  VR)1 (m2) (7.77)

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 7.6 Summary 267

In a circuit application, we would, in general, like to have the resonant frequency be

a linear function of reverse-biased voltage VR, so we need

C  V 2 (7.78)

From Equation (7.77), the parameter m required is found from

1 2
__ (7.79a)
m2
or
3
m  _ (7.79b)
2
A specific doping profile will yield the desired capacitance characteristic.

7.6 | SUMMARY
■ A uniformly doped pn junction is initially considered, in which one region of a
semiconductor is uniformly doped with acceptor impurities and the adjacent region is
uniformly doped with donor impurities.
■ A space charge region, or depletion region, is formed on either side of the metallurgi-
cal junction separating the n and p regions. This region is essentially depleted of any
mobile electrons or holes. A net positive charge density, due to the positively charged
donor impurity ions, exists in the n region and a net negative charge density, due to the
negatively charged acceptor impurity ions, exists in the p region.
■ An electric field exists in the depletion region due to the net space charge density. The
direction of the electric field is from the n region to the p region.
■ A potential difference exists across the space charge region. Under zero applied bias,
this potential difference, known as the built-in potential barrier, maintains thermal
equilibrium and holds back majority carrier electrons in the n region and majority
carrier holes in the p region.
■ An applied reverse-biased voltage (n region positive with respect to the p region)
increases the potential barrier, the space charge width, and the magnitude of the
electric field.
■ As the reverse-biased voltage changes, the amount of charge in the depletion region
changes. This change in charge with voltage defines the junction capacitance.
■ Avalanche breakdown occurs when a sufficiently large reverse-biased voltage is applied
to the pn junction. A large reverse-biased current may then be induced in the pn junction.
The breakdown voltage, as a function of the doping concentrations in the pn junction, is
derived. In a one-sided pn junction, the breakdown voltage is a function of the doping
concentration in the low-doped region.
■ The linearly graded junction represents a nonuniformly doped pn junction. Expres-
sions for the electric field, built-in potential barrier, and junction capacitance are
derived. The functional relationships differ from those of the uniformly doped
junction.
■ Specific doping profiles can be used to obtain specific capacitance characteristics. A
hyperabrupt junction is one in which the doping decreases away from the metallurgi-
cal junction. This type of junction is advantageous in varactor diodes that are used in
resonant circuits.

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 268 CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction

GLOSSARY OF IMPORTANT TERMS

abrupt junction approximation The assumption that there is an abrupt discontinuity in
space charge density between the space charge region and the neutral semiconductor region.
avalanche breakdown The process whereby a large reverse-biased pn junction current is
created due to the generation of electron–hole pairs by the collision of electrons and/or
holes with atomic electrons within the space charge region.
built-in potential barrier The electrostatic potential difference between the p and n regions
of a pn junction in thermal equilibrium.
critical electric field The peak electric field in the space charge region at breakdown.
depletion layer capacitance Another term for junction capacitance.
depletion region Another term for space charge region.
hyperabrupt junction A pn junction in which the doping concentration on one side de-
creases away from the metallurgical junction to achieve a specific capacitance–voltage
characteristic.
junction capacitance The capacitance of the pn junction under reverse bias.
linearly graded junction A pn junction in which the doping concentrations on either side of
the metallurgical junction are approximated by a linear distribution.
metallurgical junction The interface between the p- and n-doped regions of a pn junction.
one-sided junction A pn junction in which one side of the junction is much more heavily
doped than the adjacent side.
reverse bias The condition in which a positive voltage is applied to the n region with re-
spect to the p region of a pn junction so that the potential barrier between the two regions
increases above the thermal-equilibrium built-in potential barrier.
space charge region The region on either side of the metallurgical junction in which there is a
net charge density due to ionized donors in the n region and ionized acceptors in the p region.
space charge width The width of the space charge region, a function of doping concentra-
tions and applied voltage.
varactor diode A diode whose reactance can be varied in a controlled manner with bias
voltage.

