Course Code: 18ME751

Energy and Environment

MODULE IV

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

1.0 Pollution

Pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings that have harmful effects on
plants, animals and human beings. This occurs when only short-term economic gains are made at
the cost of the long-term ecological benefits for humanity. No natural phenomenon has led to
greater ecological changes than have been made by mankind. During the last few decades we
have contaminated our air, water and land on which life itself depends with a variety of waste
products.
From an ecological perspective pollutants can be classified as follows:

Degradable or non-persistent pollutants: These can be rapidly broken down by natural processes.
Eg: domestic sewage, discarded vegetables, etc.
Slowly degradable or persistent pollutants: Pollutants that remain in the environment for many
years in an unchanged condition and take decades or longer to degrade. Eg: DDT and most
plastics.
Non-degradable pollutants: These cannot be degraded by natural processes. Once they are
Released into the environment they are difficult to eradicate and continue to accumulate. Eg:
toxic elements like lead or mercury.

1.1 Air pollution

Air pollution occurs due to the presence of un- desirable solid or gaseous particles in the air in
quantities that are harmful to human health and the environment. Air may get polluted by natural
causes such as volcanoes, which release ash, dust, sulphur and other gases, or by forest fires that
are occasionally naturally caused by lightning. However, unlike pollutants from human activity,
naturally occurring pollutants tend to remain in the atmosphere for a short time and do not lead
to permanent atmospheric change. Pollutants that are produced in the atmosphere when certain
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chemical reactions take place among the primary pollutants are called secondary pollutants. Eg:
sulfuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid, etc.

Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odorless and toxic gas produced when organic materials such
as natural gas, coal or wood are incompletely burnt. Vehicular exhausts are the single largest
source of carbon monoxide. The number of vehicles has been increasing over the years all over
the world. Vehicles are also poorly maintained and several have inadequate pollution control
equipment resulting in release of greater amounts of carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide is
however not a persistent pollutant. Natural processes can convert carbon monoxide to other
compounds that are not harmful. There- fore the air can be cleared of its carbon monoxide if no
new carbon monoxide is introduced into the atmosphere.
Sulfur oxides are produced when sulfur containing fossil fuels are burnt

Nitrogen oxides are found in vehicular exhausts. Nitrogen oxides are significant, as they are
involved in the production of secondary air pollutants such as ozone.
Hydrocarbons are a group of compounds consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They either
evaporate from fuel supplies or are remnants of fuel that did not burn completely.
Hydrocarbons are washed out of the air when it rains and run into surface water. They cause an
oily film on the surface and do not as such cause a serious issue until they react to form secondary
pollutants. Using higher oxygen concentrations in the fuel-air mixture and using valves to prevent
the escape of gases, fitting of catalytic converters in automobiles, are some of the modifications
that can reduce the release of hydrocarbons into the atmosphere.
Particulates are small pieces of solid material (for example, smoke particles from fires, bits of

asbestos, dust particles and ash from industries) dispersed into the atmosphere. The effects of
particulates range from soot to the carcinogenic (cancer causing) effects of asbestos, dust
particles and ash from industrial plants that are dispersed into the atmosphere. Repeated
exposure to particulates can cause them to accumulate in the lungs and interfere with the ability
of the lungs to exchange gases
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Lead is a major air pollutant that remains largely unmonitored and is emitted by vehicles. High

lead levels have been reported in the ambient air in metropolitan cities. Leaded petrol is the
primary source of airborne lead emissions in Indian cities.
1.1.1 Effects of air pollution on living organisms

Our respiratory system has a number of mechanisms that help in protecting us from air pollution.
The hair in our nose filters out large particles. The sticky mucus in the lining of the upper
respiratory tract captures smaller particles and dissolves some gaseous pollutants. When the
upper respiratory system is irritated by pollutants sneezing and coughing expel contaminated air
and mucus. Prolonged smoking or exposure to air pollutants can overload or break- down these
natural defenses causing or contributing to diseases such as lung cancer, asthma, chronic
bronchitis and emphysema. Elderly people, infants, pregnant women and people with heart
disease, asthma or other respiratory diseases are especially vulnerable to air pollution.

Cigarette smoking is responsible for the greatest exposure to carbon monoxide. Exposure to air
containing even 0.001 percent of carbon monoxide for several hours can cause collapse, coma
and even death. As carbon monoxide re- mains attached to hemoglobin in blood for a long time,
it accumulates and reduces the oxy- gen carrying capacity of blood. This impairs perception
and thinking, slows reflexes and causes headaches, drowsiness, dizziness and nausea. Carbon
monoxide in heavy traffic causes head- aches, drowsiness and blurred vision Sulfur dioxide
irritates respiratory tissues. Chronic exposure causes a condition similar to bronchitis. It also
reacts with water, oxygen and other material in the air to form sulfur- containing acids. The
acids can become attached to particles which when inhaled are very corrosive to the lung.
Nitrogen oxides especially NO can irritate the lungs, aggravate asthma or chronic bronchitis and
also increase susceptibility to respiratory infections such as influenza or common colds
Many volatile organic compounds such as (benzene and formaldehyde) and toxic particulates
(such as lead, cadmium) can cause mutations, reproductive problems or cancer. Inhaling ozone,
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a component of photochemical smog causes coughing, chest pain, breathlessness and irritation
of the eye, nose and the throat.
Suspended particles aggravate bronchitis and asthma. Exposure to these particles over a long

period of time damages lung tissue and con- tributes to the development of chronic respiratory
disease and cancer.

