Module – III

Environment: Introduction, Multidisciplinary nature of environmental studies- Definition, scope

and importance, Need for public awareness.
Ecosystem: Concept, Energy flow, Structure and function of an ecosystem, Food chains, food
webs and ecological pyramids, Forest ecosystem, Grassland ecosystem, Desert ecosystem and
Aquatic ecosystems, Ecological succession.

 Environment
Definition
Environmental studies deals with every issue that affects an organism. It is essentially a
multidisciplinary approach that brings about an appreciation of our natural world and human
impacts on its integrity. It is an applied science as it’s seeks practical answers to making human
civilization sustainable on the earth’s finite resources.

• Scope
As our surroundings were originally natural landscapes such as a forest, a river, a mountain, a
desert, or a combination of these elements. Most of us live in landscapes that have been heavily
modified by human beings, in villages, towns or cities. But even who live in cities get our food
supply from surrounding villages and these in turn are dependent on natural landscapes such as
forests, grasslands, rivers, seashores, for resources such as water for agriculture, fuel wood, fodder,
and fish. Thus our daily lives are linked with our surroundings and inevitably affects them. All
peoples are using water to drink and for other day-to-day activities. Air for breath, use resources
for food, depends on the community of living plants and animals which form a web of life, of
which we are also a part.
Our dependence on nature is so great that we cannot continue to live without protecting the earth’s
environmental resources. Thus most traditions refer to our environment as ‘Mother Nature’ and
most traditional societies have learned that respecting nature is vital for their livelihoods. This has
led to many cultural practices that helped traditional societies protect and preserve their natural
resources.

• Importance
Environment is not a single subject. It is an integration of several subjects that include both Science
and Social Studies.
In a world natural resources are limited. Water, air, soil, minerals, oil, the products are get from
forests, grasslands, oceans and from agriculture and livestock, are all a part of our life support
systems. Without them, life itself would be impossible. As keep increasing in numbers and the
quantity of resources uses also increases, the earth’s resource base must inevitably shrink. The
earth cannot be expected to sustain this expanding level of utilization of resources. Added to this
is misuse of resources. Wasting or polluting large amounts of nature’s clean water, Creating more
and more material like plastic that discard after a single use and wasting colossal amounts of food,
which is discarded as garbage is polluting the environment. Manufacturing processes create solid
waste by products that are discarded, as well as chemicals that flow out as liquid waste and pollute
water, and gases that pollute the air. Increasing amounts of waste cannot be managed by natural
processes. These accumulate in our environment, leading to a variety of diseases and other adverse
environmental impacts now seriously affecting all our lives. Air pollution leads to respiratory
diseases, water pollution to gastro-intestinal diseases, and many pollutants are known to cause
cancer.
Improving this situation will only happen if each of us begins to take actions in our daily lives that
will help preserve our environmental resources. Cannot expect Governments alone to manage the
safeguarding of the environment, nor expect other people to prevent environmental damage.
 NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS
As the earth’s natural resources are diminishing gradually and environment is being increasingly
degraded by human activities, it is evident that something needs to be done to save environment.
Along with government support also needed to save environment. It is the prevention of
environment degradation in which all take part that must become a part of all our lives. Just as for
any disease, prevention is better than cure. To prevent ill-effects on our environment by our actions
is economically more viable than cleaning up the environment once it is damaged. Individually
play a major role in environment management. Reduce wasting natural resources and act as
watchdogs that inform the Government about sources that lead to pollution and degradation of our
environment.
This can only be made possible through mass public awareness. Mass media such as newspapers,
radio, television, strongly influence public opinion. However, someone has to bring this about. If
each of us feels strongly about the environment, the press and media will add to our efforts.
Politicians in a democracy always respond positively to a strong publicly supported movement.
Thus if you join an NGO that supports conservation, politicians will make green policies.

