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 R.M.K ENGINEERING
COLLEGE

22EC403 - ANALOG AND

DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Department : B.E-EC(ACT) & B.E- EE(VLD)

Batch/Year : 2023-2027 / II year

Created by :Dr. J . Jasmine Hephzipah

Ms. S . Rosaline
 Table of Contents
S.No Contents Page
Number
1 Course Objectives 7

2 Pre Requisites 8

3 Syllabus 9

4 Course outcomes 10

5 CO- PO/PSO Mapping 11

6 Unit IV – Digital Modulation Schemes 12

6.1 13
Lecture Plan
6.2 14
Activity based learning
6.3 18
Lecture Notes
6.3.1 Geometric Representation of signals 21

6.3.2 Generation and detection of coherent systems 22

6.3.3 24
Digital modulation techniques – ASK, FSk & PSK
BASK
6.3.4 27

6.3.5 BFSK 35

BPSK
6.3.6 41

6.3.7 QPSK 47

QAM
6.3.8 55

6.3.9 57
Comparison of all digital Modulation Techniques.
S.No Contents Page
Number
6.4 58
Assignments
6.5 61
Part A Q & A

6.6 68
Part B Questions
6.7 72
Supportive online Certification courses
6.8 Real time Applications in day to day life and
74
to Industry
6.9 78
Content beyond the Syllabus
7 Assessment Schedule 83

8 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 85

9 Mini Project suggestions 88

6
1. COURSE OBJECTIVES:

❖ To discuss the concepts of various AM modulation schemes and their spectral

characteristics
❖ To describe the Generation and Detection of Frequency Modulation.
❖ To explain the performance of various Pulse coding Techniques.
❖ To learn principles of different pass band transmission schemes
❖ To calculate required parameters of Source and channel coding Techniques
❖ To visualize the effects of sampling and Digital Modulations Schemes
2. PRE REQUISITES

1. 22EC301 – SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS

By learning this course the student will have deep insight in to Fourier
transform, Trigonometric identities, Sampling and quantization.

2. 22EC302 – ANALOG ELECTRONICS

By learning this course the student will understand the operation of electronic
devices such as diodes, Transistors, FET, etc

22EC403- ANALOGAND
Semester IV
DIGITAL
COMMUNICATION

22EC302 – ANALOG 22EC301 - SIGNALS

ELECTRONICS AND SYSTEMS

Semester III Semester III

3. SYLLABUS
22EC403 ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION LTPC
(Theory course with laboratory component) 3024

UNIT I AMPLITUDE MODULATION 9

Need for Modulation, Amplitude modulation – frequency spectrum of AM– Power and
current in AM wave – Generation of AM signal –Collector Modulator, AM demodulation -
Envelope, DSB-SC, SSB-SC & VSB generation and demodulation modulation,
Synchronous detection, Comparison of AM modulation systems.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. AM Modulator and Demodulator

UNIT II ANGLE MODULATION 9

Relation between FM and PM waves –– Narrow band and wide band FM, Direct and
Indirect Methods of FM Generation - FM detectors- PLL Demodulators. Pre- emphasis
and De- emphasis, Comparison of AM and FM. Super-heterodyne receiver (AM and FM)
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
2. FM Modulator and Demodulator.

UNIT III PULSE MODULATION SYSTEMS 9

Block Diagram of digital communication system, Sampling – Quantization – Uniform &
non uniform quantization. –Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), Differential pulse code
modulation- Delta modulation and Adaptive Delta Modulation.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
3. Signal Sampling and reconstruction
4. Pulse Code Modulation and Demodulation
5. Delta Modulation and Demodulation

UNIT IV DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES 9

Geometric Representation of signals - Generation and detection of coherent systems -
BASK, BFSK, BPSK, QAM, and Comparison of all digital Modulation Techniques.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
6. Simulation of ASK, FSK, and BPSK generation schemes
7. Simulation of ASK, FSK and BPSK detection schemes
8. Simulation of QPSK and QAM generation schemes
9. Simulation of signal constellations of BPSK, QPSK and QAM

UNIT V SOURCE AND CHANNEL CODING 9

Definition of - Discrete Memoryless source, Information, Entropy, Channel Capacity -
Hartley law, Shannon law, Source coding theorem -Shannon Fano & Huffman codes.
Channel coding theorem - Linear Block codes.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
10. Simulation of Linear Block

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS(THEORY) +30 PERIODS (LAB)=75 PERIODS

4. COURSE OUTCOMES

OUTCOMES:

On successful completion of this course, the student will

be able to
Course Outcomes K Level
CO1: Compare the Spectral efficiency of various Amplitude Modulation K3
Schemes.
CO2: Summarize the concepts of Generation and Detection of Frequency K3
Modulation
CO3: Demonstrate the performance of various Pulse coding Techniques. K3
CO4: Differentiate the different pass band transmission schemes K2
CO5: Construct different Source and Error control codes K4
CO6: Implement different Digital modulation schemes and coding
techniques K4
 5. CO- PO/PSO MAPPING

MAPPING OF COURSE OUTCOMES WITH PROGRAM OUTCOMES:

Program
Specific
Course Program Outcomes
Level Outcomes
Outcom es
of CO

K3/k4/k6
K3/k4/k6
K3/K6
K4/K6
K3 K4 K6 A3 A2 A3 A3 A3 A3 A2 K3

PO-1 PO-2 PO-3 PO-4 PO-5 PO-6 PO-7 PO-8 PO-9 PO-10 PO-11 PO-12 PSO-1 PSO-2 PSO-3

C214.1 K3 3 2 1 - 3 - - 1 - - - - 1 1 -
C214.2 K3 3 2 1 - 3 - - 1 - - - - 1 1 -
C214.3 K3 3 2 1 - 2 - - 1 - - - - 1 - -
C214.4 K2 2 1 - - 2 - - 1 - - - - 1 - -
C214.5 K4 3 3 1 3 3 1 - 1 - - - - 1 - -
C214.6 K4 3 3 1 - 3 1 - 1 - - - - 1 1 -

11
6 UNIT IV

DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES

12
 6.1 LECTURE PLAN

UNIT IV – DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES

Taxonomy level
Proposed Date

Pertaining CO
No. of Periods

Actual Date

Reason for
Deviation
S.No

Topic

Delivery
Mode of
17.2.25 Black Board
1 Geometric 1 CO4
Representation of
K2 Teaching
signals
18.2.25 Black Board
2 Generation and 1 CO4 K2
Teaching
detection of coherent
systems
19.2.25 Black Board
3 Digital modulation 1 CO4 K2 Teaching
techniques – ASK, FSk
& PSK
BASK 20.2.25 Black Board
4 1 CO4 K2 Teaching

BFSK 21.2.25
5 1 CO4 K2 PPT

BPSK 24.2.25 Black Board

6 1 CO4 Teaching
K2
QPSK 26.2.25 Black Board
7 1 CO4 Teaching
K2
QAM 28.2.25 Black Board
8 1 CO4 Teaching
K2
Comparison of all 04..3.25
digital Modulation
9 Techniques. 1 CO4 K2 PPT

Total No. of Periods : 9

13
6.2 ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING
Sl. Activity Topic
No

1 Quiz Different Modulation Techniques

2. Group Discussion Mobile Communication

14
Quiz Questions:
1. The bandwidth of BFSK is than BPSK.
a) Lower
b) Same
c) Higher
d) Not predictable
Answer C) Higher

2. In Binary FSK, mark and space respectively represent

a) 1 and 0
b) 0 and 1
c) 11 and 00
d) 00 and 11
Answer: b) 0 and 1

3. The frequency shifts in the BFSK usually lies in the range

a) 50 to 1000 Hz
b) 100 to 2000 Hz
c) 200 to 500 Hz
d) 500 to 10 K Hz
Answer: a) 50 to 1000 Hz

4. The spectrum of BFSK may be viewed as the sum of

a) Two ASK spectra
b) Two PSK spectra
c) Two FSK spectra
d) None of the above
Answer: a) Two ASK spectra

5. The maximum bandwidth is occupied by

a) ASK
b) BPSK
c) FSK
d) None of the above
Answer: c) FSK
6. QPSK is a modulation scheme where each symbol consists
of
a) 4 bits
b) 2 bits
c) 1 bit
d) M number of bits, depending upon the requirement
Answer: b) 2 bits
7. The data rate of QPSK is of BPSK.
a) Thrice
b) Four times
c) Twice
d) same
Answer: c) Twice

8. QPSK system uses a phase shift of

a) Π
b) Π/2
c) Π/4
d) 2Π
Answer: b) Π/2
9. Minimum shift keying is similar to
a) Continuous phase frequency shift keying
b) Binary phase shift keying
c) Binary frequency shift keying
d) QPSK
Answer: a) Continuous phase frequency shift keying

10. In MSK, the difference between the higher and lower

frequency is
a) Same as the bit rate
b) Half of the bit rate
c) Twice of the bit rate
d) Four time the bit rate
Answer: b) Half of the bit rate

11. The technique that may be used to reduce the side band power is
a) MSK
b) BPSK
c) Gaussian minimum shift keying
d) BFSK
Answer: c) Gaussian minimum shift keying
12.In DPSK technique, the technique used to encode bits is
a) AMI
b) Differential code
c) Uni polar RZ format
d) Manchester format
Answer: b) Differential code
13. Synchronization of signals is done using
a) Pilot clock
b) Extracting timing information from the received signal
c) Transmitter and receiver connected to master timing source
d) All of the above
Answer: d) All of the above

14. In coherent detection of signals,

a) Local carrier is generated
b) Carrier of frequency and phase as same as transmitted carrier is generated
c) The carrier is in synchronization with modulated carrier
d) All of the above
Answer: d) All of the above