CHECKPOINT
After studying this chapter, the reader should have the ability to:
■ Describe why and how the space charge region is formed.
■ Draw the energy-band diagram of a zero-biased and reverse-biased pn junction.
■ Define and derive the expression of the built-in potential barrier voltage.
■ Derive the expression for the electric field in space charge region of the pn junction.
■ Describe what happens to the parameters of the space charge region when a reverse-
biased voltage is applied.
■ Define and explain the junction capacitance.
■ Describe the characteristics and properties of a one-sided pn junction.
■ Describe the avalanche breakdown mechanism in a reverse-biased pn junction.
■ Describe how a linearly graded junction is formed.
■ Define a hyperabrupt junction.

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 Problems 269

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define the built-in potential voltage and describe how it maintains thermal equilibrium.
2. Why is an electric field formed in the space charge region? Why is the electric field a
linear function of distance in a uniformly doped pn junction?
3. Where does the maximum electric field occur in the space charge region?
4. Why is the space charge width larger in the lower doped side of a pn junction?
5. What is the functional dependence of the space charge width on reverse-biased voltage?
6. Why does the space charge width increase with reverse-biased voltage?
7. Why does a capacitance exist in a reverse-biased pn junction? Why does the capaci-
tance decrease with increasing reverse-biased voltage?
8. What is a one-sided pn junction? What parameters can be determined in a one-sided
pn junction?
9. Why does the breakdown voltage of a pn junction decrease as the doping concentration
increases?
10. What is a linearly graded junction?
11. What is a hyperabrupt junction and what is one advantage or characteristic of such a
junction?

PROBLEMS
Section 7.2 Zero Applied Bias
7.1 (a) Calculate Vbi in a silicon pn junction at T  300 K for (a) Na  2  1015 cm3
and Nd  (i) 2  1015, (ii) 2  1016, and (iii) 2  1017 cm3. (b) Repeat part (a) for
Na  2  1017 cm3.
7.2 Calculate the built-in potential barrier, Vbi, for Si, Ge, and GaAs pn junctions if they
each have the following dopant concentrations at T  300 K:

(a) Nd  1014 cm3 Na  1017 cm3

(b) Nd  5  1016 Na  5  1016
(c) Nd  1017 Na  1017

7.3 (a) Plot the built-in potential barrier for a symmetrical (Na  Nd) silicon pn junction at
T  300 K over the range 1014  Na  Nd  1017 cm3. (b) Repeat part (a) for a GaAs
pn junction. (c) Repeat parts (a) and (b) for T  400 K.
7.4 An abrupt silicon pn junction at zero bias has dopant concentrations of Na  1017 cm3
and Nd  5  1015 cm3. T  300 K. (a) Calculate the Fermi level on each side of the
junction with respect to the intrinsic Fermi level. (b) Sketch the equilibrium energy-
band diagram for the junction and determine Vbi from the diagram and the results of
part (a). (c) Calculate Vbi using Equation (7.10), and compare the results to part (b).
(d ) Determine xn, xp, and the peak electric field for this junction.
7.5 Repeat problem 7.4 for the case when the doping concentrations are Na  Nd  2 
1016 cm3.
7.6 A silicon pn junction in thermal equilibrium at T  300 K is doped such that
EF  EFi  0.365 eV in the n region and EFi  EF  0.330 eV in the p region.

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 270 CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction

(a) Sketch the energy-band diagram for the pn junction. (b) Find the impurity doping
concentration in each region. (c) Determine Vbi.
7.7 Consider a uniformly doped GaAs pn junction with doping concentrations of
Na  2  1015 cm3 and Nd  4  1016 cm3. Plot the built-in potential barrier
Vbi versus temperature over the range 200  T  400 K.
7.8 (a) Consider a uniformly doped silicon pn junction at T  300 K. At zero bias, 25 per-
cent of the total space charge region is in the n-region. The built-in potential barrier is
Vbi  0.710 V. Determine (i) Na, (ii) Nd, (iii) xn, (iv) xp, and (v) Emax. (b) Repeat part (a)
for a GaAs pn junction with Vbi  1.180 V.
7.9 Consider the impurity doping profile shown in Figure P7.9 in a silicon pn junction.
For zero applied voltage, (a) determine Vbi, (b) calculate xn and xp, (c) sketch the ther-
mal equilibrium energy-band diagram, and (d) plot the electric field versus distance
through the junction.
7.10 Consider a uniformly doped silicon pn junction with doping concentrations Na  2 
1017 cm3 and Nd  4  1016 cm3. (a) Determine Vbi at T  300 K. (b) Determine the
temperature at which Vbi increases by 2 percent. (Trial and error may have to be used.)
7.11 The doping concentrations in a uniformly doped silicon pn junction are Na  4 
1016 cm3 and Nd  2  1015 cm3. The measured built-in potential barrier is Vbi 
0.550 V. Determine the temperature at which this result occurs.
7.12 An “isotype” step junction is one in which the same impurity type doping changes
from one concentration value to another value. An n-n isotype doping profile is shown
in Figure P7.12. (a) Sketch the thermal equilibrium energy-band diagram of the
isotype junction. (b) Using the energy-band diagram, determine the built-in potential
barrier. (c) Discuss the charge distribution through the junction.
7.13 A particular type of junction is an n region adjacent to an intrinsic region. This
junction can be modeled as an n-type region to a lightly doped p-type region. Assume
the doping concentrations in silicon at T  300 K are Nd  1016 cm3 and Na 
1012 cm3. For zero applied bias, determine (a) Vbi, (b) xn, (c) xp, and (d) Emax. Sketch
the electric field versus distance through the junction.
7.14 We are assuming an abrupt depletion approximation for the space charge region. That
is, no free carriers exist within the depletion region and the semiconductor abruptly
changes to a neutral region outside the space charge region. This approximation is

(Na  Nd) (cm3)

1016
Nd (cm3)
p type
2 m 1016
0 n type
1015 1015

4  1015
0

Figure P7.9 | Figure for Problem 7.9. Figure P7.12 | Figure for Problem 7.12.

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 Problems 271

adequate for most applications, but the abrupt transition does not exist. The space
charge region changes over a distance of a few Debye lengths, where the Debye
length in the n region is given by

LD  _  
skT 1 2
e2Nd
Calculate LD and find the ratio of LD /xn for the following conditions. The p-type
doping concentration is Na  8  1017 cm3 and the n-type doping concentration is
(a) Nd  8  1014 cm3, (b) Nd  2.2  1016 cm3, and (c) Nd  8  1017 cm3.
7.15 Examine the electric field versus distance through a uniformly doped silicon pn junction
at T  300 K as a function of doping concentrations. Assume zero applied bias. Sketch
the electric field versus distance through the space charge region and calculate Emax
for: (a) Na  1017 cm3 and 1014  Nd  1017 cm3 and (b) Na  1014 cm3 and 1014 
Nd  1017 cm3. (c) What can be said about the results for Nd 100 Na or Na 100 Nd?