• Institutions in Environment
There have been several Government and Nongovernment organizations that have led to
environmental protection in our country. They have led to a growing interest in environmental
protection and conservation of nature and natural resources. The traditional conservation practices
that were part of ancient India’s culture have however gradually disappeared. Public awareness is
thus a critical need to further environmental protection. Among the large number of institutions
that deal with environmental protection and conservation, a few well-known organizations include
government organizations such as the BSI and ZSI, and NGOs such as BNHS, WWF-I, etc.
• People in Environment
There are several internationally known environmental thinkers. Among those who have made
landmarks, the names that are usually mentioned are Charles Darwin, Ralph Emerson, Henry
Thoreau, John Muir, Aldo Leopald, Rachel Carson and EO Wilson. Each of these thinkers looked
at the environment from a completely different perspective.
 Ecosystem
An ‘Ecosystem’ is a region with a specific and recognizable landscape form such as forest,
grassland, desert, wetland or coastal area. The nature of the ecosystem is based on its geographical
features such as hills, mountains, plains, rivers, lakes, coastal areas or islands. It is also controlled
by climatic conditions such as the amount of sunlight, the temperature and the rainfall in the region.
The geographical, climatic and soil characteristics form its non-living (abiotic) component. These
features create conditions that support a community of plants and animals that evolution has
produced to live in these specific conditions. The living part of the ecosystem is referred to as its
biotic component.
The living community of plants and animals in any area together with the non-living
components of the environment such as soil, air and water, constitute the ecosystem.
Understanding ecosystems
Natural ecosystems include the forests, grasslands, deserts, and aquatic ecosystems such as ponds,
rivers, lakes, and the sea. Man modified ecosystems include agricultural land and urban or
industrial land use patterns.
• Ecosystem degradation
Ecosystems are the basis of life itself. The natural ecosystems in the wilderness provide a variety
of products and are regions in which a number of vital ecological processes are present, without
human civilization would not be able to exist.
Ecosystems are however frequently disrupted by human actions which lead to the extinction of
species of plants and animals that can live only in the different natural ecosystems. Some species
if eliminated seriously affect the ecosystem.
These are called ‘keystone’ species. Extinction occurs due to changes in land use. Forests are
deforested for timber, wetlands are drained to create more agricultural land and semi-arid
grasslands that are used as pastures are changed into irrigated fields. Pollution from industry and
waste from urban settings can also lead to extinction of several species.
The reason for the depletion of natural resources is twofold – our rapidly exploding population that
needs to sustain itself on resources, and the growth of affluent societies, which consume and waste
a very large proportion of resources and energy. Increasing extraction of resources is at the cost of
natural ecosystems, leading to a derangement of their important functions. Each of us in our daily
lives uses a variety of resources.
If tracked back to their source, one finds that the resources were originally obtained from nature
and natural ecosystems. Our insensitivity to using resources carefully has produced societies that
nature can no longer sustain. If one thinks before wasting resources such as water, reusing and
recycling paper, using less plastic that are non-degradable, ruminatively this can have positive
implications on the integrity of our natural resource base and conserve the resources that nature
provides.