15. QAM uses as the dimensions.

a) In phase
b) Quadrature
c) In phase & Quadrature
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: c) In phase & Quadrature

16. If we correlate the received signal with any one of the two orthogonal function,
the obtained inner product will be
a) In phase
b) Quadrature
c) Zero
d) Cannot be determined
Answer: c) Zero
17. Every frequency has orthogonal functions.
a) One
b) Two
c) Four
d) Six
Answer: b) Two
18. Which FSK has no phase discontinuity?
a) Continuous FSK
b) Discrete FSK
c) Uniform FSK
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: a) Continuous FSK
19. Average energy per bit is given by
a) average energy symbol/log2 M
b) average energy symbol * log2 M
c) log2 M/ Average energy symbol
d) none of the mentioned
Answer: c) log2 M/ Average energy symbol

20. Which has same probability of error?

a) BPSK and QPSK
b) BPSK and ASK
c) BPSK and PAM
d) BPSK and QAM
Answer: c) BPSK and PAM

21FSK reception uses

a) Correlation receiver
b) PLL
c) Correlation receiver & PLL
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: c) Correlation receiver & PLL

22. In non coherent reception is measured.

a) Phase
b) Energy
c) Power
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: b) Energy

23. Which system uses QAM?

a) Digital microwave relay
b) Dial up modem
c) Digital microwave relay & Dial up modem
d) None of the mentioned
Answer: c) Digital microwave relay & Dial up modem
6.3 Lecture Notes

15
 UNIT –IV
DIGITAL MODULATION TECHNIQUES
Geometric Representation of signals-`Generation & Detection of Coherent
systems – BASK, BFSK, BPSK, BFSK, QPSK, QAM and Comparison of Digital
Modulation Techniques.

4.1 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalization Procedure:

Fig: 4.1 Model of Digital Communication System

According to the above fig, the task of transforming an incoming message m i

,i=1,2,…M into a modulated ware Si(t) may be divided into separate discrete – time and
continuous time operations .

Gram Schmidth orthogonalization procedure allows the represention of any set of M

energy signals Si(t) as linear combination of N orthonormal basis function where 𝑁 ≤
𝑀.

Si(t)== ∑_(𝐽 = 1)^𝑁▒𝑆𝑖𝑗 ∅𝑗 t 0≤𝑡≤𝑇

where the co-efficient of the expansion are,

𝑇
𝑖 = 1,2, … 𝑀
𝑆𝑖𝑗 = 𝑆𝑖 𝑡 ∅𝑗 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
𝑗 = 1,2, … . 𝑁
 The Real- Valued basis functions ∅1 𝑡 , ∅2 𝑡 … . ∅𝑛 𝑡 are erthoneral, and it is
given by

𝑇
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑗
∅𝑖 𝑡 ∅𝑗 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
0
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗

First condition proves that each basis function is normalized to have unit energy

Second condition proves that all basis functions are orthogonal to each other.

Fig: 4.2 Generation of Signal Fig: 4.3 Generation of Coefficients

To generate the signal 𝑆𝑖 𝑡 , (𝑖 = 1,2 … 𝑀) a bank of N multiplers are used. In

each multiplier, the co- efficient𝑆𝑖𝑗 and basis function ∅𝑗 are multiplied. The output of
all multipliers is added by using a summer. This scheme is similar to a modulator in the
digital communication system.

Conversely, to generate the co- efficient at the receiver, a bank of product –

integrators or correlator with a common input of 𝑆𝑖 (t) and its own basis function this
structure is similar to the detector in the digital communication system.
4.2 Geometric Representation of signals:

As in Gram Schmidt orthogonalization, a signal set 𝑆𝑖 (𝑡)

0≤𝑡≤𝑇
𝑆𝑖 (t)=∑𝑁
𝑗 =1 𝑆𝑖𝑗 ∅𝑗 𝑡 (4.1)
𝑗 = 1,2, … . 𝑁

The Co- efficient of the expansion,

𝑖 = 1,2, … 𝑀
𝑆𝑖𝑗 =𝑆𝑖 ∅𝑗 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (4.2)
𝑗 = 1,2, … . 𝑁

Each signal in the set 𝑆𝑖(𝑡) is determined by the vector co- efficient

𝑆𝑖1
Si= 𝑆𝑖2 i=1,2,3…M (4.3)
𝑆𝑖𝑁
The vector 𝑆𝑖 is called the signal vector. We can visualize the set of signal
vectors 𝑆𝑖 , as set of M points in an N- demendional Euclidean space. This N-
dimensional Euclidean space is called the signal space.

Fig 4.4 Shows a two – dimensional signal space with three signals that is
N=2 and M=3
 In the Euclidean space, lengths of vectors and angles between vectors are defined. Length or
norm of vector is denoted by 𝑆𝑖.
1) The squared- length of any signal vector Si is equal to the inner product of the vector with itself

𝑆𝑖 2=(𝑆𝑖 , 𝑆𝑖 )

2
=∑𝑁
𝐽 =1 𝑆𝑖𝑗 (4.4)
Where 𝑆𝑖𝑗 are the elements of 𝑆𝑖

2) The cosine of the angle between two vectors is equal to the inner product of the two vectors
divided by the product of their individual norms.
that is cosine of angle between
Vectors 𝑆𝑖 and 𝑆𝑗 =(Si,Sj)/ 𝑆𝑖 𝑆𝑗

3) The energy content of a signal is related to its vector representation,

𝑇 2
𝐸𝑖 = 𝑆 (t)
0 i
dt
𝑇
𝐸𝑖 = 0
∑𝑛𝑗=1 𝑆𝑖𝑗 ∅𝑗 ∑𝑁
𝑘=1 𝑆𝑖𝑗 ∅𝑘 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡

1 since ∅(𝑡) is orthonerous basis function

𝑇
=∑𝑀 𝑁
𝑗 =1 ∑𝑘=1 𝑆𝑖𝑗 𝑆𝑖𝑘 0 𝑖
𝑆 (𝑡) ∅𝑘 (t)dt
2
𝐸𝑖 =∑𝑁
𝑗 =1 𝑆ij (4.5)
Thus from equation 4 and 5

2
Ei = 𝑆𝑖
4.3 Digital Modulation Techniques:
Modulation is defined as the process by which some characteristic of a carrier is
varied in accordance with a modulating wave.
In digital modulation the modulating wave consists of a binary data or encoded
version of it[Line coding]
The carrier is a high frequency sinusoidal wave
The various digital modulation techniques are
1) Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
2) Frequency shift keying(FSK)
3) Phase shift keying (PSK)

Fig: 4.5 ASK, FSK, PSK Signals

ASK-> Amplitudes of carrier is changed in accordance with the binary data.
FSK-> Frequency of carrier is changed in accordance with the binary data.
PSK-> Phase of carrier is changed in accordance with the binary data.

To perform demodulation at the receiver, two types of detection are available,

Coherent detection- Receiver has exact knowledge of the carrier wave’s phase
reference ie) receiver is phase- locked to the transmitter.

Non- Coherent detection- Knowledge of carrier wave’s phase is not required less
complex.
Thus many modulation/ detection schemes are available. The choice of scheme
is based on the following criteria,
 Maximum data rate
 Minimum probability of symbol error
 Minimum transmitted power
 Minimum channel BW
 Minimum circuit complexity
 Minimum resistance to interfering signals.
4.4 BINARY AMPLITUDE-SHIFT KEYING
The simplest digital modulation technique is amplitude-shift keying (ASK), where a binary
information signal directly modulates the amplitude of an analog carrier. ASK is similar to
standard amplitude modulation except there are only two output amplitudes possible.
Amplitude-shift keying is sometimes called digital amplitude modulation (DAM). Mathe-
matically, amplitude-shift keying is

where
vask (t) = amplitude-shift keying wave
vm (t) = digital information (modulating) signal (volts)
A/2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts)
c = analog carrier radian frequency (radians per second, 2 fct)

In Equation, the modulating signal (vm[t]) is a normalized binary waveform, where +1 V =

logic 1 and —1 V = logic 0. Therefore, for a logic 1 input, vm(t) = +1 V, Equation reduces to

and for a logic 0 input, vm (t) = —1 V, Equation reduces to

Thus, the modulated wave vask(t), is either A cos( ct) or 0. Hence, the carrier is either “on” or
“off,” which is why amplitude-shift keying is sometimes referred to as on-off keying (OOK).
Fig.4.6 shows the input and output waveforms from an ASK modulator. From the figure, it can
be seen that for every change in the input binary data stream, there is one change in the ASK
waveform, and the time of one bit (tb) equals the time of one analog signaling element (ts). It
is also important to note that for the entire time the binary input is high, the output is a
constant-amplitude, constant-frequency signal, and for the entire time the bi- nary input is
low, the carrier is off. The bit time is the reciprocal of the bit rate and the time of one
signaling element is the reciprocal of the baud. Therefore, the rate of change of the
 Binary
input

(a)

FIG 4.6 Digital amplitude modulation: (a) input

DAM binary; (b) output DAM waveform
output
(b
)

ASK waveform (baud) is the same as the rate of change of the binary input (bps); thus, the bit rate equals the
baud. With ASK, the bit rate is also equal to the minimum Nyquist bandwidth. The use of amplitude-modulated
analog carriers to transport digital information is a relatively low-quality, low-cost type of digital modulation
and, therefore, is seldom used except for very low- speed telemetry circuits.

Fig.4.7. ASK Waveforms

The ASK waveform may be represented as,

To transmit symbol ‘0’, the signal s(t)=0 i.e., no signal is trasnmitted/ Signal s(t) contains some complete
cycle or carrier frequency fc.
Hence, the ASK waveform looks like an ON-OFF of the signal as shown in Fig.4.7. Therefore, it is also known
as the ON-OFF keying (OOK).
 4.4.1 Signal Space Diagram of Binary Amplitude Shift Keying
The ASK waveform of the equation (1) for symbol ‘1’ can be represented as,

This means that there is only one carrier function Φ1​(t). The signal space diagram will have two points on
Φ1​(t). One will be at zero and other will be at ​√PsTb.