Section 7.3 Reverse Applied Bias

7.16 An abrupt silicon pn junction at T  300 K has impurity doping concentrations of
Na  5  1016 cm3 and Nd  1015 cm3. Calculate (a) Vbi, (b) W at (i) VR  0 and
(ii) VR  5 V, and (c) Emax at (i) VR  0 and (ii) VR  5.
7.17 Consider the pn junction described in Problem 7.10 for T  300 K. The cross-
sectional area of the junction is 2  104 cm2 and the applied reverse-biased voltage is
VR  2.5 V. Calculate (a) Vbi, (b) xn, xp, W, (c) Emax , and (d) the junction capacitance.
7.18 An ideal one-sided silicon pn junction at T  300 K is uniformly doped on both
sides of the metallurgical junction. It is found that the doping relation is Na  80 Nd
and the built-in potential barrier is Vbi  0.740 V. A reverse-biased voltage of VR  10 V
is applied. Determine (a) Na, Nd; (b) xp, xn; (c) Emax ; and (d) C j .
7.19 A silicon np junction is biased at VR  5 V. (a) Determine the change in built-in
potential barrier if the doping concentration in the p region increases by a factor of 3.
(b) Determine the ratio of junction capacitance when the acceptor doping is 3Na com-
pared to that when the acceptor doping is Na. (c) Why does the junction capacitance
increase when the doping concentration increases?
7.20 (a) The peak electric field in a reverse-biased silicon pn junction is Emax  3  105 V/cm.
The doping concentrations are Nd  4  1015 cm3 and Na  4  1017 cm3. Find the
magnitude of the reverse-biased voltage. (b) Repeat part (a) for Nd  4  1016 cm3 and
Na  4  1017 cm3. (c) Repeat part (a) for Nd  Na  4  1017 cm3.
7.21 Consider two pn silicon junctions at T  300 K reverse biased at VR  5 V. The
impurity doping concentrations in junction A are Na  1018 cm3 and Nd  1015 cm3,
and those in junction B are Na  1018 cm3 and Nd  1016 cm3. Calculate the ratio of
the following parameters for junction A to junction B: (a) W, (b) Emax , and (c) C j .
7.22 Consider a uniformly doped GaAs pn junction at T  300 K. The junction capacitance
at zero bias is Cj(0) and the junction capacitance with a 10-V reverse-biased voltage is
Cj (10). The ratio of the capacitances is
Cj (0)
__  3.13
Cj (10)
Also under reverse bias, the space charge width into the p region is 0.2 of the total
space charge width. Determine (a) Vbi and (b) Na, Nd.

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 272 CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction

7.23 A GaAs pn junction at T  300 K has impurity doping concentrations of Na  2  1016

cm3 and Nd  5  1015 cm3. It is determined that the ratio of junction capacitance at
two reverse-biased voltages is Cj (VR1) Cj(VR2)  1.5, where VR1  0.5 V. Determine VR2.
7.24 (a) The impurity doping concentrations in a silicon pn junction at T  300 K are
Na  2  1015 cm3 and Nd  4  1016 cm3. The cross-sectional area of the pn junc-
tion is 5  104 cm2. Determine the junction capacitance at (i) VR  0 and (ii) VR 
5 V. (b) Repeat part (a) for a GaAs pn junction.
7.25 An abrupt silicon pn junction at T  300 K is uniformly doped with Na  2 
1017 cm3 and Nd  5  1015 cm3. The cross-sectional area of the pn junction is 8 
104 cm2. An inductance is placed in parallel with the pn junction. (a) With a reverse-
biased voltage of VR  10 V applied to the pn junction, the resonant frequency of the
circuit is f  1.25 MHz. What is the value of the inductance? (b) Using the results of
part (a), what is the resonant frequency if the reverse-biased voltage is (i) VR  1 V
and (ii) VR  5 V?
7.26 (a) A uniformly doped silicon pn junction at T  300 K is to be designed such that, at
a reverse-biased of VR  10 V, the maximum electric field is limited to Emax  2.5 
105 V/cm. Determine the maximum doping concentration in the n region. (Use an ap-
proximate value for Vbi.) (b) Repeat part (a) if the maximum electric field is limited to
Emax  105 V/cm.
7.27 (a) A GaAs pn junction at T  300 K, with a cross-sectional area of 104 cm2, is to be
designed that meets the following specifications. At a reverse-biased voltage of VR  2 V,
20 percent of the total space charge width is to be in the p region and the total junction
capacitance is to be 0.6 pF. Determine Na, Nd, and W. (b) Repeat part (a) if VR  5 V.
7.28 A silicon pn junction at T  300 K has the doping profile shown in Figure P7.28.
Calculate (a) Vbi, (b) xn and xp at zero bias, and (c) the applied bias required so that
xn  30 m.
7.29 Consider a silicon pn junction with the doping profile shown in Figure P7.29.
T  300 K. (a) Calculate the applied reverse-biased voltage required so that the space
charge region extends entirely through the p region. (b) Determine the space charge
width into the n region with the reverse-biased voltage calculated in part (a). (c) Cal-
culate the peak electric field for this applied voltage.

n p p

(Na  Nd) (cm3) (Na  Nd ) (cm3)

5  1015
1016

1014

x0 0 50
x (m)
1014
1016

Figure P7.28 | Figure for Problem 7.28. Figure P7.29 | Figure for Problem 7.29.