• Resource utilization
Most traditional societies used their environment sustainably. Though inequality in resource
utilization has existed in every society, the number of individuals that used a large proportion of
resources was extremely limited. In recent times the proportion of ‘rich’ people in affluent
societies, grew rapidly. Inequality thus became a serious problem. Whereas in the past many
resources such as timber and fuel wood from the forest were extracted sustainably, this pattern has
drastically changed during the last century.
The economically better off sections began to use greater amounts of forest products, while those
people who lived in the forest became increasingly poor. Similarly the building of large irrigation
projects led to wealth in those areas that had canals, while those who hand to remain dependent on
a constant supply of water from the river itself, found it difficult to survive.
 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Structural aspects
Components that make up the structural aspects of an ecosystem include:
1) Inorganic aspects – C, N, CO2, H2O.
2) Organic compounds – Protein, Carbohydrates, Lipids – link abiotic to biotic aspects.
3) Climatic regimes – Temperature, Moisture, Light & Topography.
4) Producers – Plants.
5) Macro consumers – Phagotrophs – Large animals.
6) Micro consumers – Saprotrophs, absorbers fungi. Functional aspects 1) Energy cycles.
2) Food chains.
3) Diversity-inter linkages between organisms.
4) Nutrient cycles-biogeochemical cycles.
5) Evolution.
Since each ecosystem has a non-living and a living part that are linked to each other, one needs to
look around us and observe this closely. This is an important aspect that is a vital part of our lives.
The non-living components of an ecosystem are the amount of water, the various inorganic
substances and organic compounds, and climatic conditions such as rainfall and temperature,
which depend on geographical conditions and location which is also related to the amount of
sunlight. The living organisms in an ecosystem are inseparable from their habitat.
The living component of plant life ranges from extremely small bacteria, which live in air, water
and soil, algae which live in fresh and salt water, to the terrestrial plants which range from grasses
and herbs that grow after the monsoon every year, to the giant long-lived trees of the forest. The
plants convert energy from sunlight into organic matter for their growth. They thus function as
producers in the ecosystem. The living component of the animal world ranges from microscopic
animals, to small insects and the larger animals such as fish, amphibia, reptiles, birds and
mammals. Man is just one of the 1.8 million species of plants and animals that inhabit the earth.
 ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM
Every ecosystem has several interrelated mechanisms that affect human life. These are the water
cycle, the carbon cycle, the oxygen cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the energy cycle. While every
ecosystem is controlled by these cycles, in each ecosystem its abiotic and biotic features are distinct
from each other.
All the functions of the ecosystem are in some way related to the growth and regeneration of its
plant and animal species. These linked processes can be depicted as the various cycles. These
processes depend on energy from sunlight.
During photosynthesis carbon dioxide is taken up by plants and oxygen is released. Animals
depend on this oxygen for their respiration.
The water cycle depends on the rainfall, which is necessary for plants and animals to live. The
energy cycle recycles nutrients into the soil on which plant life grows. Our own lives are closely
linked to the proper functioning of these cycles of life. If human activities go on altering them,
humanity cannot survive on our earth.
• The Water Cycle
When it rains, the water runs along the ground and flows into rivers or falls directly into the sea.
A part of the rainwater that falls on land percolates into the ground. This is stored underground
throughout the rest of the year. Water is drawn up from the ground by plants along with the
nutrients from the soil. The water is transpired from the leaves as water vapour and returned to the
atmosphere. As it is lighter than air, water vapour rises and forms clouds. Winds blow the clouds
for long distances and when the clouds rise higher, the vapour condenses and changes into droplets,
which fall on the land as rain. Though this is an endless cycle on which life depends, man’s
activities are making drastic changes in the atmosphere through pollution which is altering rainfall
patterns. This is leading to prolonged drought periods extending over years in countries such as
Africa, while causing floods in countries such as the US. El Nino storms due to these effects have
devastated many places in the last few years.

Fig: Water Cycle

• The Carbon cycle

The carbon, which occurs in organic compounds, is included in both the abiotic and biotic parts of
the ecosystem.
Carbon is a building block of both plant and animal tissues.
In the atmosphere, carbon occurs as carbon dioxide (CO2). In the presence of sunlight, plants take
up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through their leaves. The plants combine carbon dioxide
with water, which is absorbed by their roots from the soil. In the presence of sunlight they are able
to form carbohydrates that contain carbon.
This process is known as photosynthesis. Plants use this complex mechanism for their growth and
development. In this process, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere on which animals depend
for their respiration. Plants therefore help in regulating and monitoring the percentage of Oxygen
and Carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere. All of mankind thus depends on the oxygen
generated through this cycle. It also keeps the CO2 at acceptable levels.
Herbivorous animals feed on plant material, which is used by them for energy and for their growth.
Both plants and animals release carbon dioxide during respiration. They also return fixed carbon
to the soil in the waste they exerted.
When plants and animals die they return their carbon to the soil. These processes complete the
carbon cycle.