Fig.4.8. Signal Space Diagram of ASK

Thus, the distance between the two signal points is,

4.4.2 Generation Of BASK:

ASK signal may be generated by simply applying the incoming binary data and the sinusoidal carrier to the
two inputs of a product modulator (i.e. balanced modulator). the resulting output will be the ASK
waveform. This is shown in the fig.4.9 below. Modulation causes a shift of the baseband signal spectrum.

Fig.4.9. Generation of BASK

4.4.3 Power Spectral Density (PSD)

The ASK signal, which is basically the product of the binary sequence and the carrier signal, has a power
spectral density (PSD) same as that of the baseband on-off signal but shifted in the frequency domain
by ±fc. This is shown the below fig.4.10 also. It may be noted that two impulses occur at ±fc.

Fig.4.10. PSD of BASK

4.4.4 Bandwidth of BASK

The spectrum of the ASK signal shows that it has infinite bandwidth. However, for practical purposes,
the bandwidth is often defined as the bandwidth of an ideal band pass filter centered at fc whose
output contains about 95% of the total average power content of the ASK signal. It may be proved
that according to this criterion the bandwidth of the ASK signal is approximately 3/Tb Hz. The
bandwidth of the ASK signal can, however, be reduced by using smoothed versions of the pulse
waveform instead of rectangular pulse waveforms.

4.4.5 Coherent Detection:

The demodulation of binary ASK waveform can be achieved with the help of a coherent detector as
shown in the fig.4.11. It consists of a product modulator which is followed by an integrator and a
decision-making device.
The incoming ASK signal is applied to one input of the product modulator. The other input of the
product modulator is supplied with a sinusoidal carrier which is generated with the help of a local
oscillator.
The output of the product modulator goes to the input of the integrator. The integrator operates on
the output of the multiplier for successive bit intervals and essentially performs a low-pass filtering
action. The output of the integrator goes to the input of a decision-making device.

Fig.4.11. Coherent Detection of BASK

Now, the decision-making device compares the output of the integrator with a present threshold. It
marked a decision in favor of symbol 1 when the threshold is exceeded and in favor of symbol 0
otherwise. the coherent detection makes the use of linear operation.
In this method, we have assumed that the local carrier is in perfect synchronization with the carriers used
in the transmitter. this means that the frequency and phase of the locally generated carrier are the same
as those of the carriers used in the transmitter.

4.4.6 Non-coherent Detection of ASK

Binary ASk signal can also be demodulated non-coherently using envelope detector as shown in Fig.4.12.
This greatly simplifies the design consideration required in synchronous detection. Non-coherent detection
schemes do not require a phase-coherent local oscillator. This method involves some form of rectification
and low-pass filtering at the receiver.

Fig.4.12. Non-Coherent Detection of BASK

4.5 FREQUENCY-SHIFT KEYING

Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is another relatively simple, low-performance type of digital modulation. FSK
is a form of constant-amplitude angle modulation similar to standard frequency modulation (FM) except the
modulating signal is a binary signal that varies between two discrete voltage levels rather than a
continuously changing analog waveform. Consequently, FSK is sometimes called binary FSK (BFSK). The
general expression for FSK is

where vfsk(t) = binary FSK waveform

Vc = peak analog carrier amplitude (volts)
fc = analog carrier center frequency (hertz)
Δf = peak change (shift) in the analog carrier frequency (hertz)
vm(t) = binary input (modulating) signal (volts)

From Equation , it can be seen that the peak shift in the carrier frequency (Δ f) is proportional to
the amplitude of the binary input signal (vm[t]), and the direction of the shift is determined by the
polarity

Fig.4.13. FSK in Frequency Domain

 The modulating signal is a normalized binary waveform where a logic 1 = +1 V and a logic 0 = —1 V.
Thus, for a logic 1 input, vm(t) = +1, Equation can be rewritten as

For a logic 0 input, vm(t) = —1, Equation becomes

With binary FSK, the carrier center frequency (fc) is shifted (deviated) up and down in the frequency
domain by the binary input signal as shown in Fig.4.13. As the binary in- put signal changes from a logic 0
to a logic 1 and vice versa, the output frequency shifts between two frequencies: a mark, or logic 1
frequency (fm), and a space, or logic 0 frequency (fs). The mark and space frequencies are separated from
the carrier frequency by the peak frequency deviation (Δf) and from each other by 2 Δf.

With FSK, frequency deviation is defined as the difference between either the mark or space frequency and
the center frequency, or half the difference between the mark and space frequencies. Frequency deviation
is illustrated in Fig.4.13 and expressed mathematically as

where

Δf = frequency deviation (hertz)

|fm — fs| = absolute difference between the mark and space
frequencies (hertz)

Fig.4.14 a shows in the time domain the binary input to an FSK modulator and the cor- responding FSK
output. As the figure shows, when the binary input (fb) changes from a logic 1 to a logic 0 and vice versa, the
FSK output frequency shifts from a mark (fm) to a space (fs) frequency and vice versa. In Figure 4a, the mark
frequency is the higher frequency (fc + Δf), and the space frequency is the lower frequency (fc — Δf),
although this relationship could be just the opposite. Fig.4.14 b shows the truth table for a binary FSK
modulator. The truth table shows the input and output possibilities for a given digital modulation scheme.

4.5.1 FSK Bit Rate, Baud, and Bandwidth

In Fig.4.14 a, it can be seen that the time of one bit (tb) is the same as the time the FSK output is a mark
of space frequency (ts). Thus, the bit time equals the time of an FSK signal- ing element, and the bit rate
equals the baud.
 tb
Binar
y 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
inpu 1 0
t ts
binary frequency
Anal input output
og
outp 0 space (fs)
ƒs ƒm ƒs ƒ m ƒs ƒm ƒs ƒm ƒs ƒm
ut ƒs 1 mark (fm)

ƒm, mark frequency; ƒs space

frequency
(a) (b)

FIG 4.14 FSK in the time domain: (a) waveform; (b) truth
table

The baud for binary FSK can also be determined by substituting N = 1 :

FSK is the exception to the rule for digital modulation, as the minimum bandwidth is not
determined from Equation 10. The minimum bandwidth for FSK is given as
B = |( fs — fb) — ( fm — fb)|
= |fs — fm| + 2 fb
and since |fs — fm| equals 2Δf, the minimum bandwidth can be approximated as

B = 2(Δf + fb) where

B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)
Δf = frequency deviation (|fm — fs|) (hertz)
fb = input bit rate (bps)

Note how closely this resembles Carson’s rule for determining the approximate bandwidth for
an FM wave. The only difference in the two equations is that, for FSK, the bit rate (fb) is
substituted for the modulating-signal frequency (fm).
 Bessel functions can also be used to determine the approximate bandwidth for an
FSK wave. As shown in Fig.4.15, the fastest rate of change (highest fundamental
frequency) in a nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ) binary signal occurs when alternating 1s
and 0s are occurring (i.e., a square wave). Since it takes a high and a low to
produce a cycle, the highest funda- mental frequency present in a square wave
equals the repetition rate of the square wave, which with a binary signal is equal to
half the bit rate. Therefore,

where fa = highest fundamental frequency of the binary input signal

(hertz)
fb = input bit rate (bps)
The formula used for modulation index in FM is also valid for FSK; thus,

where h = FM modulation index called the h-factor in FSK

fa = fundamental frequency of the binary modulating signal (hertz)
Δf = peak frequency deviation (hertz)
The worst-case modulation index (deviation ratio) is that which yields the widest band- width. The
worst-case or widest bandwidth occurs when both the frequency deviation and the modulating-
signal frequency are at their maximum values. As described earlier, the peak frequency deviation
in FSK is constant and always at its maximum value, and the highest fundamental frequency is
equal to half the incoming bit rate. Thus,

where h = h-factor (unitless)

fm = mark frequency (hertz) fs = space frequency (hertz) fb = bit rate (bits per second)

FIG 4.15 FSK modulator, tb, time of one bit = 1/fb; fm, mark frequency; fs, space frequency;
T1, period of shortest cycle; 1/T1, fundamental frequency of binary square wave; fb, input bit
rate (bps)
4.5.2 FSK Transmitter

Fig.4.16 shows a simplified binary FSK modulator, which is very similar to a conventional FM
modulator and is very often a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). The center frequency (fc) is
chosen such that it falls halfway between the mark and space frequencies. A logic 1 input shifts the
VCO output to the mark frequency, and a logic 0 input shifts the VCO output to the space
frequency. Consequently, as the binary input signal changes back and forth between logic 1 and
logic 0 conditions, the VCO output shifts or deviates back and forth between the mark and space
frequencies.