1.1.2 Effects on plants

When some gaseous pollutants enter leaf pores they damage the leaves of crop plants. Chronic
exposure of the leaves to air pollutants can break down the waxy coating that helps prevent
excessive water loss and leads to damage from diseases, pests, drought and frost. Such expo- sure
interferes with photosynthesis and plant growth, reduces nutrient uptake and causes leaves to
turn yellow, brown or drop off altogether. At a higher concentration of sulphur dioxide majority
of the flower buds become stiff and hard. They eventually fall from the plants, as they are unable
to flower. Prolonged exposure to high levels of several air pollutants from smelters, coal burning
power plants and industrial units as well as from cars and trucks can damage trees and other
plants
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1.1.3 Effects of air pollution on materials

Every year air pollutants cause damage worth billions of rupees. Air pollutants break down
exterior paint on cars and houses. All around the world air pollutants have discoloured
irreplaceable monuments, historic buildings, marble statues, etc.
1.1.4 Ozone depletion-What does it do?

Changes in the ozone layer have serious implications for mankind.

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Effects on human health: Sunburn, cataract, aging of the skin and skin cancer are caused by
increased ultra-violet radiation. It weakens the immune system by suppressing the resistance of
the whole body to certain infections like measles, chicken pox and other viral diseases that elicit
rash and parasitic diseases such as malaria introduced through the skin.
Food production: Ultra violet radiation affects the ability of plants to capture light energy during
the process of photosynthesis. This reduces the nutrient content and the growth of plants. This is
seen especially in legumes and cabbage.
Increased ultra-violet radiation, It weakens the immune system by suppressing the resistance of
the whole body to certain infections like measles, chicken pox and other viral diseases that elicit
rash and parasitic diseases such as malaria introduced through the skin.
Effect on materials: Increased UV radiation damages paints and fabrics, causing them to fade
faster.
Effect on climate: Atmospheric changes induced by pollution contribute to global warming, a

phenomenon which is caused due to the increase in concentration of certain gases like carbon
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, methane and CFCs. Observations of the earth have shown beyond doubt
that atmospheric constituents such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides
and Chloro Fluro Carbons trap heat in the form of infra-red radiation near the earth’s surface. This
is known as the ‘Green- house Effect’.
1.1.5 Control measures for air pollution

Air pollution can be controlled by two fundamental approaches: preventive techniques and
effluent control.
One of the effective means of controlling air pollution is to have proper equipment in place. This
includes devices for removal of pollutants from the flue gases though scrubbers, closed collection
recovery systems through which it is possible to collect the pollutants before they escape, use of
dry and wet collectors, filters, electrostatic precipitators, etc. Providing a greater height to the
stacks can help in facilitating the discharge of pollutants as far away from the ground as possible.
Indus- tries should be located in places so as to minimize the effects of pollution after considering
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the topography and the wind directions. Substitution of raw material that causes more pollution
with those that cause less pollution can be done.
1.2 Water Pollution

Introduction: Water is the essential element that makes life on earth possible. Without water
there would be no life. We usually take water for granted. It flows from our taps when they are
turned on. Most of us are able to bathe when we want to, swim when we choose and water our
gardens.
Although 71% of the earth’s surface is covered by water only a tiny fraction of this water is avail-
able to us as fresh water. About 97% of the total water available on earth is found in oceans and
is too salty for drinking or irrigation. The remaining 3% is fresh water. Of this
2.997% is locked in ice caps or glaciers. Thus only 0.003% of the earth’ total volume of water is

easily avail- able to us as soil moisture, groundwater, water vapour and water in lakes, streams,
rivers and wetlands
Water availability on the planet: Water that is found in streams, rivers, lakes, wetlands and

artificial reservoirs is called surface water. Water that percolates into the ground and fills the
pores in soil and rock is called groundwater. Porous water-saturated layers of sand, gravel or
bedrock through which ground water flows are called aquifers. Most aquifers are replenished
naturally by rainfall that percolates down- ward through the soil and rock. This process is called
natural recharge. If the withdrawal rate of an aquifer exceeds its natural recharge rate, the water
table is lowered. Any pollutant that is discharged onto the land above is also pulled into the
aquifer and pollutes the groundwater resulting in polluted water in the nearby wells.
India receives most of her rainfall during the months of June to September due to the seasonal
winds and the temperature differences between the land and the sea.

The monsoon in India is usually reasonably stable but varies geographically. In some years the
commencement of the rains may be delayed considerably over the entire country or a part of it.
The rains may also terminate earlier than usual. They may be heavier than usual over one part
than over another. All these may cause local floods or drought. However in India even areas that
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receive adequate rainfall during the monsoon suffer from water shortages in the post monsoon
period due to lack of storage facilities.
When a source of pollution cannot be readily identified, such as agricultural runoff, acid rain,
etc, they are said to be non-point sources of pollution.

Point sources of pollution: When a source of pollution can be readily identified because it has a
definite source and place where it enters the water it is said to come from a point source. Eg.
Municipal and Industrial Discharge Pipes.
1.2.1 Causes of water pollution

a). Disease causing agents (pathogens) which include bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic
worms that enter water from domestic sewage and untreated human and animal wastes.
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Human wastes contain concentrated populations of coliform bacteria such as Escherichia coli and
Streptococcus faecalis. These bacteria normally grow in the large intestine of humans

where they are responsible for some food digestion and for the production of vita- min K. These
bacteria are not harmful in low numbers. Large amounts of human waste in water, increases the
number of these bacteria which cause gastrointestinal diseases. Other potentially harmful
bacteria from human wastes may also be present in smaller numbers.
b). oxygen depleting wastes: These are organic wastes that can be decomposed by aerobic (oxy-
gen requiring) bacteria. Large populations of bacteria use up the oxygen present in water to
degrade these wastes. In the process this de- grades water quality. The amount of oxygen
required to break down a certain amount of organic matter is called the biological oxygen demand
(BOD). The amount of BOD in the water is an indicator of the level of pollution. If too much organic
matter is added to the water all the available oxygen is used up. This causes fish and other forms
of oxygen dependent aquatic life to die. Thus anaerobic bacteria (those that do not require
oxygen) begin to break down the wastes. Their anaerobic respiration produces chemicals that
have a foul odour and an un-pleasant taste that is harmful to human health.