Fig: Carbon Cycle

• The Nitrogen Cycle
Carnivorous animals feed on herbivorous animals that live on plants. When animals defecate, this
waste material is broken down by worms and insects mostly beetles and ants. These small ‘soil
animals’ break the waste material into smaller bits on which microscopic bacteria and fungi can
act. This material is thus broken down further into nutrients that plants can absorb and use for their
growth. Thus nutrients are recycled back from animals to plants. Similarly the bodies of dead
animals are also broken down into nutrients that are used by the plants for their growth. Thus the
nitrogen cycle on which life is dependent is completed.
Nitrogen fixing bacteria and fungi in soil gives this important element to plants, which absorb it as
nitrates. The nitrates are a part of the plant’s metabolism, which help in forming new plant proteins.
This is used by animals that feed on the plants. The nitrogen is then transferred to carnivorous
animals when they feed on the herbivores. Thus our own lives are closely interlinked to soil
animals, fungi and even bacteria in the soil. When we think of food webs, we usually think of the
large mammals and other large forms of life. But we need to understand that it is the unseen small
animals, plants and microscopic forms of life that are of great value for the functioning of the
ecosystem.

Fig: Nitrogen Cycle

• The Oxygen Cycle
Oxygen is taken up by plants and animals from the air during respiration. The plants return oxygen
to the atmosphere during photosynthesis. This links the Oxygen Cycle to the Carbon Cycle.
Deforestation is likely to gradually reduce the oxygen levels in our atmosphere. Thus plant life
plays an important role in our lives which we frequently do not appreciate. This is an important
reason to participate in afforestation programs.

Fig: Oxygen Cycle

• The Energy Cycle
The energy cycle is based on the flow of energy through the ecosystem. Energy from sunlight is
converted by plants themselves into growing new plant material which includes leaves, flowers,
fruit, branches, trunks and roots of plants.
Since plants can grow by converting the sun’s energy directly into their tissues, they are known as
producers in the ecosystem. The plants are used by herbivorous animals as food, which gives them
energy. A large part of this energy is used up for day to day functions of these animals such as
breathing, digesting food, supporting growth of tissues, maintaining blood flow and body
temperature. Energy is also used for activities such as looking for food, finding shelter, breeding
and bringing up young ones. The carnivores in turn depend on herbivorous animals on which they
feed. Thus the different plant and animal species are linked to one another through food chains.
Each food chain has three or four links. However as each plant or animal can be linked to several
other plants or animals through many different linkages and these inter-linked chains can be
depicted as a complex food web. This is thus called the ‘web of life’ that shows that there are
thousands of interrelationships in nature.

Fig: Energy Cycle

• Integration of cycles in Nature
These cycles are a part of global life processes.
These bio geochemical cycles have specific features in each of the ecosystems. These cycles are
however linked to those of adjacent ecosystems.
Their characteristics are specific to the plant and animal communities in the region. This is related
to the geographical features of the area, the climate and the chemical composition of the soil.
Together the cycles are responsible for maintaining life on earth. If mankind disturbs these cycles
beyond the limits that nature can sustain, they will eventually break down and lead to a degraded
earth on which man will not be able to survive.  The food chains
The transfer of energy from source in plants through a series of organisms by eating and being
eaten constitutes food chain.
The most obvious aspect of nature is that energy must pass from one living organism to another.
When herbivorous animals feed on plants, energy is transferred from plants to animals. In an
ecosystem, some of the animals feed on other living organisms, while some feed on dead organic
matter. At each linkage in the chain, a major part of the energy from the food is lost for daily
activities.
Each chain usually has only four to five such links. However a single species may be linked to a
large number of species.
 Fig: Food Chain

 The food webs

These food chain are not isolated sequences, but are interconnected with each other. This
interlocking pattern is called as food web.
In an ecosystem there are a very large number of interlinked chains. This forms a food web. If the
linkages in the chains that make up the web of life are disrupted due to human activities that lead
to the loss or extinction of species, the web breaks down.

Fig: Food Web

 The ecological pyramids
Each step of the food web is called a trophic level. These trophic level together form the ecological
pyramid.
In an ecosystem, green plants – the producers, utilize energy directly from sunlight and convert it
into matter. A large number of these organisms form the most basic, or first ‘trophic level’ of the
food pyramid. The herbivorous animals that eat plants are at the second trophic level and are called
primary consumers. The predators that feed on them form the third trophic level and are known as
secondary consumers.
Only a few animals form the third trophic level consisting of carnivores at the apex of the food
pyramid. This is how energy is used by living creatures and flows through the ecosystem from its
base to the apex. Much of the energy is used up in activities of each living organism.