In a binary FSK modulator, Δf is the peak frequency deviation of the carrier and is equal to the
difference between the carrier rest frequency and either the mark or the space frequency (or half
the difference between the carrier rest frequency) and either the mark or the space frequency (or
half the difference between the mark and space frequencies). A VCO- FSK modulator can be
operated in the sweep mode where the peak frequency deviation is

NR FSK
Z FSK output
bina Modulator
ry (VCO)
inpu k1 = Hz/v
t
– +
ƒ ƒ

ƒm ƒc ƒs

Logic 0
Logic 1

FIG 4.16 FSK modulator

5
9
 FIG 4.17 Noncoherent FSK demodulator

FIG 4.18 Coherent FSK demodulator

simply the product of the binary input voltage and the deviation sensitivity of the VCO. With the sweep mode
of modulation, the frequency deviation is expressed mathematically as

Δf = vm(t)kl

where
Δf = peak frequency deviation (hertz)
vm(t) = peak binary modulating-signal voltage (volts)
kl = deviation sensitivity (hertz per volt).
With binary FSK, the amplitude of the input signal can only be one of two values, one for a logic 1
condition and one for a logic 0 condition. Therefore, the peak frequency deviation is constant and always at its
maximum value. Frequency deviation is simply plus or minus the peak voltage of the binary signal times the
deviation sensitivity of the VCO. Since the peak voltage is the same for a logic 1 as it is for a logic 0, the
magnitude of the frequency deviation is also the same for a logic 1 as it is for a logic 0.
4.5.3 FSK Receiver
FSK demodulation is quite simple with a circuit such as the one shown in Fig.4.17. The FSK input signal is
simultaneously applied to the inputs of both band pass filters (BPFs) through a power splitter. The respective
filter passes only the mark or only the space frequency on to its respective envelope detector. The envelope
detectors, in turn, indicate the total power in each pass band, and the comparator responds to the largest of
the two powers. This type of FSK detection is referred to as non coherent detection; there is no frequency
involved in the demodulation process that is synchronized either in phase, frequency, or both with the
incoming FSK signal.

Fig.4.18 shows the block diagram for a coherent FSK receiver. The incoming FSK signal is multiplied by a
recovered carrier signal that has the exact same frequency and phase as the transmitter reference. However,
the two transmitted frequencies (the mark and space frequencies) are not generally continuous; it is not
practical to reproduce a local reference that is coherent with both of them. Consequently, coherent FSK
detection is seldom used.
 FIG 4.19 PLL-FSK demodulator

FIG 4.20 Non continuous FSK waveform

The most common circuit used for demodulating binary FSK signals is the phase-locked loop (PLL), which is
shown in block diagram form in Fig.4.19. A PLL-FSK demodulator works similarly to a PLL-FM demodulator. As
the input to the PLL shifts between the mark and space frequencies, the dc error voltage at the output of the
phase comparator follows the frequency shift. Because there are only two input frequencies (mark and
space), there are also only two output error voltages. One represents a logic 1 and the other a logic 0.
Therefore, the output is a two-level (binary) representation of the FSK in- put. Generally, the natural
frequency of the PLL is made equal to the center frequency of the FSK modulator. As a result, the changes in
the dc error voltage follow the changes in the analog input frequency and are symmetrical around 0 V.
Binary FSK has a poorer error performance than PSK or QAM and, consequently, is seldom used for high-
performance digital radio systems. Its use is restricted to low-performance, low-cost, asynchronous data
modems that are used for data communications over analog, voice-band telephone lines.
4.5.4 Continuous-Phase Frequency-Shift Keying
Continuous-phase frequency-shift keying (CP-FSK) is binary FSK except the mark and space frequencies are
synchronized with the input binary bit rate. Synchronous simply implies that there is a precise time relationship
between the two; it does not mean they are equal. With CP-FSK, the mark and space frequencies are selected
such that they are separated from the center frequency by an exact multiple of one-half the bit rate (fm and fs
= n[fb /2]), where n = any integer). This ensures a smooth phase transition in the analog output signal when
it changes from a mark to a space frequency or vice versa. Fig.4.20 shows a non continuous FSK waveform.
It can be seen that when the input changes from a logic 1 to a logic 0 and vice versa, there is an abrupt
phase discontinuity in the analog signal. When this occurs, the demodulator has trouble following the
frequency shift; consequently, an error may occur.
Fig.4.21 shows a continuous phase FSK waveform. Notice that when the output frequency changes, it is a
smooth, continuous transition. Consequently, there are no phase dis- continuities. CP-FSK has a better bit-
error performance than conventional binary FSK for a given signal-to-noise ratio. The disadvantage of CP-FSK
is that it requires synchronization circuits and is, therefore, more expensive to implement.

FIG.4.21 Continuous-phase MSK waveform

4.6 Coherent Binary PSK : (BPSK)

Principle:

In a coherent binary psk system, binary 1 and 0 are represented by 𝑆1 (t) and
𝑆2 (t) respectively,

2𝐸𝑏
𝑆1 (t) = cos⁡
(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡)
𝑇𝑏

𝐸𝑏
𝑆2 (t)= 2 cos⁡
(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡 + 𝜋)
𝑇𝑏

𝐸
𝑆2 𝑡 = - 2 𝑇𝑏 cos(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t)
𝑏

Where 0≤ t≤ 𝑇𝑏
𝑛
𝐸𝑏 → Energy per bit, 𝑓𝑐 =𝑇 𝑐 ; 𝑛𝑐 = fixed integer
𝑏

A pair of sinusoidal waves that differ only in relative phase-shift of 180• are referred
as antipodal signals

From 1 and 2 it is clear that there is only one basis function,

2
∅1 𝑡 = 𝑇𝑏
cos (2𝜋𝑓𝑐 t) 0≤ t < 𝑇𝑏 (4.6)

1 =>𝑆1 𝑡 = 𝐸𝑏 ∅1(𝑡) 0 ≤ t < 𝑇𝑏 (4.7)

2=> 𝑆2 (t) = - 𝐸𝑏 ∅1(𝑡) 0 ≤ t < 𝑇𝑏 (4.8)

From 4 and 5 we get the co-efficient of expansion,

𝑇𝑏
𝑆11 = 0
𝑆1 (t)∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑆11 =+ 𝐸𝑏
𝑇𝑏
𝑠21 = 0
𝑆2 (t)∅2(t)dt

𝑆21=− 𝐸𝑏
Thus a BPSK system has a signal space that is one dimensional (N=1) and with two
message points (M=2). The two message points are given by 𝑆11 and 𝑆21. Message
point corresponding to 𝑠2 (t) is located at 𝑠11 =+ 𝐸𝑏 and message point corresponding

to 𝑆2 (t) is 𝑆21 =- 𝐸𝑏 .

Fig: 4.22 Signal Space Diagram for Coherent BPSK

Signal space of BPSK is divided into two regions,

• Set of points closet to the message point at + 𝐸𝑏

• Set of points closet to the message point at - 𝐸𝑏

The first region is marked as z1 and second is marked as z2.

At the receiver, the decision rule is to guess a binary 1 if the received signal point
falls in region z1 and guess binary o if the received signal point falls in region z2.

4.6.1 Generation:

Fig: 4.23 BPSK Generation

 To generate a psk wave, the i/p binary data is represented in polar form
𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 1 → + 𝐸𝑏 &

Binary 0 →- 𝐸𝑏

This binary wave and a sinusoidal carrier ∅1 (t) are applied to a product modulator
whose o/p is a PSK wave.

4.6.2 Detection :

Fig: 4.24 BPSK Detector

To detect the original binary sequence, the noisy psk wave x(t) is applied to a
correlator. Another i/p to correlator is a coherent reference signal ∅1 (t). The correlator
o/p 𝑥1 is given to a decision device. J6 𝑥1 <0, the receiver decides in favour of binary 1
and if 𝑥1 <0, it decides in favour of binary 0.

4.6.3 Probability of error:

Two error conditions:

1) Signal 𝑆2 (t) is transmitted [binary 1] but the noise in the channel makes the
received signal point to fall inside region𝑧1 and so the receiver decides 𝑠1 (t) (ie)
binary o.
2) Signal 𝑆1 (t) is transmitted [binary 0] but the noise in the channel makes the
received signal point to fall inside region 𝑍2 and so receives decides 𝑆2 (t)(ie)
binary 1.
To calculate probability of error of first condition,
𝑍1 = 0 <𝑥1 <1
Where 𝑥1 is the observation scalar.
𝑇𝑏
𝑥1 = 0
𝑥( 𝑡)∅1 (t)dt
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 𝑡 → 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
Probability density function,
1
𝑓𝑥1 𝑥1
=
1 exp[-𝑁 (𝑥1 -𝑠21 )2
0 𝜋 𝑁𝑂 0

1
𝑓𝑥1 (𝑥1/0 ) = exp −(𝑥1 + 𝐸𝑏 )2
𝜋𝑁𝑂

Probability of error,

∞
𝑃𝑒 (0)= 0
𝑓𝑥1 (𝑥1 /0)d𝑥1

1 ∝ 1
= 𝑒𝑥𝑝[-𝑁 (𝑥1 + 𝐸𝑏 )2 d𝑥1
𝜋 𝑁𝑂 0 𝑂

Take Z= (𝑥1 + 𝐸𝑏 )2

1 ∝
𝑃𝑒 (0) = 𝐸𝑏 (−𝑧 2 )dz
exp⁡
𝜋
𝑁0

1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒 (0)=2erfc( )
𝑁0

erfc→complementay error function

simillarly,

1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒 (1) = 2erfc( 𝑁0
)

Average Probability of error,

1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒 = erfc( )
2 𝑁𝑜
4.6.4 Power Spectrum:

From the generation of BPSK, it is clear that BPSK has only one in-phase
component which is 𝑡𝑔 (t) or –g(t).