c). inorganic plant nutrients: These are water soluble nitrates and phosphates that cause
excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants. The excessive growth of algae and aquatic
plants due to added nutrients is called eutrophication. They may interfere with the use of the
water by clogging water intake pipes, changing the taste and odour of water and cause a buildup
of organic matter. As the organic matter decays, oxygen levels decrease and fish and other aquatic
species die.
d). water soluble inorganic chemicals which are acids, salts and compounds of toxic metals such
as mercury and lead. High levels of these chemicals can make the water unfit to drink, harm fish
and other aquatic life, reduce crop yields and accelerate corrosion of equipment that use this
water
e). organic chemicals, which include oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergent
and many other chemicals. These are harmful to aquatic life and human health. They get into the
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water directly from industrial activity either from improper handling of the chemicals in industries
and more often from improper and illegal disposal of chemical wastes.

f). Sediment of suspended matter is another class of water pollutants. These are insoluble
particles of soil and other solids that become suspended in water. This occurs when soil is eroded
from the land. High levels of soil particles suspended in water, interferes with the penetration of
sunlight. This reduces the photosynthetic activity of aquatic plants and algae disrupting the
ecological balance of the aquatic bodies. When the velocity of water in streams and rivers
decreases the suspended particles settle down at the bottom as sediments. Excessive sediments
that settle down destroys feeding and spawning grounds of fish, clogs and fills lakes, artificial
reservoirs etc.
g). Water soluble radioactive isotopes are yet another source of water pollution. These can be
concentrated in various tissues and organs as they pass through food chains and food webs.
Ionizing radiation emitted by such isotopes can cause birth defects, cancer and genetic dam- age.
h). Hot water let out by power plants and industries that use large volumes of water to cool the
plant result in rise in temperature of the local water bodies. Thermal pollution occurs when
industry returns the heated water to a water source. Power plants heat water to convert it into
steam, to drive the turbines that generate electricity.

i). Groundwater pollution: While oil spills are highly visible and often get a lot of media attention,
a much greater threat to human life comes from our groundwater being polluted which is used
for drinking and irrigation. While groundwater is easy to deplete and pollute it gets renewed very
slowly and hence must be used judiciously. Groundwater flows are slow and not turbulent hence
the contaminants are not effectively diluted and dispersed as com- pared to surface water.
Moreover pumping groundwater and treating it is very slow and costly. Hence it is extremely
essential to prevent the pollution of groundwater in the first place. Ground water is polluted due
to:

• Urban run-off of untreated or poorly treated waste water and garbage

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• Agricultural practices such as the application of large amounts of fertilizers and
pesticides, animal feeding operations, etc. in the rural sector

• Industrial waste storage located above or near aquifers

• Mining wastes

• Poorly designed and inadequately maintained septic tanks

• Leakage from underground storage tanks containing gasoline and other hazardous
substances
1.2.2 Control measures for preventing water pollution
While the foremost necessity is prevention, set- ting up effluent treatment plants and treating
waste through these can reduce the pollution load in the recipient water. The treated effluent
can be reused for either gardening or cooling purposes wherever possible. A few years ago a new
technology called the Root Zone Process has been developed by Thermax. This system involves
running contaminated water through the root zones of specially designed reed beds. The reeds,
which are essentially wetland plants, have the capacity to absorb oxygen from the surrounding
air through their stomatal openings. The oxygen is pushed through the porous stem of the reeds
into the hollow roots where it enters the root zone and creates conditions suit- able for the growth
of numerous bacteria and fungi. These micro-organisms oxidize impurities in the wastewaters, so
that the water which finally comes out is clean.
1.3 Soil Pollution

Soil is a thin covering over the land consisting of a mixture of minerals, organic material, living
organisms, air and water that together support the growth of plant life. Several factors contribute
to the formation of soil from the parent material. This includes mechanical weathering of rocks
due to temperature changes and abrasion, wind, moving water, glaciers, chemical weathering
activities and lichens. Climate and time are also important in the development of soils. Extremely
dry or cold climates develop soils very slowly while humid and warm climates develop them more
rapidly. Under ideal climatic conditions soft parent material may develop into a centimeter of soil
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within 15 years. Under poor climatic conditions a hard parent material may require hundreds of
years to develop into soil.
Soils vary in their content of clay (very fine particles), silt (fine particles), sand (medium size

particles) and gravel (coarse to very coarse particles). The relative amounts of the different sizes
and types of mineral particles determine soil texture. Soils with approximately equal mixtures of
clay, sand, silt and humus are called loams.
1.3.1 Causes of soil degradation

Erosion

Soil erosion can be defined as the movement of surface litter and topsoil from one place to an-
other. While erosion is a natural process often caused by wind and flowing water it is greatly
accelerated by human activities such as farming, construction, overgrazing by livestock, burning
of grass cover and deforestation.
Loss of the topsoil makes a soil less fertile and reduces its water holding capacity. The topsoil,
which is washed away, also contributes to water pollution clogging lakes, increasing turbidity of
the water and also leads to loss of aquatic life.
Continuous contour trenches can be used to enhance infiltration of water reduce the run- off

and check soil erosion. These are actually shallow trenches dug across the slope of the land and
along the contour lines basically for the purpose of soil and water conservation. They are most
effective on gentle slopes and in areas of low to medium rainfall. These bunds are stabilized by
fast growing tree species and grasses. In areas of steep slopes where the bunds are not
possible, continuous contour benches (CCBs) made of stones are used for the same purpose.
Gradonies can also be used to convert waste- lands into agricultural lands. In this narrow trenches
with bunds on the downstream side are built along contours in the upper reaches of the
catchment to collect run-off and to conserve moisture from the trees or tree crops. The area
between the two bunds is use for cultivation of crops after development of fertile soil cover.
Some of the ways in which this can be achieved are:
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• A bund constructed out of stones across the stream can also be used for conserving soil
and water.

• Live check dams which barriers created by planting grass, shrubs and trees across the
gullies can be used for this purpose.

• An Earthen check bund is constructed out of local soil across the stream to check soil
erosion and flow of water.