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 Problems 273

Na  Nd
(Nd  Na ) (cm3)
Na0
5  1015

x0 1 2

x 2 1
Nd0 x (m)
 5  1015
2
Nd0
i region

Figure P7.33 | Figure for Problem 7.33. Figure P7.34 | Figure for Problem 7.34.

7.30 A silicon pn junction has doping concentrations of Na  2  1017 cm3 and Nd 
2  1015 cm3. The cross-sectional area is 105 cm2. Calculate (a) Vbi and (b) the junc-
tion capacitance at (i) VR  1 V, (ii) VR  3 V, and (iii) VR  5 V. (c) Plot 1 C 2 versus
VR and show that the slope can be used to find Nd and the intercept at the voltage axis
yields Vbi.
7.31 The total junction capacitance of a GaAs pn junction at T  300 K is found to be
1.10 pF at VR  1 V. The doping concentration in one region is measured and found
to be 8  1016 cm3, and the built-in potential is found to be Vbi  1.20 V. Determine
(a) the doping in the other region of the pn junction and (b) the cross-sectional area.
(c) The reverse-biased voltage is changed and the capacitance is found to be 0.80 pF.
What is the value of VR?
7.32 Examine how the capacitance C and the function (1/C )2 vary with reverse-biased
voltage VR as the doping concentrations change. In particular, consider these plots ver-
sus Na for Na 100 Nd and versus Nd for Nd 100 Na.
*7.33 A pn junction has the doping profile shown in Figure P7.33. Assume that xn x0 for
all reverse-biased voltages. (a) What is the built-in potential across the junction?
(b) For the abrupt junction approximation, sketch the charge density through the junc-
tion. (c) Derive the expression for the electric field through the space charge region.
*7.34 A silicon PIN junction has the doping profile shown in Figure P7.34. The “I” cor-
responds to an ideal intrinsic region in which there is no impurity doping concentra-
tion. A reverse-biased voltage is applied to the PIN junction so that the total depletion
width extends from 2 m to 2 m. (a) Using Poisson’s equation, calculate the
magnitude of the electric field at x  0. (b) Sketch the electric field through the PIN
junction. (c) Calculate the reverse-biased voltage that must be applied.

Section 7.4 Junction Breakdown

7.35 Consider a silicon np junction diode. The critical electric field for breakdown in sili-
con is approximately Ecrit  4  10 5 V/cm. Determine the maximum p-type doping
concentration such that the breakdown voltage is (a) 40 V and (b) 20 V.
7.36 Design an abrupt silicon np junction diode that has a reverse breakdown voltage of
80 V.
7.37 (a) The n-type doping concentration in an abrupt pn GaAs junction diode is Nd 
1016 cm3. Determine the breakdown voltage. (b) Repeat part (a) for Nd  1015 cm3.

*Asterisks next to problems indicate problems that are more difficult.

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 274 CHAPTER 7 The pn Junction

7.38 (a) A symmetrically doped silicon pn junction diode has doping concentrations of
Na  Nd  2  1016 cm3. Assuming the critical electric field is Ecrit  4  105 V/cm,
determine the breakdown voltage. (b) Repeat part (a) if the doping concentrations are
Na  Nd  5  1015 cm3.
7.39 An abrupt silicon pn junction has an n-region doping concentration of Nd  5 
1015 cm3. What must be the minimum n-region width such that avalanche breakdown
occurs before the depletion region reaches an ohmic contact (punchthrough)?
7.40 A silicon pn junction diode is doped with Na  Nd  1018 cm3. Zener breakdown
occurs when the peak electric field reaches 106 V/cm. Determine the reverse-biased
breakdown voltage.
7.41 A diode will very often have the doping profile shown in Figure P7.29, which is
known as an npp diode. Under reverse bias, the depletion region must remain
within the p region to avoid premature breakdown. Assume the p-region doping
is 1015 cm3. Determine the reverse-biased voltage such that the depletion region
remains within the p region and does not reach breakdown if the p-region width is
(a) 75 m and (b) 150 m. For each case, state whether the maximum depletion
width or the breakdown voltage is reached first.
7.42 Consider a silicon pn junction at T  300 K whose doping profile varies linearly from
Na  1018 cm3 to Nd  1018 cm3 over a distance of 2 m. Estimate the breakdown voltage.