2𝐸𝑏
; 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏
g(t) = 𝑇𝑏
0 ; 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

g(t) → symbol shaping function,

Fig: 4.25 Power Spectra of BPSK Signal

The baseband power spectral density of bpsk wave is

𝑆𝐵 (f) = 2𝐸𝑏 sin𝑐 2 (f𝑇𝑏 )

4.7 Coherent Binary FSK:

4.7.1 Principle:

In binary FSK system, symbols 1 and 0 are represented by two sinusoidal waves that
differ in frequency. It is given as below,

2𝐸𝑏
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 𝑜≤𝑡≤
𝑆𝑖 (t) = 𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑏
0 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

i=1,2

𝐸𝑏 → Energy per bit

𝑓𝑖=𝑛 𝑐+𝑖 𝑛𝑐 →fixed integer

𝑇𝑏

Symbol 1 is represented by 𝑆1 (t) and symbol o by 𝑆2 (t)

2𝐸𝑏
(ie) 𝑆1 (t) = 𝑇𝑏 cos2𝜋𝑓1 t 0 ≤ t≤ 𝑇𝑏
0

2𝐸𝑏
𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜋𝑓1 𝑡 𝑜≤𝑡≤𝑏
𝑆2 (t) ={ 𝑇𝑏
𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

From 1 and 2 we can write the orthonormal basis function,

2
0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑇𝑏
∅𝑗 (t) = 𝑇𝑏
𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒

Where j=1,2

The Co- efficient Sij is given by Sij

𝑇𝑏
𝑆𝑖𝑗 = 𝑆𝑖 𝑡 ∅𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
 𝑇𝑏 2𝐸𝑏 2
= 0
𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑓𝑖 𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑓𝑗 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑏 𝑇𝑏

𝐸𝑏 𝑖=𝑗
Sij = (4.9)
0 𝑖≠𝑗

According to equation 4

S11= 𝐸𝑏 S21=0

S12=0 S22= 𝐸𝑏

𝐸𝑏 0
S1= S2 = (4.10)
0 𝐸𝑏

Where S1 and S2 are signal vectors.

Thus a coherent BFSK system has a two dimensional (N=2) Signal space with
two message points (M=2).The message points are defined by signal vectors. The
signal space digram has two regions Z1 and Z2 as in fig.4.26

Fig: 4.26 Signal space diagram for coherent BFSK

The observation vector x has two elements

x1 and x2

𝑇𝑏
x1 = 0
𝑥 𝑡 ∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 and

𝑇𝑏
x2 = 0
𝑥 𝑡 ∅2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (4.11)

x(t)->received signal

4.7.2 Decision Rule:

The receiver deceids in favor of symbol 1 if the vector x falls in region Z1 and
the receiver decides ie) x1>x2

in favor of symbol 0 if the vector x falls in region Z2. ie) x1<x2.

At the decision boundary x1=x2

Fig:4.27 BFSK Signal Generator

To generate a binary FSK signal, the input binary sequence m(t) is represented
in on- off form. Symbol is represented by 𝐸𝑏 and symbol 0 by zero volts. An eveter is
used to generate 𝑚(𝑡). Now m(t) is s multiplied by ∅1 (t) and 𝑚(𝑡) is multiplied by ∅2 (t)
ie)
` For symbol 1, the frequency f1 is transmitted to the summer and for symbol 0,
frequency fz is transmitted to the summer,

Now the output of summer is a binary FSK wave. The frequency of modulated wave is
shifted with a continuous phase, So FSK is called as continuous phase frequency shift
keying (CP-FSK)

4.7.3 Detection:

Fig: 4.28 BFSK Detector

The received noisy signal s(t) is given as a common input to two correlators,
Another input to the correlators are the coherent reference signals ∅1 (t) and ∅2 (t). The
correlator outputs are then subtracted to get the value of l.

If l>0, the receiver decides in favor of

ie)x1>x2 1. If l<0 (ie) x1<x2 the receiver decides in favor of binary 0

4.7.4 Probability of error:

Consider a Gaussiaan variable L Whose sample value is l,

l= x1-x2 (4.12)

The mean value of L depends on the binary symbol transmitted,

When symbol 1 was transmitted x1= 𝐸𝑏 , x2=0

E[L/1] = E[X1/1]-[X2/1]

= 𝐸𝑏 -0

= 𝐸𝑏

When symbol 0 was transmitted x1=0, x2= 𝐸𝑏

E[L/0] = E[X1/0]-[X2/0]

=0- 𝐸𝑏

=- 𝐸𝑏

Variance, Var(L) = Var(X1)+ Var(X2)

𝑁0 𝑁
= 2
+ 20 =N0

Consider symbol 0 was transmitted, the probability density function of random

variable L,

1 −1
FL (l/0)= 2𝜋𝑁 0
exp[2𝑁 (l+ 𝐸𝑏 )2]
0

Probability of error when 0 is transmitted,

 𝐷
Pe(0)= 0 𝐿
𝑓 (l/0)dl

2
1 ∞ (𝑙+ 𝐸𝑏 )
= 2𝜋𝑁 0 0
𝑒𝑥𝑝[- 2𝑁0
]dl

(𝑙+ 𝐸𝑏 )
Take Z=-
2𝑁0

1 ∞
= 𝜋 𝐸𝑏 𝑒𝑥𝑝 −𝑍 2 𝑑𝑧
2𝑁 0

1 𝐸𝑏
Pe(0)= 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 2𝑁0

similarly

1 𝐸𝑏
Pe(1)=2 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 2𝑁0

Average probability of error,

1 𝐸𝑏
𝑃𝑒= 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐
2 2𝑁0

4.7.5 Power Spectrum:

A binary FSK signal has two components, an is- phase component and a quadrature
component.

Power spectral density of BFSK is

𝐸 1 1 8𝐸𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜋𝑓 𝑇𝑏 )

Sb(f)=2𝑇𝑏 𝜕 𝑓 − 2𝑇 + 𝜕 𝑓 + 2𝑇 + 2
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝜋 2 4𝑇𝑏2 𝑓 2 −1
 Fig: 4.29 Power Spectra of BFSK

4.8 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying(QPSK):

𝜋
In QPSK the phase of the carrier takes any one of the four values such as 4

3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
4
, 4
and 4
.This is achieved by grouping the input binary sequence into dibits. Each

angle corresponds to a dibit combination.

2𝐸
𝜋
0≤𝑡≤𝑇
Thus 𝑆𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑇 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2𝜋𝑓𝑐 + 2𝑖 + 1 4
0 elsewhere

(4.13)

where i=1,2,3&4

E→ Energy per bit

𝑛𝑐
𝑓𝑐= 𝑇

nc→ Fixed integer

Eqn1 can be written as

2𝐸 2𝐸
𝜋 𝜋
𝑆𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑇 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑖 − 1 4
𝐶𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) − 𝑇 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝑖 − 1 4
𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) for 0<t<T

0 elsewhere

(4..14)

From eqn 2 we write the following observations,

1) There are only orthonormal basis function ie) j=2

2
∅1 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) 0≤𝑡≤𝑇
𝑇

2
∅2 𝑡 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝑡) 0≤𝑡≤𝑇
𝑇

(4.15)

There are four message points

i==1,2,3,4

j=1,2

𝑆11 𝑆12 𝑆31 𝑆32

Sij has the following element
𝑆21 𝑆22 𝑆41 𝑆42

𝜋
𝐸 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (2𝑖 − 1) 4
Signal vector, Si= 𝜋
(4.16)
− 𝐸 𝐷𝑖𝑛 (2𝑖 − 1) 4

Where, i=1,2,3,4..
 Phase of QPSK Co-ordinates of Message points
Input Dibit
signal Si1 Si2

𝜋
10 4 + 𝐸 2 − 𝐸 2

00 3𝜋 − 𝐸 2 − 𝐸 2
4

01 5𝜋 − 𝐸 2 + 𝐸 2
4

11 7𝜋 + 𝐸 2 + 𝐸 2
4

Table: 4.1 QPSK Input data bits and coordinates

The QPSK signal has a two dimensisonan (N=2)

Signal space with four message points

Fig: 4.30 Signal space diagram for QPSK

`
To realize the decision rule, the signal space is divided into four regions,

1. The set of points closest to the messange point associated with signal vector
S1→ Z1
2. The set of points closest to the message point associated with S2→ Z2
3. The set of points closest to the message point associated with S3→ Z3
4. The set of points closest to the message point associated with S4→ Z4
The received signal x(E) is difened by,
X(t)=s w(t) 0≤ t ≤ T
i=1,2,3,4
w(f)→ White Gaussian noise. The observation vector x of QPSK receive has to
elements x1 and x2
the observation vector x of QPSK receiver has two elements x1 and x2
𝑇 𝑇
x1 = 0
𝑥 𝑡 ∅1 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 x2= 0
𝑥 𝑡 ∅2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

4.8.1 Decision rule :

1. Guess S1 (t) was transmitted if vector x falls inside Z1

2. Guess S2 (t) was transmitted if vector x falls inside Z2 and so on:

Fig: 4.31 QPSK Signal
4.8.2 Generation:

Fig: 4.32 QPSK Generation

The input binary wave in represented in polar form. Symbol 1→+ 𝐸𝑏 & symbol

0→- 𝐸𝑏 . This wave is divided by means of a demultiplexer into two waves according
to odd & even numbered bits. The wave are represented by 𝑏1 (t) and 𝑏2 (t). These
waves separately modulate ∅1 (t) and ∅2 (t). The result is a pair of binary PSK waves
which are added to produce the desired QPSK wave.

The duration Tb of QPSK wave =2𝑇𝑏

Similarly E=2𝐸𝑏 .

QPSK wave carries twice as many bits of information compared to bpsk

wave.
4.8.3 Detection:

Fig: 4.33 QPSK Detector

The QPSK receiver has a pair of correlators with a common input

and supplied with a pair of coherent signals ∅1 (𝑡)and ∅2 𝑡 . The correlator o/p 𝑥1 and
𝑥2 are given to decision device.

𝑗6 𝑥1 >0, it is a binary 1

𝑗6 𝑥1 <0, it is a binary 0.

Finally the two binary sequences at the in – phase and quadrature o/p are
multiplexed to produce the binary wave.

4.8.4 Probability of Error:

Consider signal S4(t) is transmitted. An error decision will be made if the

received signal vector lies outside Z4 [ie] it may lie in Z1, Z2or Z3. So we calculate the
probability of correct decision.