• A Gabion structure is a bund constructed of stone and wrapped in galvanized chainlink.

• A Gabion structure with ferrocement impervious barrier has a one inch thick impervious
wall of ferrocement at the center of the structure which goes below the ground level upto
the hard strata. This ferrocement partition sup- ported by the gabion portion is able to
retain the water and withstand the force of the runoff water.
1.3.2 Excess use of fertilizers
Fertilizers are very valuable as they replace the soil nutrients used up by plants. The three primary
soil nutrients often in short supply are potassium, phosphorus and nitrogen compounds.
These are commonly referred to as macronutrients. Certain other elements like boron, zinc and
manganese are necessary in extremely small amounts and are known as micronutrients. When
crops are harvested a large amount of macronutrients and a small amount of micronutrients
are re- moved with the crops. If the same crop is grown again depleted levels of these nutrients
can result in decreased yields. These necessary nutrients can be returned to the soil through the
application of fertilizers. In addition to fertilizers a large amount of pesticides (chemicals used to
kill or control populations of unwanted fungi, animals or plants often called pests) are also used
to ensure a good yield. Pesticides can be subdivided into several categories based on the kinds of
organisms they are used to control. Insecticides are used to control insect populations while
fungicides are used to control unwanted fungal growth. Mice and rats are killed by rodenticides
while plant pests are controlled by herbicides.
1.3.3 Problems with pesticide use

Pesticides not only kill the pests but also a large variety of living things including humans. They
may be persistent or non-persistent. Persistent pesticides once applied are effective for a long
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time. However as they do not break down easily they tend to accumulate in the soil and in the
bodies of animals in the food chain.
The use of DDT has been banned in some countries. India still however permits the use of DDT

though for purposes of mosquito control only. Persistent pesticides become attached to small soil
particles which are easily moved by wind and water to different parts thus affecting soils
elsewhere. Persistent pesticides may also accumulate in the bodies of animals, and over a period
of time increase in concentration if the animal is unable to flush them out of its system thus
leading to the phenomenon called bioaccumulation. When an affected animal is eaten by another
carnivore these pesticides are further concentrated in the body of the carnivore. This
phenomenon of acquiring increasing levels of a substance in the bodies of higher trophic level
organisms is known as biomagnification.
Other problems associated with insecticides are the ability of insect populations to become

resistant to them thus rendering them useless in a couple of generations. Most pesticides kill
beneficial as well as pest species. They kill the predator as well as the parasitic insects that
control the pests. Thus the pest species increase rapidly following the use of a pesticide as there
are no natural checks to their population growth. The short term and the long-term health
effects to the persons using the pesticide and the public that consumes the food grown by using
the pesticides are also major concerns. Exposure to small quantities of pesticides over several
years can cause mutations, produce cancers, etc.
1.3.4 Excess salts and water

Another problem with irrigation is water logging. This occurs when large amount of water is used
to leach the salts deeper into the soil. However if the drainage is poor this water ac- cumulates
underground gradually raising the water table. The roots of the plants then get enveloped in this
saline water and eventually die.
Irrigated lands can produce crop yields much higher than those that only use rainwater. How- ever
this has its own set of ill effects. Irrigation water contains dissolved salts and in dry climates much
of the water in the saline solution evaporates leaving its salts such as sodium chloride in the
topsoil. The accumulation of these salts is called salinization, which can stunt plant growth, lower
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yields and eventually kill the crop and render the land useless for agriculture. These salts can be
flushed out of the soil by using more water. This practice however increases the cost of crop
production and also wastes enormous amounts of water.
Flushing salts can also make the downstream irrigation water saltier.
1.4 Marine Pollution

Marine pollution can be defined as the introduction of substances to the marine environment
directly or indirectly by man resulting in adverse effects such as hazards to human health,
obstruction of marine activities and lowering the quality of sea water. While the causes of marine
pollution may be similar to that of general water pollution there are some very specific causes
that pollute marine waters

• Waste through pipes directly discharging wastes into the sea. Very often municipal waste
and sew- age from residences and hotels in coastal towns are directly discharged into the
sea
• Pesticides and fertilizers from agriculture which are washed off the land by rain, enter
water courses and eventually reach the sea.
• Petroleum and oils washed off from the roads normally enter the sewage system but
storm water overflows carry these materials into rivers and eventually into the seas
• Ships carry many toxic substances such as oil, liquefied natural gas, pesticides, industrial
chemicals, etc. in huge quantities some- times to the capacity of 350,000 tonnes. Ship
accidents and accidental spillages at sea therefore can be very damaging to the marine
environment
• Offshore oil exploration and extraction also pollute the seawater to a large extent.

1.4.1 Pollution due to organic wastes

The amount of oxygen dissolved in the water is vital for the plants and animals living in it. Wastes,
which directly or indirectly affect the oxygen concentration, play an important role in determining
the quality of the water. Normally the greatest volume of waste discharged to watercourses,
estuaries and the sea is sewage, which is primarily organic in nature and is de- graded by bacterial
activity. Using the oxygen present in the water these wastes are broken down into stable inorganic
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compounds. How- ever as a result of this bacterial activity the oxy- gen concentration in the water
is reduced. When the oxygen concentration falls below 1.5 mg/ lit, the rate of aerobic oxidation
is reduced and their place is taken over by the anaerobic bacteria that can oxidize the organic
molecules with- out the use of oxygen. This results in end products such as hydrogen sulphide,
ammonia and methane, which are toxic to many organ- isms. This process results in the formation
of an anoxic zone which is low in its oxygen content from which most life disappears except
for anaerobic bacteria, fungi, yeasts and some protozoa. This makes the water foul smelling.
1.4.2 Control measures

Pollution load on marine waters is through the introduction of sewage treatment plants. This will
reduce the biological oxygen demand (BOD) of the final product before it is discharged to the
receiving waters.
Various stages of treatment such as primary, secondary or advanced can be used depending on
the quality of the effluent that is required to be treated.
Primary treatment: These treatment plants use physical processes such as screening and
sedimentation to remove pollutants that will settle, float or, that are too large to pass through
simple screening devices. This includes stones, sticks, rags, and all such material that can clog
pipes.
Secondary treatment: The main objective of secondary treatment is to remove most of the

BOD. There are three commonly used approaches: trickling filters, activated sludge process and
oxidation ponds. Secondary treatment can remove at least 85 percent of the BOD.
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1.4.3 Pollution due to oil

Oil pollution of the sea normally attracts the greatest attention because of its visibility. There are
several sources though which the oil can reach the sea,

• Tanker operations,

• All ships need periodic dry docking for servicing, repairs, cleaning the hull, etc. During this
period when the cargo compartments are to completely emptied, residual oil finds its way
into the sea.