Fig: Energy pyramid

 ECOSYSTEMS
 Forest ecosystem
Forests are formed by a community of plants which is predominantly structurally defined by its
trees, shrubs, climbers and ground cover.
Natural vegetation looks vastly different from a group of planted trees, which are in orderly rows.
The most ‘natural’ undisturbed forests are located mainly in our National Parks and Wildlife
Sanctuaries. The landscapes that make up various types of forests look very different from each
other. Their distinctive appearance is a fascinating aspect of nature. Each forest type forms a habitat
for a specific community of animals that are adapted to live in it.
The non-living or abiotic aspects of the forest:
The type of forest depends upon the abiotic conditions at the site. Forests on mountains and hills
differ from those along river valleys. Vegetation is specific to the amount of rainfall and the local
temperature which varies according to latitude and altitude. Forests also vary in their plant
communities in response to the type of soil.
The living or the biotic aspects of the forest:
The plants and animals form communities that are specific to each forest type.
For instance coniferous trees occur in the Himalayas. Mangrove trees occur in river deltas. Thorn
trees grow in arid areas. The snow leopard lives in the Himalayas while the leopard and tiger live
in the forests of the rest of India. Wild sheep and goats live high up in the Himalayas. Many of the
birds of the Himalayan forests are different from the rest of India. Evergreen forests of the Western
Ghats and North East India are most rich in plant and animal species.
• Types of forest ecosystem
Forests in lndia can be broadly divided into Coniferous forests and Broad leaved forests.
Coniferous forests: Grow in the Himalayan mountain region. where the temperatures are low.
These forests have tall stately trees with needle like leaves and downward sloping branches so that
the snow can slip off the branches.
Broadleaved forests: They have several types, such as evergreen forests, deciduous forests, thorn
forests, and mangrove forests. Broadleaved forests have large leaves of various shapes.
Evergreen forests grow in the high rainfall areas of the Western Ghats North Eastern India and
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These- forests grow in areas where the monsoon lasts for
several months. There is no dry leafless phase as in a deciduous forest. An evergreen forest thus
looks green throughout the year. The trees overlap with each other to form a continuous canopy.
Thus very little light penetrates down to the forest floor.
Deciduous forests are found in regions with a moderate amount of seasonal rainfall that lasts for
only a few months. The deciduous trees shed their leaves during the winter and hot summer
months. The forest frequently has a thick undergrowth as light can penetrate easily onto the forest
floor. Thorn forests are found in the semi- arid regions of India. The trees, which are sparsely
distributed, are surrounded by open grassy areas. Thorny plants are able to conserve water.
Mangrove forests grow along the coast especially in the river deltas. These plants are able to grow
in a mix of saline and fresh water. They grow luxuriantly in muddy areas covered with silt that the
rivers have brought down. The mangrove trees have breathing roots that emerge from the mud
banks.
Conservation of forest ecosystem: The forests can be conserved only when its resources are used
carefully. This can be done by using alternate sources of energy instead of fuelwood. There is a
need to grow more trees than are cut down from forests every year for timber. Afforestation needs
to be done continuously from which fuelwood and timber can be judiciously used. The natural
forests with all their diverse species must be protected as National Parks and wildlife sanctuaries
where all the plants and animals can be preserved.
• Forest types in India
The forest type depends upon the abiotic factors such as climate and soil characteristics of a region.
Forests in India can be broadly divided into Coniferous forests and Broadleaved forests. They
can also be classified according to the nature of their tree species – evergreen, deciduous,