(ie) probability of x1 and x2 to be positive is given by,

`
 2
𝐸 𝐸 2
− 𝑥1− ) (𝑥2− )
∝ 1 2 ∝ 1
𝑝𝑐 = exp exp d 𝑥2
2
0 𝜋
− 𝑁0
𝑑𝑥1 0 𝜋𝑁0 𝑁0

𝐸 𝐸
𝑥1− 𝑥2−
Take Z= =
2 2
𝑁0 𝑁0

2
1 ∝
𝑝𝑐 = 𝜋 − 𝐸 exp(−𝑧 2)
2𝑁 0

2
1 𝐸
𝑝𝑐 = 1 − 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐( )
2 2𝑁0

𝐸 𝐸
𝑝𝑐 = 1 − erf 2 c + ¼ erf 2 c
2𝑁0 2𝑁0

Now,

𝑝𝑐 = 1-𝑝𝑐

𝐸 𝐸
= 1 − erf 2 c 2𝑁0
− ¼ erf 2 c 2𝑁0

The coefficients of the message powl are 𝑎𝑖 𝐸0 E0 and 𝑏𝑖 𝐸0 where (𝑎𝑖 , 𝑏𝑖 ) is an

element of the L-by –L matrix, where L=√M => M=L2

−𝐿 + 1, 𝐿 − 1 −𝐿 + 3, 𝐿 − 1 … … … . 𝐿 − 1, 𝐿 − 1
{ai,bi} = −𝐿 + 1, 𝐿 − 3 −𝐿 + 3, 𝐿 − 3 … … … . 𝐿 − 1, 𝐿 − 3
(−𝐿 + 1, −𝐿 + 1) −𝐿 + 3, −𝐿 + 1 … … (𝐿 − 1, −𝐿 + 1)
4.9 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation, QAM utilises both amplitude and phase

components to provide a form of modulation that is able to provide high levels of
spectrum usage efficiency.

For 16-QAM, M=16

L= 16 =4

00 01 11 10

{ai ,bi} = 00 (-3,3) (-1,3) (1,3) (3,3)

10 (-3,1) (-1,1) (1,1) (3,1)

11 (-3,-1) (-1,-1) (1,-1) (3,-1)

01 (-3,-3) (-1,-3) (1,-3) (3,-3)

Fig: 4.34 Constellation Diagram of 16 - QAM

4.9.1 Probability of error:

1) Since the in-phase and quadrature components are independent, the probability
of correct detection is given by,

PC = (1-𝑃𝑒1 )2
 𝑃𝑒1 = Probability of symbol error for either component

1 𝐸0
1) 𝑃𝑒1 = 1 − erfc
2 𝑁0

2) Probability of symbol error for M-ary QAM,

𝑃𝑒 = 1- 𝑃𝑐
= 1-(1-pe1)2 = 1-[1-2𝑃𝑒 +2]
𝑃𝑒 = 2𝑃𝑒1

from above

1 𝐸0
𝑃𝑒 = 2(1-𝐿 ) 𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 𝑁0

1 𝐸0
𝑃𝑒 = 2(1- 𝑀
)𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 𝑁0
L= 𝑀

𝑃𝑒 can also be written as

1 3𝐸𝑎𝑣
𝑃𝑒 =2 1 − 𝑀
𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑐 2 𝑀−1 𝑛0

Where Eav → Average energy

4.9.2 Generation of QAM:

Fig: 4.35 QAM Generator

 1
The serial – to- parallel converter accepts a binary sequence at a bit rate 𝑅𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏

and produces two parallel binary sequences whose bit rates are 𝑅𝑏 /2. The 2 to L level
converters L = 𝑀 generate polar L level signals in response to the respective in-
phase and quadrature channel inputs. The two polar L-level signals are combined to
produce QAM wave.

4.9.3 Detection:

The received signal is decoded to produce L- level signals which are then given
to decision circuit. In this circuit the L- level signals are compared with L-1 decision
thresholds.

Fig: 4.36 QAM Detector

The o/p of two decision circuits are then combined in the parallel –to-serial
converter to produce the original binary sequence.
4.10 Comparison of Digital Modulation Techniques :
Table 2 summarizes the relationship between the number of bits encoded, the number of output
conditions possible, the minimum bandwidth, and the baud for ASK, FSK, PSK, and QAM. Note that
with the three binary modulation schemes (ASK, FSK, and BPSK), n = 1, M = 2, only two output
conditions are possible, and the baud is equal to the bit rate. However, for values of n > 1, the
number of output conditions increases, and the minimum bandwidth and baud decrease. Therefore,
digital modulation schemes where n > 1 achieve bandwidth compression (i.e., less bandwidth is
required to propagate a given bit rate). When data compression is performed, higher data
transmission rates are possible for a given bandwidth.
Assignment Unit IV
1. Implement BPSK, BFSK in MATLAB and compute performance comparison
of BPSK and BFSK with respect to Probability of error and Bit Error Rate
Hint: Matlab program is available in net. Students can refer that and make the
comparison and tabulate it.
2. Compare QPSK, QAM and justify your answer with respect to an
practical example.
Hint: QAM is used in Tele Communication Systems.
QPSK is widely used in Satellite Communication.
 Part A
Questions & Answers
(Unit-IV)
 UNIT-IV DIGITAL MODULATION SCHEMES
PART – A (Q&A)

Questions Bloom’s CO’S

Level

1. Define ASK. K2 CO4

In ASK, carrier is switched on when binary 1 is to be
transmitted and it is switched off when binary D is to be
transmitted ASK is also called on-off keying.

2. What is meant by DPSK? K1 CO4

In DPSK, the input sequence is modified. Let input sequence be
d(t) and output sequence be b(t). Sequence b(t) changes level at
the beginning of each interval in which d(t)=1 and it does not
changes level when d(t)=0.
When b(t) changes level, phase of the carrier is changed. And as
stated above, b(t) changes t=its level only when d(t) =1. This
means phase of the carrier is changed only if d(t)=1.
Hence the technique is called Differential PSK.

3. Explain coherent detection? K2 CO4

In coherent detection, the local carrier generated at the
receiver is phase locked with the carrier at the transmitter. The
detection is done by correlating received noisy signal and locally
generated carrier. The coherent detection is a synchronous
detection.

4. What is the difference between PSK and FSK? K2 CO4

In PSK, phase of the carrier is switched according to input bit
sequence. In FSK frequency of the carrier is switched according
to input bit sequence. FSK needs double of the bandwidth
of PSK.

5. What is meant by coherent ASK? K1 CO4

In coherent ASK, correlation receiver is used to detect the
signal. Locally generated carrier is correlated with incoming ASK
signal. The locally generated carrier is in exact phase with the
transmitted carrier. Coherent ASK is also called as synchronous
ASK.
 Questions Bloom’s CO’S
Level

6. What is the major advantage of coherent PSK over coherent K2 CO4

ASK?
ASK is on-off signalling, where as the modulated carrier is
continuously transmitted in PSK. Hence peak power requirement
is more ASK, whereas it is reduced in case of PSK
7. Explain the model of bandpass digital data transmission K3 CO4
system?
The bandpass digital data transmission system consists of
source, encoder and modulator in the transmitter. Similarly
receiver, decoder and destination form the transmitter.
8. What is baseband signal receiver? K2 CO4
A baseband signal receiver increases the signal to noise ratio at
the instant of sampling. This reduces the probability of
error. The baseband signal receiver is also called optimum
receiver.
9. What is matched filter? K3 CO4
The matched filter is a baseband signal receiver, which works in
presence of white Gaussian noise. The impulse response of the
matched response of the matched filter is matched to the shape
of the input signal.

10. What is the value of maximum signal to noise ratio of the K2 CO4
matched filter?
When it becomes maximum? Maximum signal to noise ratio is
the ratio of energy to psd of white noise. i.e., ρmax = E/ (N0/2)
This maximum value occurs at the end of bit duration i.e. Tb

11. What is the error probability of MSK and DPSK? K2 CO4

Error probability of MSK: Error probability of DPSK:

12. What do you understand by continuous phase frequency shift K2 CO4

keying?
In FSK, when the phase change is gradual at the bit transition
times, the signal appears to be continuous in phase. This is called
continuous phase FSK or CPFSK. To have phase continuity, the
two FSK frequencies fH and fL must differ by a bit rate of fb or
1/Tb.
 Questions Bloom’s CO’S
Level

13. Compare QPSK and16 PSK signal in terms of bandwidth. K3 CO4

QPSK Bandwidth fN= fb/2.
16PSK Bandwidth fN= fb / 4

14. Draw the block diagram of BPSK transmitter. K2 CO4

15. Differentiate coherent and noncoherent methods K2 CO4

Coherent (synchronous) detection: In coherent detection,
the local carrier generated at the receiver is phase locked with
the carrier at the transmitter. The detection is done by correlating
received noisy signal and locally generated carrier. The coherent
detection is a synchronous detection.
Non- coherent (envelope) detection: This type of detection
does not need receiver carrier to be phase locked with transmitter
carrier. The advantage of such a system is that the system
becomes simple, but the drawback is that error probability
increases.
16. Compare binary PSK with QPSK K3 CO4
BPSK QPSK
1. One bit forms a symbol. Two bits form a symbol.
2. Two possible symbols Four possible symbols.
3. Minimum bandwidth is Minimum bandwidth is equal to fb
twice of fb
4. Symbol duration = Tb. Symbol duration = 2Tb.
 Questions Bloom’s CO’S
Level
17. What is correlator? K2 CO4
Correlator is the coherent receiver. It correlates the received
noisy signal f(t) with the locally .generated replica of the
unknown signal x(t). It‟ s output is denoted as r(t).
18. On what factor, the error probability of matched filter K3 CO4
depends.
Error probability is given as Pe = 1/2erfc√E/No. This equation
shows that error probability depends only on energy but not on
shape of the signal.
19. What are the advantages of QPSK? K2 CO4
a. All signal points placed on circumference of circle
b. Circuit is simple
c. Noise immunity is high.
d. Error probability is less then AQSK.