• Bilge and fuel oils

• Offshore oil production

• Tanker accidents

1.4.4 Control measures for oil pollution

Cleaning oil from surface waters and contaminated beaches is a time consuming labour
intensive process. The natural process of emulsification of oil in the water can be accelerated
through the use of chemical dispersants which can be sprayed on the oil. A variety of slick- lickers
in which a continuous belt of absorbent material dips through the oil slick and is passed through
rollers to extract the oil have been designed. Rocks, harbour walls can be cleaned with high-
pressure steam or dispersants after which the surface must be hosed down.
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1.4.5 Effects of marine pollution

• Apart from causing eutrophication a large amount of organic wastes can also result in the
development of red tides. These are phytoplankton blooms of such intensity that the area
is discolored. Many important commercially important marine species are also killed due
to clogging of gills or other structures.

• Oil slicks damage marine life to a large extent. Salt marshes, mangrove swamps are likely
to trap oil and the plants, which form the basis for these ecosystems thus suffer. For salt
marsh plants, oil slicks can affect the flowering, fruiting and germination

• When liquid oil is spilled on the sea it spreads over the surface of the water to form a thin
film called an oil slick. The rate of spreading and the thickness of the film depend on the
sea temperature and the nature of the oil.

• Fish and shellfish production facilities can also be affected by oil slicks. The most
important commercial damage can however also come from tainting which imparts an
unpleasant flavour to fish and seafood and is detectable at extremely low levels of
contamination. This reduces the market value of seafood

1.5 Noise Pollution

Noise may not seem as harmful as the contamination of air or water but it is a pollution problem
that affects human health and can contribute to a general deterioration of environmental quality.
Noise is undesirable and unwanted sound. Not all sound is noise. . Sound is measured in a unit
called the ‘Decibel’.
There are several sources of noise pollution that contribute to both indoor and outdoor noise
pollution. Noise emanating from factories, vehicles, playing of loudspeakers during various
festivals can contribute to outdoor noise pollution while loudly played radio or music systems,
and other electronic gadgets can contribute to indoor noise pollution. There are however some
very harmful effects caused by exposure to high sound levels. These effects can range in
severity from being extremely annoying to being extremely painful and hazardous.
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1.5.1 Effects of noise pollution on physical health

The most direct harmful effect of excessive noise is physical damage to the ear and the

temporary or permanent hearing loss often called a temporary threshold shift (TTS). People
suffering from this condition are unable to detect weak sounds. However hearing ability is usually
recovered within a month of exposure. In Maharashtra people living in close vicinity of Ganesh
mandals that play blaring music for ten days of the Ganesh festival are usually known to suffer
from this phenomenon. Permanent loss, usually called noise induced permanent threshold
shift (NIPTS) represents a loss of hearing ability from which there is no recovery. Below a sound
level of 80 dBA haring loss does not occur at all. However temporary effects are noticed at sound
levels between 80 and 130 dBA. About 50 percent of the people exposed to 95 dBA sound levels
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at work will develop NIPTS and most people exposed to more than 105 dBA will experience
permanent hearing loss to some degree. A sound level of 150 dBA or more can physically rupture
the human eardrum.
1.5.2 Effects of noise pollution on mental health

Noise can also cause emotional or psychological effects such as irritability, anxiety and stress. Lack
of concentration and mental fatigue are significant health effects of noise. It has been observed
that the performance of school children is poor in comprehension tasks when schools are situated
in busy areas of a city and suffer from noise pollution.
Thus noise is just more than a mere nuisance or annoyance. It definitely affects the quality of life.
It is thus important to ensure mitigation or control of noise pollution. As noise interferes with
normal auditory communication, it may mask auditory warning signals and hence increases
the rate of accidents especially in industries. It can also lead to lowered worker efficiency and
productivity and higher accident rates on the job.
1.5.3 Noise Control techniques

There are four fundamental ways in which noise can be controlled: Reduce noise at the source,
block the path of noise, increase the path length and protect the recipient. In general, the best
control method is to reduce noise levels at the source.
Source reduction can be done by effectively muffling vehicles and machinery to reduce the noise.
In industries noise reduction can be done by using rigid sealed enclosures around machinery lined
with acoustic absorbing material. Isolating machines and their enclosures from the floor using
special spring mounts or absorbent mounts and pads and using flexible couplings for interior
pipelines also contribute to reducing noise pollution at the source. However one of the best
methods of noise source reduction is regular and thorough maintenance of operating machinery.
Noise levels at construction sites can be controlled using proper construction planning and
scheduling techniques. Locating noisy air compressors and other equipment away from the site
boundary along with creation of temporary barriers to physically block the noise can help
contribute to reducing noise pollution. Most of the vehicular noise comes from movement of
the vehicle tires on the pavement and wind resistance. However poorly maintained vehicles
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can add to the noise levels. Traffic volume and speed also have significant effects on the overall
sound. For example doubling the speed increases the sound levels by about 9 dBA and doubling
the traffic volume (number of vehicles per hour) increases sound levels by about 3 dBA. A smooth
flow of traffic also causes less noise than does a stop-and-go traffic pattern. Proper highway
planning and design are essential for controlling traffic noise. Establishing lower speed limits for
highways that pass through residential areas, limiting traffic volume and providing alternative
routes for truck traffic are effective noise control measures. The path of traffic noise can also be
blocked by construction of vertical barriers alongside the high- way. Planting of trees around
houses can also act as effective noise barriers. In industries different types of absorptive material
can be used to control interior noise. Highly absorptive interior finish material for walls, ceilings
and floors can decrease indoor noise levels significantly. Sound levels drop significantly with
increasing distance from the noise source. Increasing the path length between the source and the
recipient offers a passive means of control. Municipal land-use ordinances pertaining to the
location of airports make use of the attenuating effect of distance on sound levels. Use of earplugs
and earmuffs can protect individuals effectively from excessive noise levels. Specially designed
earmuffs can reduce the sound level reaching the eardrum by as much as 40 dBA. However very
often workers tend not to wear them on a regular basis despite company requirements for their
use.
1.6 Thermal Pollution