xerophytic or thorn trees, mangroves, etc.
They can also be classified according to the most abundant species of trees such as Sal or Teak
forests. In many cases a forest is named after the first three or four most abundant tree species.
Coniferous forests grow in the Himalayan mountain region, where the temperatures are low. These
forests have tall stately trees with needle like leaves and downward sloping branches so that the
snow can slip off the branches. They have cones instead of seeds and are called gymnosperms.
Broadleaved forests have several types, such as evergreen forests, deciduous forests, thorn forests,
and mangrove forests. Broadleaved forests have large leaves of various shapes.
Evergreen forests grow in the high rainfall areas of the Western Ghats, North Eastern India and the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These forests grow in areas where the monsoon lasts for several
months. Some even get two monsoons, such as in Southern India.
Evergreen plants shed a few of their leaves throughout the year.
There is no dry leafless phase as in a deciduous forest. An evergreen forest thus looks green
throughout the year. The trees overlap with each other to form a continuous canopy.
Thus very little light penetrates down to the forest floor. Only a few shade loving plants can grow
in the ground layer in areas where some light filters down from the closed canopy.
The forest is rich in orchids and ferns.
The barks of the trees are covered in moss. The forest abounds in animal life and is most rich in
insect life.
Deciduous forests are found in regions with a moderate amount of seasonal rainfall that lasts for
only a few months.
Most of the forests in which Teak trees grow are of this type. The deciduous trees shed their leaves
during the winter and hot summer months. In March or April they regain their fresh leaves just
before the monsoon, when they grow vigorously in response to the rains. Thus there are periods of
leaf fall and canopy regrowth. The forest frequently has a thick undergrowth as light can penetrate
easily onto the forest floor.
Thorn forests are found in the semi- arid regions of India. The trees, which are sparsely distributed,
are surrounded by open grassy areas. Thorny plants are called xerophytic species and are able to
conserve water. Some of these trees have small leaves, while other species have thick, waxy leaves
to reduce water losses during transpiration. Thorn forest trees have long or fibrous roots to reach
water at great depths. Many of these plants have thorns, which reduce water loss and protect them
from herbivores.
Mangrove forests grow along the coast especially in the river deltas.
These plants are able to grow in a mix of saline and fresh water. They grow luxuriantly in muddy
areas covered with silt that the rivers have brought down. The mangrove trees have breathing roots
that emerge from the mudbanks.  Grassland ecosystems
A wide range of landscapes in which the vegetation is mainly formed by grasses and small annual
plants are adapted to India’s various climatic conditions. These form a variety of grassland
ecosystems with their specific plants and animals.
Grasslands cover areas where rainfall is usually low and/or the soil depth and quality is poor. The
low rainfall prevents the growth of a large number of trees and shrubs, but is sufficient to support
the growth of grass cover during the monsoon. Many of the grasses and other small herbs become
dry and the part above the ground dies during the summer months. In the next monsoon the grass
cover grows back from the root stock and the seeds of the previous year. This change gives
grasslands a highly seasonal appearance with periods of increased growth followed by a dormant
phase.
A variety of grasses, herbs, and several species of insects, birds and mammals have evolved so that
they are adapted to these wide-open grass covered areas. These animals are able to live in
conditions where food is plentiful after the rains, so that they can store this as fat that they use
during the dry period when there is very little to eat. Man began to use these grasslands as pastures
to feed his livestock when he began to domesticate animals and became a pastoralist in ancient
times.