20. Write the expression for bit error rate for coherent K3 CO4
binary FSK.
Bit error rate for coherent binary FSK is given as,
Pe = 1/2erfc√0.6E/No.
21. Highlight the major difference between a QPSK & MSK K3 CO4
signal.
MSK signal have continuous phase in all the cases, where as
QPSK has phase shift of π/2 or π.
22. What are the advantages and disadvantages of differential K3 CO4
phase shift keying?
Advantages:
DPSK does not need carrier at its receiver. Hence the complicated
circuitry for generation of local carrier is avoided.
The bandwidth requirement of DPSK is reduced compare to that
of BPSK.
Disadvantages:
The probability of error or bit error rate of DPSK is higher than
that of BPSK.
Since DPSK uses two successive bits for its reception, error in the
first bit creates error in the second bit. Hence error propagation
in DPSK is more.
Whereas in PSK single bit can go in error since detection of each
bit is independent.
Noise interference in DPSK is more.
 Questions Bloom’s
Level
K3 CO4
23. Define QPSK
In QPSK two successive bits in the data sequence grouped
together. This combination of two bits forms four distinct
symbols. When the symbol is changed to the next symbol the
phase of the carrier is changed by 450(0r π/4 ).
Became of combination of two bits ther will be four symbols.
Hence the phase shift will be π/4, 3π/4, 5π/4 or 7π/4.
QPSK reduces amplitude variations and required transmission
bandwidth..

24. List the advantages of Pass band transmission K2 CO4

a. Long distance.
b.Analog channels can be used for transmission.
c. Multiplexing techniques can be used for bandwidth
conservation.
d.Transmission can be done by using wireless channel also.
25. List the requirements of Pass band transmission. K3 CO4
a.Maximum data transmission rate.
b.Minimum probability of symbol error.
c.Minimum transmitted power.
26. What is meant by memoryless modulation? K3 CO4
When the digital symbol modulates amplitude, phase or
frequency of the carrier without any reference to previous
symbol, it is called memoryless modulation. ASK, FSK, PSK, QPSK
etc. are memoryless modulation techniques

27. Define BER. K3 CO4

BER is bit error rate. It is the number of bits that go in error in
specific number transmitted bits. For example 10-3 indicates
1/1000, this means one bit goes in every 1000 transmitted bits.

28. A BPSK system makes errors at the average rate of 100 errors K3 CO4
per day. Date rate is 1Kbps. The single sided noise power spectral
density is 10-10* W/Hz. Assuming the system to be wide sense
stationary, what is the average bit error probability?
Bit error Probability,
 Questions Bloom’s
Level
29. Differentiate QPSK from PSK in terms of transmission K2 CO4
bandwidth and bit information it carries.
a. Bandwidth of PSK is 2fb and bandwidth required is fb.
b. Where, fb – maximum frequency in baseband signal.
c. Bit information carried by BPSK is one bit (0 or 1) at a time.
d. Bit information carried by QPSK is dibit (00, 01, 10 & 11) at a
time.
30. What are the drawbacks of binary PSK system? K3 CO4
It is difficult to detect +b(t) or –b(t) because of squaring in the
receiver.
Problems of ISI and inter channel interference present.
31. Draw the Signal Space diagram for BFSK K3 CO4

32. Draw the Signal Space diagram for QPSK K3 CO4

 Part B
Question
s (Unit -
IV)
 UNIT-IV Digital Modulation Schemes
PART – B (Questions)
Questions Bloom’s CO’S
Level

1. Describe with diagrams the generation and detection of K3 CO4

coherent BFSK. Explain the probability of error for this
scheme.

2. Explain non coherent detection methods of binary frequency K3 CO4

shift keying scheme.

3. Explain the generation and detection of binary PSK. Also K3 CO4

derive the probability of error for PSK.

4. Compare the performance of various coherent and non- K2 CO4

coherent digital detection systems.

5. Discuss about coherent detection of QPSK and derive its K2 CO4

power spectral density.

6. With constellation diagram, explain the QAM transmitter. Also K3 CO4

derive its power spectral density.

7. A set of binary data is sent at the rate of Rb = 100 Kbps over a K3 CO4
channel with 60 dB transmission loss and power spectral
density = 10-12 W/Hz at the receiver. Determine the transmitted
power for a bit error probability Pe = 10-3 for the
following modulation schemes.
(i) FSK (ii) PSK
(iii) DPSK (iv) 16 QAM

8. Explain the carrier synchronization methods with K2 CO4

block diagrams.

9. Briefly discuss about the Non-coherent detection of PSK and K2 CO4

QPSK

10. Briefly discuss about the principle of DPSK system. K2 CO4

Supportive online
Certification
Courses
 NPTEL REFERENCE VIDEO LINKS
(For Extended Learning)

1. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117/101/117101051/
Topics covered:
1.Introduction to Digital Communication
2.Sampling
3.Quantization
4.Encoding
5.PCM and Delta Modulation
6.Channels and Models
7.Information Theory
8.Digital Modulation Techniques
9.Source Coding
10. Equalizers
11. Channel Coding

2. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/102/108102096/
Topics covered:
All the topics of Unit I to V

3.https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-450-
principles-of-digital-communications-i-fall-2006/video-lectures/
Topics covered:
All the topics of Unit I to V

4.http://www.infocobuild.com/education/audio-video-courses/electronics/modern-
digital-communication-iit-kharagpur.html
Topics covered:
All the topics of Unit I to V
Real time Applications
in Day to Day life and
to Industry
A. Implementation of High Order QAM Modulation on SDR

` Nowadays, SDR (software-defined radio) has increasingly occupied a place

in scientific research and teaching with its powerful signal processing capability
and custom ability. XSRP is a development platform which uses an SDR
architecture. In this paper, we develop a wireless real-time audio transmission
system with high order modulation (64QAM) based on XSRP platform. We use
LabVIEW and MATLAB to write the program’s overall framework and functions.
We also analyse the performance of different modulation modes by comparing
the constellations and waveforms of the transmitter and receiver under the real
situation. The results show that high order QAM modulation achieves a good
balance between efficiency and quality..

With the development of communication technologies, the diversification

of service types and the rapid increase in the number of users, the limitation of
bandwidth is becoming more and more obvious. Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation (QAM) is a typical representation solution to
improve spectrum utilization and achieve higher transmission rate [. QAM
is a combination of amplitude and phase keying which increases the
frequency spectrum's using efficiency effectively . So, it is meaningful for us to
do detailed research about it. Software-defined radio (SDR) has increasingly
occupied a place in scientific research and teaching with its powerful signal
processing capability and custom ability. SDR employs definable hardware that
we can use different programs to realize different systems. XSRP is a
development platform which uses an SDR architecture. We use LabVIEW and
MATLAB to build the transmission system and analyse the performance of the
high order QAM modulation based on XSRP platform.
 High-order modulation utilizes the feature of higher bandwidth utilization
by improving the signal-to-noise ratio. In a good environment, by extending the
constellation point density of the modulation constellation, each modulation
symbol can transmit more information bits. For example, in QPSK
modulation, each constellation point can represent 2 bits of information.
However, in a channel with better conditions, the transmission efficiency of
QPSK obviously cannot meet our requirements. When extended to 16QAM
modulation, each sample represents 4 bits of information and then
extended to 64QAM modulation, each sample represents 6 bits of
information. The constellation diagrams of these modulations.

XSRP——Software Defined Radio(SDR) XSRP is a development

platform using an SDR architecture that provides a powerful signal
processing platform and friendly graphical programming. XSRP seamlessly
connects the development software such as MATLAB and LabVIEW to the
hardware platform through the high-speed Ethernet interface, and the
simulation data can be sent to the hardware platform for algorithm
verification in real time.

Abundant hardware interface and modular design method for

software enhance the function expansibility and field adaptability of the system.
Detailed parameters of XSRP is shown in “Table 1”. From the application
direction, XSRP can achieve different application directions by replacing
different interface modules. In our implementation, the interface unit uses the
RF interface module, coupled with the corresponding driver and
algorithm/protocol package. XSRP can be programmed to implement
various standard wireless transmission implementations.

Link: https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1742-
6596/1302/2/022095/pdf
 B. QPSK in TTL upconverters

Link: https://nardamiteq.com/docs/SEC03C32.PDF

MITEQ’s high-isolation biphase modulators are useful in

quadrature coupled matched pairs for “Direct On-Carrier” QPSK
and QAM applications. The QPSK modulator is, traditionally, used
to apply more information on the RF carrier because each
component (I or Q) biphase modulator acts in quadrature to keep
its information separated while using the same common RF
bandwidth. Greater amounts of information or (bits/symbol) are
possible if each quadrature channel has more than two
amplitude states (±1). For example, 16 QAM employs four
amplitude states (±1, ±0.5) in each quadrature channel.
However, QAM modulators and some QPSK modulators (with
bandwidth restriction filters) require a linear amplitude response to
insure that each modulation level or “constellation” remain
undistorted. Linear I and Q modulators require that the
modulation envelope be transferred to the RF without
distortion or spectral spreading. In order to accomplish this, an
RF or carrier driven QPSK modulator is required with I and Q
inputs of 0 dBm typical and RF +10 dBm.