The discharge of warm water into a river is usually called a thermal pollution. It occurs when an
industry removes water from a source, uses the water for cooling purposes and then returns the
heated water to its source. Power plants heat water to convert it into steam, to drive the turbines
that generate electricity. For efficient functioning of the steam turbines, the steam is condensed
into water after it leaves the turbines. This condensation is done by taking water from a water
body to absorb the heat. This heated water, which is at least 15oC higher than the normal is
discharged back into the water body
1.6.1 Effects
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The warmer temperature decreases the solubility of oxygen and increases the metabolism of fish.
This changes the ecological balance of the river. Within certain limits thermal additions can
promote the growth of certain fish and the fish catch may be high in the vicinity of a power plant.
However sudden changes in temperature caused by periodic plant shutdowns both planned and
unintentional can change result in death of these fish that are acclimatized to living in warmer
waters.
Tropical marine animals are generally unable to withstand a temperature increase of 2 to 3 0C

and most sponges, mollusks and crustaceans are eliminated at temperatures above 370C. This
results in a change in the diversity of fauna as only those species that can live in warmer water
survive.
1.6.2 Control measures:

Thermal pollution can be controlled by passing the heated water through,

• To construct a large shallow pond. Hot water is pumped into one end of the pond and
cooler water is removed from the other end. The heat gets dissipated from the pond into
the atmosphere

• To use a cooling tower. These structures take up less land area than the ponds. Here most
of the heat transfer occurs through evaporation. Here warm waters coming from the
condenser is sprayed down- ward over vertical sheets or baffles where the water flows in
thin films. Cool air enters the tower through the water inlet that encircles the base of the
tower and rises upwards causing evaporative cooling.
1.7 Nuclear Hazards

Nuclear energy can be both beneficial and harmful depending on the way in which it is used. We
routinely use X-rays to examine bones for fractures, treat cancer with radiation and diagnose
diseases with the help of radioactive isotopes. Approximately 17 % of the electrical energy
generated in the world comes from nuclear power plants. However on the other hand it is
impossible to forget the destruction that nuclear bombs caused the cities of Hiroshima and
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Nagasaki. The radioactive wastes from nuclear energy have caused serious environmental
damage.
In order to appreciate the consequences of using nuclear fuels to generate energy it is
important to understand how the fuel is processed. Low-grade uranium ore, which contains 0.2
percent uranium by weight, is obtained by surface or underground mining. After it is mined the
ore goes through a milling process where it is crushed and treated with a solvent to
concentrate the uranium and produces yellow cake a material containing 70 to 90 percent
uranium oxide. Naturally occurring uranium contains only 0.7 percent of fissionable U-235, which
is not high enough for most types of reactors. Hence it is necessary to increase the amount of U-
235 by enrichment though it is a difficult and ex- pensive process. The enrichment process in-
creases the U-235 content from 0.7 to 3 percent. Fuel fabrication then converts the enriched
material into a powder, which is then compacted into pellets. These pellets are sealed in metal
fuel rods about 4 meters in length which is then loaded into the reactor. As fission occurs the
concentration of U-235 atoms decreases. After about three years, a fuel rod does not have enough
radioactive material to sustain a chain reaction and hence the spent fuel rods must be replaced
by new ones. The spent rods are how- ever still very radioactive containing about one percent U-
235 and one percent plutonium. These rods are a major source of radioactive waste material
produced by a nuclear reactor. Initially it was thought that spent fuel rods could be reprocessed
to not only provide new fuel but also to reduce the amount of nuclear waste. However the cost
of producing fuel rods by re- processing was found to be greater than the cost of producing
fuel rods from ore. Presently India does operate reprocessing plants to reprocess spent fuel
as an alternative to storing them as nuclear waste. At each step in the cycle there is a danger of
exposure and poses several health and environmental concerns.
1.8 Solid Waste Management: Causes, Effects and Control Measures of Urban and Industrial
Waste

Around most towns and cities in India the approach roads are littered with multi-coloured plastic
bags and other garbage. Waste is also burnt to reduce its volume. Modern methods of disposal
such as incineration and the development of sanitary landfills, etc. are now attempting to solve
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these problems. Lack of space for dumping solid waste has become a serious problem in several
cities and towns all over the world. Dumping and burning wastes is not an acceptable practice
today from either an environmental or a health perspective. Today disposal of solid waste should
be part of an integrated waste management plan. The method of collection, processing, resource
recovery and the final disposal should mesh with one another to achieve a common objective.
1.8.1 Characteristics of municipal solid waste

Municipal solid waste contains a wide variety of materials. It can contain food waste such as
vegetable and meat material, left over food, egg shells, etc. which is classified as wet garbage as
well as paper, plastic, tetrapacks, plastic cans, newspaper, glass bottles, cardboard boxes,
aluminum foil, metal items, wood pieces, etc. which is classified as dry garbage.
1.8.2 Control measures of urban and industrial wastes

An integrated waste management strategy includes three main components:

1. Source reduction

2. Recycling

3. Disposal

Source reduction is one of the fundamental ways to reduce waste. This can be done by using less
material when making a product, reuse of products on site, designing products or pack- aging to
reduce their quantity. On an individual level we can reduce the use of unnecessary items while
shopping, buy items with minimal pack- aging, avoid buying disposable items and also avoid asking
for plastic carry bags.
Recycling is reusing some components of the waste that may have some economic value.
Recycling has readily visible benefits such as conservation of resources reduction in energy used
during manufacture and reducing pollution levels. Some materials such as aluminum and steel
can be recycled many times. Metal, paper, glass and plastics are recyclable. Mining of new
aluminum is expensive and hence recycled aluminum has a strong market and plays a
significant role in the aluminum industry. Paper recycling can also help preserve forests as it takes
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about 17 trees to make one ton of paper. Crushed glass (cullet) reduces the energy required to
manufacture new glass by 50 percent. Cullet lowers the temperature requirement of the
glassmaking process thus conserving energy and reducing air pollution. However even if recycling
is a viable alternative, it presents several problems.
Disposal of solid waste is done most commonly through a sanitary landfill or through incineration.
A modern sanitary landfill is a depression in an impermeable soil layer that is lined with an
impermeable membrane. The three key characteristics of a municipal sanitary landfill that
distinguish it from an open dump are:

• The waste is covered each day with a layer of compacted soil.

• The waste material is spread out and compacted with appropriate heavy machinery

• Solid waste is placed in a suitably selected and prepared landfill site in a carefully pre-
scribed manner

1.8.3 Incineration
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It is the process of burning municipal solid waste in a properly designed furnace under suitable
temperat ure and operating conditions. Incineration is a chemical process in which the
combustible portion of the waste is combined with oxygen forming carbon dioxide and water,
which are released into the atmosphere. This chemical reaction called oxidation results in the
release of heat. For complete oxidation the waste must be mixed with appropriate volumes of air
at a temperature of about 815o C for about one hour. Incineration can reduce the municipal solid
waste by about 90 percent in volume and 75 percent in weight. The risks of incineration however
involve air- quality problems and toxicity and disposal of the fly and bottom ash produced during
the incineration process. Fly ash consists of finely divided particulate matter, including cinders,
mineral dust and soot. Most of the incinerator ash is bottom ash while the remainder is fly ash.
The possible presence of heavy metals in incinerator ash can be harmful. Thus toxic products and
materials containing heavy metals (for example batteries and plastics) should be segregated. Thus
extensive air pollution control equipment and high-level technical supervision and skilled
employees for proper operation and maintenance is required.
1.8.4 Vermicomposting

Nature has perfect solutions for managing the waste it creates, if left undisturbed. The bio-
geochemical cycles are designed to clear the waste material produced by animals and plants. We
can mimic the same methods that are present in nature. All dead and dry leaves and twigs
decompose and are broken down by organisms such as worms and insects, and is finally broken
down by bacteria and fungi, to form a dark rich soil-like material called compost.
These organisms in the soil use the organic material as food, which provides them with

nutrients for their growth and activities. These nutrients are returned to the soil to be used again
by trees and other plants. This process recycles nutrients in nature.
1.9 Hazardous wastes

Hazardous wastes are those that can cause harm to humans or the environment. Wastes are
normally classified as hazardous waste when they cause or significantly contribute to an
increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible or incapacitating reversible illness or
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pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when
improperly treated, stored, transported or disposed of.
1.9.1 Characteristics of hazardous wastes

A waste is classified as a hazardous waste if it exhibits any of the four primary characteristics based
on the physical or chemical properties of toxicity, reactivity, ignitability and corrosivity. In addition
to this waste products that are either infectious or radioactive are also classified as hazardous
Toxic wastes are those substances that are poisonous even in very small or trace amounts. Some
may have an acute or immediate effect on humans or animals causing death or violent illness.
Others may have a chronic or long term effect slowly causing irreparable harm to ex- posed
persons. Acute toxicity is readily apparent because organisms respond to the toxin shortly
after being exposed. Chronic toxicity is much more difficult to determine because the effects may
not be seen for years. Certain toxic wastes are known to be carcinogenic, causing cancer and
others may be mutagenic causing biological changes in the children of exposed people and
animals.
Corrosive wastes are those that destroy materials and living tissue by chemical reaction. For
example, acids and bases.

Ignitable wastes are those that burn at relatively low temperatures (less than 60 C) and are
capable of spontaneous combustion during storage, transport or disposal. For example,
gasoline, paint thinners, and alcohol.
Reactive wastes are those that have a tendency to react vigorously with air or water, are un-
stable to shock or heat, generate toxic gases or explode during routine management. For ex-
ample, gunpowder, nitroglycerine, etc.
Radioactive waste is basically an output from the nuclear power plants and can persist in the

environment for thousands of years before it decays appreciably

Infectious wastes include human tissue from surgery, used bandages and hypodermic needles,
microbiological materials, etc.
1.9.2 Environmental problems and health risks caused by hazardous wastes
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As most of the hazardous wastes are disposed of on or in land the most serious environmental
effect is contaminated groundwater. Once groundwater is polluted with hazardous wastes it is
very often not possible to reverse the damage.
Pesticides are used increasingly to protect and increase food production. They form residues in

the soil which are washed into streams which then carry them forwards. The residues may persist
in the soil or in the bottom of lakes and rivers. Exposure can occur through ingestion, inhalation
and skin contact resulting in acute or chronic poisoning. Today we have an alternative to
the excess use of pesticides through the use of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). The IPM
system uses a wide variety of plants and insects to create a more natural process. The natural
balance between climate, soil and in- sect populations can help to prevent an insect from
overpopulating an area and destroying a particular crop
Lead, mercury and arsenic are hazardous sub- stances which are often referred to as heavy metals.
Lead is an abundant heavy metal and is relatively easy to obtain. It is used in batteries, fuel,
pesticides, paints, pipes and other places where resistance to corrosion is required. Most of the
lead taken up by people and wildlife is stored in bones. Lead can affect red blood cells by reducing
their ability to carry oxygen and shortening their life span. Lead may also dam- age nerve tissue
which can result in brain dis- ease.
Mercury occurs in several different forms. Mercury is used in the production of chlorine. It is