TYPES OF GRASSLANDS
The Himalayan -pasture belt: It extends up to the snowline. The grasslands at a lower level form
patches along with coniferous or broadleaved forests. These Himalayan pastures have a large
variety of grasses and herbs. There are also a large number of medicinal plants.
The Terai: This consists of patches of tall grasslands interspersed with a Sal forest ecosystem. The
patches of tall elephant grass are located in the low-lying waterlogged areas. The Sal forest patches
cover the elevated region and the Himalayan foothills. The Terai also includes marshes in low-
lying depressions. This ecosystem extends as a belt south of the Himalayan foothills.
The Semi-arid plains: This is located in Western India. Central India and the Deccan are covered
by grass land tracts with patches of thorn forest and are covered with seasonal grasses and herbs
on which its fauna is dependent.
The Shola grasslands: It consist of patches on hillslopes along with the Shola forests on the
western Ghats, Nilgiri and Annamalai ranges. This forms a patchwork of grassland on the slopes
and forest habitats along the streams and low lying areas.

 Desert ecosystem
Desert and semi-arid lands are highly specialized and sensitive ecosystems that are easily destroyed
by human activities. The species of these dry areas can live only in this specialised habitat. Deserts
and semi-arid areas are located in Western India and the Deccan Plateau. The climate in these vast
tracts is extremely dry. There are also cold deserts such as in Ladakh, which are located in the high
plateaus of the Himalayas.
The most typical desert landscape that is seen in Rajasthan is in the Thar Desert. This has sand
dunes. There are also areas covered with sparse grasses and a few shrubs, which grow if it rains.
In most areas of the Thar the rainfall is scanty and sporadic. In an area it may rain only once every
few years. In the adjoining semi-arid tract, the vegetation consists of a few shrubs and thorny trees
such as kher and babul.
The Great and Little Rann of Kutch are highly specialised arid ecosystems. In the summers they
are similar to a desert landscape. However as these are low-lying areas near the sea, they get
converted to salt marshes during the monsoons.
During this period they attract an enormous number of aquatic birds such as ducks, geese, cranes,
storks, etc. The Great Rann is famous, as it is the only known breeding colony of the Greater and
Lesser Flamingos in our country. The Little Rann of Kutch is the only home of the wild ass in
India. Desert and semi-arid regions have a number of highly specialized insects and reptiles. The
rare animals include the Indian wolf, desert cat, desert fox and birds such as the Great Indian
Bustard and the Florican. Some of the commoner birds include partridges, quails and sand grouse.
 Aquatic ecosystems
The aquatic ecosystems constitute the marine environments of the seas and the fresh water systems
in lakes. rivers, ponds and wetlands. These ecosystems provide human beings with a
wealth of natural resources. The aquatic ecosystems are classified into freshwater,
brackish and marine ecosystems. which are based on the salinity levels.
The fresh water ecosystems: They have running water are streams and rivers. Ponds, tanks and
lakes are ecosystems where water does not flow and have expenses of shallow water with aquatic
vegetation, which forms an ideal habitat for fish, crustacean and water birds.
Marine eco systems are highly saline, while brackish areas have less saline water such as in river
delta.
Brackish water ecosystems in river deltas are covered by mangrove forests and are among the
world's most productive ecosystems in terms of biomass production. The largest mangrove
swamps are in the Sundarbans in the delta of the Ganges.

 ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Ecological succession is a process through which ecosystems tend to change over a period of time.
Succession can be related to seasonal environmental changes, which create changes in the
community of plants and animals living in the ecosystem. Other successional events may take
much longer periods of time extending to several decades. If a forest is cleared, it is initially
colonized by a certain group of species of plants and animals, which gradually change through an
orderly process of community development.
One can predict that an opened up area will gradually be converted into a grassland, a shrubland
and finally a woodland and a forest if permitted to do so without human interference.
There is a tendency for succession to produce a more or less stable state at the end of the
successional stages. Developmental stages in the ecosystem thus consist of a pioneer stage, a series
of changes known as several stages, and finally a climax stage. The successive stages are related
to the way in which energy flows through the biological system. The most frequent example of
successional changes occur in a pond ecosystem where it fluctuates from a dry terrestrial habitat
to the early colonization stage by small aquatic species after the monsoon, which gradually passes
through to a mature aquatic ecosystem, and then reverts back to its dry stage in summer where its
aquatic life remains dormant.
Theory Questions
1. Enumerate the utilization of carbon in ecosystem. (December 2017)
2. Describe grassland ecosystem. What are its types? How conservation of grassland
can be made. (December 2017)
3. Discuss how oxygen cycle utilized in the eco system. (December 2015)
4. Define environment. Mention its scope. Discuss the need for public awareness.
(December 2015)
5. What is an eco-system? Discuss Forest ecosystem. Explain how conservation of
forest can be done. (December 2015)
6. Discuss how oxygen cycle is utilized in the ecosystems. (December 2015)
7. Write a short note on
i. Ecological succession
ii. Food chain, food web and ecological pyramid. (June 2015)
8. Elaborate how the nitrogen cycle ecosystem operates. (June 2015)