The higher carrier power level of this operating mode makes

carrier to output (LO-to-RF) isolation especially important
so that QPSK phase and amplitude accuracy is maintained.
The model SMC0206LI1CD QPSK modulator is an example of high-
isolation (50 dB LO to RF) mixers driven by the carrier at +16 dBm
which achieves ±4°, ±0.4 dB phase and amplitude accuracy with
military +10 dBm I/Q
applications. inputs..
However, In many cases,
various the hardware
specialized is identical;
narrow but
bandwidth
communication themodulators
catalog testhave
data describes and guarantees
been supplied either
in lower cost QPSK
“drop-in”
configurations including high-isolation
amplitude/phase even-harmonic
accuracy (1/2 LO) units
for the modulation suchunits
driven as the
or
model SML0711M8CDQ
sideband with externally
suppression for combined
the carrierRFdriven
outputs to Optional
units. allow highly
data
balanced quadrature phase/amplitude
is available accuracy.
in both modes. Many of the QPSK/QAM modulators in
this section of the catalog are wide RF bandwidth units
intended for test and
Additional Content
(Unit IV)
OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)

Link: https://www.cablefree.net/wirelesstechnology/ofdm-introduction/

OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) is a form of signal waveform or modulation that
provides some significant advantages for data links.

Accordingly, OFDM, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is used for many of the latest wide
bandwidth and high data rate wireless systems including Wi-Fi, cellular telecommunications and many
more.
The fact that OFDM uses a large number of carriers, each carrying low bit rate data, means
that it is very resilient to selective fading, interference, and multipath effects, as well
providing a high degree of spectral efficiency.

`Early systems using OFDM found the processing required for the signal format was relatively
high, but with advances in technology, OFDM presents few problems in terms of the processing
required.

Development of OFDM

The use of OFDM and multicarrier modulation in general has come to the fore in recent
years as it provides an ideal platform for wireless data communications transmissions.

However the concept of OFDM technology was first investigated in the 1960s and 1970s during
research into methods for reducing interference between closely spaced channels. IN addition
to this other requirements needed to achieve error free data transmission in the presence of
interference and selective propagation conditions.

Initially the use of OFDM required large levels of processing and accordingly it was not viable for
general use.

Some of the first systems to adopt OFDM were digital broadcasting - here OFDM was able to provide
a highly reliable form of data transport over a variety of signal path conditions. Once example was
DAB digital radio that was introduced in Europe and other countries. It was Norwegian
Broadcasting Corporation NRK that launched the first service on 1st June 1995. OFDM was also used
for digital television.

Later processing power increased as a result of rising integration levels enabling OFDM to be
considered for the 4G mobile communications systems which started to be deployed from
around 2009. Also OFDM was adopted for Wi-Fi and a variety of other wireless data systems.
What is OFDM?

OFDM is a form of multicarrier modulation. An OFDM signal consists of a number of closely

spaced modulated carriers. When modulation of any form - voice, data, etc. is applied to a carrier,
then sidebands spread out either side. It is necessary for a receiver to be able to receive the whole
signal to be able to successfully demodulate the data. As a result when signals are
transmitted close to one another they must be spaced so
 that the receiver can separate them using a filter and there must be a
guard band between them. This is not the case with OFDM. Although the sidebands from
each carrier overlap, they can still be received without the interference that might be
expected because they are orthogonal to each another. This is achieved by having
the carrier spacing equal to the reciprocal of the symbol period.

Fig: Overview of OFDM

To see how OFDM works, it is necessary to look at the receiver. This acts as a bank of
demodulators, translating each carrier down to DC. The resulting signal is integrated over
the symbol period to regenerate the data from that carrier. The same demodulator also
demodulates the other carriers. As the carrier spacing equal to the reciprocal of
the symbol period means that they will have a whole number of cycles in the symbol
period and their contribution will sum to zero - in other words there is no
interference contribution.

One requirement of the OFDM transmitting and receiving systems is that they must be
linear. Any non-linearity will cause interference between the carriers as a result of inter-
modulation distortion. This will introduce unwanted signals that would cause interference
and impair the orthogonality of the transmission.

In terms of the equipment to be used the high peak to average ratio of multi-
carrier systems such as OFDM requires the RF final amplifier on the output of the
transmitter to be able to handle the peaks whilst the average power is much lower and
this leads to inefficiency. In some systems the peaks are limited. Although this introduces
distortion that results in a higher level of data errors, the system can rely on the error
correction to remove them.
 that the receiver can separate them using a filter and there must
be a guard band between them. This is not the case with OFDM.
Although the sidebands from each carrier overlap, they can still be received
without the interference that might be expected because they are orthogonal to
each another. This is achieved by having the carrier spacing equal to the
reciprocal of the symbol period.

Fig: Overview of OFDM

To see how OFDM works, it is necessary to look at

the receiver. This acts as a bank of
demodulators, translating each carrier down to
DC. The resulting signal is integrated over the
symbol period to regenerate the data from
that carrier. The same demodulator also
demodulates the other carriers. As the carrier
spacing equal to the reciprocal of the symbol
period means that they will have a whole number
of cycles in the symbol period and their
contribution will sum to zero - in other words
there is no interference contribution.
One requirement of the OFDM transmitting and
receiving systems is that they must be linear. Any
non-linearity will cause interference between the
carriers as a result of inter-modulation distortion.
This will introduce unwanted signals that would
cause interference and impair the orthogonality of
the transmission.
In terms of the equipment to be used the high
peak to average ratio of multi-carrier systems
such as OFDM requires the RF final amplifier on
the output of the transmitter to be able to
handle the peaks whilst the average power is
Key features of OFDM
The OFDM scheme differs from traditional FDM in the following interrelated ways:
Multiple carriers (called subcarriers) carry the information stream

The subcarriers are orthogonal to each other.

A guard interval is added to each symbol to minimize the channel delay spread
and intersymbol interference.
OFDM advantages & disadvantages

OFDM advantages
OFDM has been used in many high data rate wireless systems because of
the many advantages it provides.
Immunity to selective fading: One of the main advantages of OFDM is that is
more resistant to frequency selective fading than single carrier systems because it
divides the overall channel into multiple narrowband signals that are affected
individually as flat fading sub-channels.
Resilience to interference: Interference appearing on a channel may be
bandwidth limited and in this way will not affect all the sub-channels. This means
that not all the data is lost.
Spectrum efficiency: Using close-spaced overlapping sub-carriers, a
significant OFDM advantage is that it makes efficient use of the available
spectrum.
Resilient to ISI: Another advantage of OFDM is that it is very resilient to inter-
symbol and inter-frame interference. This results from the low data rate on each of
the sub-channels.
Resilient to narrow-band effects: Using adequate channel coding and
interleaving it is possible to recover symbols lost due to the frequency selectivity of
the channel and narrow band interference. Not all the data is lost.
Simpler channel equalisation: One of the issues with CDMA systems was the
complexity of the channel equalisation which had to be applied across the whole
channel. An advantage of OFDM is that using multiple sub-channels, the channel
equalization becomes much simpler.
OFDM disadvantages
Whilst OFDM has been widely used, there are still a few disadvantages to its use
which need to be addressed when considering its use.
High peak to average power ratio: An OFDM signal has a noise like
amplitude variation and has a relatively high large dynamic range, or peak
to average power ratio. This impacts the RF amplifier efficiency as the
amplifiers need to be linear and accommodate the large amplitude variations
and these factors mean the amplifier cannot operate with a high efficiency level.
ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE
 7. Assessment Schedule

Assessment Proposed Date Actual Date

Unit 1 Assignment 28.12.2025
Assessment
Unit Test 1 02.01.2025

Unit 2 Assignment 24.01.2025

Assessment
Internal Assessment 1 27.01.2025

Retest for IA 1 04.02.2025

Unit 3 Assignment 08.02.2025

Assessment
Unit Test 2 12.02.2025

Unit 4 Assignment 04.03.2025

Assessment
Internal Assessment 2 10.03.2025

Retest for IA 2 18.03.2025

Unit 5 Assignment 22.03.2025

Assessment
Revision Test 24.03.2025

Model Exam 03.04.2025

Remodel Exam 21.04.2025

UniversityExam 30.04.2025

65
Prescribed Text Books
and Reference Books
 8. Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Wayne Tomasi, Advanced Electronic Communications Systems,

2014, 6th Edition, Pearson New International Edition, Noida,

India.

2. Simon Haykin, Communication Systems,5th Edition, Wiley

REFERENCES:

1. Sanjay Sharma Communication Systems (Analog and digital), Reprint 2016

edition

S.K. Kataria & Sons.

2. Roddy and Coolen, Electronic Communication, 2014, 4th

Edition, PearsonEducation, Noida, India.

3. Herbert Taub and Donald Schilling, Principles of

Communication Systems, 4th edition, 2017,Mc Graw Hill.

4. HweiKsu and Debjani Mitra, Analog and Digital Communication:

Schaum’s Outline Series, 2017, 3rd Edition, McGraw Hill

Education, New Delhi, India.

77
MINI PROJECT
Mini Project List
1. GSM Based Home Security Alarm System Using Arduino
https://www.electronicshub.org/arduino-gsm-home-security-alarm-system/

2. Wireless Data Transmission Between Pc’s Using Zigbee Technology

http://www.jmest.org/wp-content/uploads/JMESTN42350611.pdf

3. MATLAB Code for QPSK Modulation and Demodulation

https://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/46219-matlab-code-
for-qpsk-modulation-and-demodulation

4. Implementation of gmsk modem using matlab

https://www.mathworks.com/help/comm/ref/comm.gmskmodulator-system-
object.html

5. Implementation of OFDM using Matlab

https://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/25599-ofdm-
trasnmitter-and-receiver-matlab-code

6. Digital Communication project on 32-QAM

https://www.electronicshub.org/matlab-projects-for-engineering-students/

7. Implementation of Carrier Synchrinization using PLL

https://www.edn.com/using-plls-to-obtain-carrier-synchronization-part-2/
 Thank you

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