also used as a catalyst in the production of some plastics. Industrial processes such as the
production of chlorine and plastics are responsible for most of the environmental damage
resulting from mercury. Our body has a limited ability to eliminate mercury. In the food web
mercury becomes more concentrated as it is taken up by various organisms. In an aquatic
environment, mercury can be absorbed by the plankton which are then consumed by fish. In
addition, fish take up mercury through their gills and by eating other fish contaminated with
mercury. Generally older the fish greater is the mercury con- centration in its body. Birds that eat
the fish concentrate even more mercury in their bodies. It is a cumulative poison (it builds up in
the body over long periods of time) and is known to cause brain damage.
Thousands of chemicals are used in industry every day. When used incorrectly or
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inappropriately they can become health hazards. PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls) are resistant
to fire and do not conduct electricity very well which makes them excellent materials for several
industrial purposes. Rainwater can wash PCBs out of disposal areas in dumps and landfills thus
contaminating water. PCBs do not break down very rapidly in the environment and thus retain
their toxic characteristics. They cause long term exposure problems to both humans and wild- life.
PCBs are concentrated in the kidneys and liver and thus cause damage.
They cause reproductive failure in birds and mammals.

Vinyl chloride is a chemical that is widely used in the manufacture of plastic. Usually people are
only exposed to high levels of vinyl chloride if they work with it or near it but exposure can also
occur from vinyl chloride gas leaks. After a long continuous exposure (one to three years) in
humans, vinyl chloride can cause deafness, vision problems, circulation disorders and bone
deformities. Vinyl chloride can also cause birth defects.
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It is essential to substitute the use of PCBs and vinyl chloride with chemicals that are less toxic.
Polyvinyl chloride use can be lowered by reducing our use of plastics. Thus by reducing waste, en
couraging recycling and using products that are well made and durable we can greatly re- duce
our consumption of these chemicals thus curtailing our exposure to these substances.
2.0 Role Of An Individual In Prevention Of Pollution

• Develop respect or reverence for all forms of life.

• Each individual must try to answer four basic questions:

Where do the things that I consume come from?

What do I know about the place where I live?

How am I connected to the earth and other living things?

What is my purpose and responsibility as a human being
Try to plant trees wherever you can and more importantly take care of them. They
reduce air pollution
• Reduce the use of wood and paper products wherever possible. Manufacturing paper
leads to pollution and loss of forests which releases oxygen and takes up carbon dioxide.
Try to recycle paper products and use recycled paper wherever possible.
From the mail you receive reuse as many envelopes that you can

Do not buy furniture, doors, window frames made from tropical hardwoods such as teak and
mahogany. These are forest based
• Help in restoring a degraded area near your home or join in an afforestation program. Use
pesticides in your home only when absolutely necessary and use them in as small amounts
as necessary. Some insect species help to keep a check on the populations of pest species
• Advocate organic farming by asking your grocery store to stock vegetables and fruits
grown by an organic method. This will automatically help to reduce the use of pesticides.

Reduce the use of fossil fuels by either walking up a short distance using a car pool, sharing a bike
or using public transport. This reduces air pollution
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• Shut off the lights and fans when not needed.

• Don’t use aerosols spray products and commercial room air fresheners. They damage the
ozone layer.

• Try to plant trees wherever you can and more importantly take care of them. They reduce
air pollution
• Reduce the use of wood and paper products wherever possible. Manufacturing paper
leads to pollution and loss of forests which releases oxygen and takes up carbon dioxide.
Try to recycle paper products and use recycled paper wherever possible.
• Help in restoring a degraded area near your home or join in an afforestation program. Use
pesticides in your home only when absolutely necessary and use them in as small amounts
as necessary. Some insect species help to keep a check on the populations of pest species

• Advocate organic farming by asking your grocery store to stock vegetables and fruits
grown by an organic method. This will automatically help to reduce the use of pesticides.
Reduce the use of fossil fuels by either walking up a short distance using a car pool, sharing
a bike or using public transport. This reduces air pollution
• Shut off the lights and fans when not needed.

• Don’t use aerosols spray products and commercial room air fresheners. They damage the
ozone layer.
• Do not pour pesticides, paints, solvents, oil or other products containing harmful
chemicals down the drain or on the ground.
• Buy consumer goods that last, keep them as long as possible and have them repaired as
far as possible instead of disposing them off. Such products end up in landfills that could
pollute ground water.

• Buy consumer goods ages in refillable glass containers instead of cans or throwaway
bottles

• Use rechargeable batteries

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• Try to avoid asking for plastic carry bags when you buy groceries or vegetables or any other
items. Use your own cloth bag instead
• Use sponges and washable cloth napkins, dish towels and handkerchiefs instead of paper
ones.

• Choose items that have the least packaging or no packaging

• Recycle all newspaper, glass, aluminum and other items accepted for recycling in your
area. You might have to take a little trouble to locate such dealers

• Set up a compost bin in your garden or terrace and use it to produce manure for your
plants to reduce use of fertilizers
• Try to lobby and push for setting up garbage separation and recycling programs in your
localities.
• Don’t use throwaway paper and plastic plates and cups when reusable versions are

available.

• Start individual or community composting or vemicomposting plants in your neighbor-

hood and motivate people to join in.
• Do not litter the roads and surroundings just because the sweeper from the Municipal
Corporation will clean it up. Take care to put trash into dustbins or bring it back home with
you where it can be appropriately dis- posed.
• Learn about the biodiversity of your own area. Understand the natural and cultural

assets. This would help you to develop a sense of pride in your city/town/village and will also help
you understand the problems facing their survival..
• Take care to put into practice what you preach. Remember environment protection

begins with YOU.