Section 7.5 Nonuniformly Doped Junctions

7.43 Consider a linearly graded junction. (a) Starting with Equation (7.62), derive the
expression for the electric field given in Equation (7.64). (b) Derive the expression for
the potential through the space charge region given by Equation (7.66).
7.44 The built-in potential barrier of a linearly graded silicon pn junction at T  300 K is
Vbi  0.70 V. The junction capacitance measured at VR  3.5 V is C  7.2  109 F/cm2.
Find the gradient, a, of the net impurity concentration.

Summary and Review

7.45 (a) A one-sided silicon np junction at T  300 K is doped at Nd  3  1017 cm3.
Design the junction such that Cj  0.45 pF at VR  5 V. (b) Calculate the junction
capacitance at (i) VR  2.5 V and (ii) VR  0 V.
7.46 A one-sided pn junction with a cross-sectional area of 105 cm2 has a measured built-
in potential of Vbi  0.8 V at T  300 K. A plot of (1/Cj)2 versus VR is linear for VR 
1 V and is essentially constant for VR 1 V. The capacitance is Cj  0.082 pF at VR 
1 V. Determine the doping concentrations on either side of the metallurgical junction
that will produce this capacitance characteristic.
*7.47 Silicon, at T  300 K, is doped at Nd1  1015 cm3 for x  0 and Nd2  5  1016 cm3
for x 0 to form an n  n step junction. (a) Sketch the energy-band diagram. (b) Derive
an expression for Vbi. (c) Sketch the charge density, electric field, and potential through
the junction. (d) Explain where the charge density came from and is located.
*7.48 A diffused silicon pn junction has a linearly graded junction on the p side with a 
2  1019 cm4, and a uniform doping of 1015 cm3 on the n side. (a) If the depletion
width on the p side is 0.7 m at zero bias, find the total depletion width, built-in
potential, and maximum electric field at zero bias. (b) Plot the potential function
through the junction.

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 Reading List 275

READING LIST
1. Dimitrijev, S. Principles of Semiconductor Devices. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2006.
2. Kano, K. Semiconductor Devices. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998.
*3. Li, S. S. Semiconductor Physical Electronics. New York: Plenum Press, 1993.
4. Muller, R. S., and T. I. Kamins. Device Electronics for Integrated Circuits, 2nd ed.
New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1986.
5. Navon, D. H. Semiconductor Microdevices and Materials. New York: Holt, Rinehart
& Winston, 1986.
6. Neudeck, G. W. The PN Junction Diode. Vol. 2 of the Modular Series on Solid State
Devices, 2nd ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1989.
*7. Ng, K. K. Complete Guide to Semiconductor Devices. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1995.
8. Pierret, R. F. Semiconductor Device Fundamentals. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley,
1996.
*9. Roulston, D. J. An Introduction to the Physics of Semiconductor Devices. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1999.
10. Shur, M. Introduction to Electronic Devices. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1996.
*11. Shur, M. Physics of Semiconductor Devices. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,
1990.
12. Singh, J. Semiconductor Devices: Basic Principles. New York: John Wiley and Sons,
2001.
13. Streetman, B. G., and S. K. Banerjee. Solid State Electronic Devices, 6th ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006.
14. Sze, S. M., and K. K. Ng. Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 3rd ed. Hoboken, NJ:
John Wiley and Sons, 2007.
15. Sze, S. M. Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology, 2nd ed. New York: John
Wiley and Sons, 2001.
*16. Wang, S. Fundamentals of Semiconductor Theory and Device Physics. Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1989.
17. Yang, E. S. Microelectronic Devices. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1988.

*Indicates references that are at an advanced level compared to this text.

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