What is Networking Hardware?

Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and other
equipment needed to perform data-processing and communications within the network.
CLICK on the terms below to learn more about those pieces of networking hardware.

 Workstations
 Hubs
 Bridges
 Firewalls
 Routers
 File Servers
 Repeaters

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This section provides information on the following components:

 Network Servers
 Workstations
 Network Interface Cards
 Switches
 Repeaters
 Bridges
 Routers
 Firewalls

File/Network Servers

One or more network servers is a part of nearly every local area network.These are very
fast computers with a large amount of RAM and storage space, along with a one or
more fast network interface card(s). The network operating system provides tools to
share server resources and information with network users. A sophisticated
permissions-handling system is included, so that access to sensitive information can be
carefully tailored to the needs of the users. For small networks, a singe network server
may provide access control, file sharing, printer sharing, email, database, and other
services.

The network server may be responding to requests from many network users
simultaneously. For example, it may be asked to load a word processor program to one
workstation, receive a database file from another workstation, and store an e-mail
message during the same time period. This requires a computer that can store and
quickly share large amounts of information. When configuring such a server, budget is
usually the controlling factor. The following guidelines should be followed:
 Fastest processor(s)
 Large amount of RAM
 multiple large, fast hard drives
 Extra expansion slots
 Fast network interface card(s)

Optionally (if no other such devices are available on the network):

 A RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) to preserve large amounts of
data(even after a disk failure)
 A back-up unit (i.e. DAT tape drive, removable hard drives, or CD/DVD/BluRay
burner)

Workstations

Computers that humans use are broadly categorized as workstations. A typical

workstation is a computer that is configured with a network interface card, networking
software, and the appropriate cables. Workstations do not necessarily need large
storage hard drives, because files can be saved on the file server. Almost any computer
can serve as a network workstation.

Laptops/Mobile Devices

Laptops and other mobile devices are becoming more and more common. These
devices typically have modest internal storage, but enough power to serve as a
workstation for users on the go. These machines nearly always have a wireless adapter
to allow quick network connections without cumbersome cabling. In a school
environment with good wireless coverage, a mobile device user can move about the
campus freely, and remain continuously connected to the network.
Networking Components and Devices

To complete our examination of networking on a physical level, this chapter looks at the
network devices used to create networks.
 Hubs
 Switches
 Bridges
 Repeaters
 Routers
 Gateways
 CSU/DSU
 Wireless access points (WAPs)
 Modems
 Network interface cards (NICs)
 Transceivers
 Firewalls

Hub
 Hubs are simple network devices, and their simplicity is reflected in their low
cost.
 Small hubs with four or five ports (often referred to as workgroup hubs) provide
everything needed to create a small network.
 Most hubs are referred to as either active or passive.
 Active regenerate a signal before forwarding it to all the ports on the device and
requires a power supply.
 Passive hubs, which today are seen only on older networks, do not need power
and they don't regenerate the data signal

The basic function of a hub is to take data from one of the connected devices and
forward it to all the other ports on the hub. The method of sending data to all systems
regardless of the intended recipient is referred to as broadcasting.
Switch
 On the surface, a switch looks much like a hub. Despite their similar
appearance, switches are far more efficient than hubs and are far more
desirable for today's network environments.
 As with a hub, computers connect to a switch via a length of twisted-pair cable.
Multiple switches are often interconnected to create larger networks.

Rather than forwarding data to all the connected ports, a switch forwards data only
to the port on which the destination system is connected.
 It looks at the Media Access Control (MAC) addresses of the devices connected
to it to determine the correct port. A MAC address is a unique number that is
stamped into every NIC. By forwarding data only to the system to which the data
is addressed, the switch decreases the amount of traffic on each network link
dramatically.
  Collisions occur on the network when two devices attempt to transmit at the
same time. Such collisions cause the performance of the network to degrade. By
channeling data only to the connections that should receive it, switches reduce
the number of collisions that occur on the network.
 Switches can also further improve performance over the performance of hubs by
using a mechanism called full-duplex. On a standard network connection, the
communication between the system and the hub is said to be half-duplex.

Switching Methods

Cut-through
 the switch begins to forward the packet as soon as it is received.
 No error checking is performed on the packet,
 so the packet is moved through quickly.
 the switch can propagate errors
 30 times faster than store-and-forward switching

Store-and-forward
 the switch waits to receive the entire packet before beginning to forward it.
 also performs basic error checking.

Fragment-free
 works by reading only the part of the packet that enables it to identify
fragments of a transmission.
 On some managed switches, you can select the switching method you want to
use.

Working with Hubs and Switches

 Hubs and switches have two types of ports: medium dependent interface (MDI)
or uplink port and medium dependent interface crossed (MDI-X).
 Uplink port allows you to connect two hubs and switches to create larger
networks.

Bridges
 Bridges are networking devices that connect networks.
 Sometimes it is necessary to divide networks into subnets to reduce the amount
of traffic on each larger subnet or for security reasons.
 Once divided, the bridge connects the two subnets and manages the traffic flow
between them. Today, network switches have largely replaced bridges.
  A bridge functions by blocking or forwarding data, based on the destination MAC
address written into each frame of data.
 If the bridge believes the destination address is on a network other than that from
which the data was received, it can forward the data to the other networks to
which it is connected.
 If the address is not on the other side of the bridge, the data is blocked from
passing. Bridges "learn" the MAC addresses of devices on connected networks
by "listening" to network traffic and recording the network from which the traffic
originates.
 The advantages of bridges are simple and significant. By preventing
unnecessary traffic from crossing onto other network segments, a bridge can
dramatically reduce the amount of network traffic on a segment.

Repeater
 Repeaters are usually used to strengthen signals going long distances.
 A repeater amplifies the signal it receives on one port before it transmits it on
other ports.
 Because the repeater does not check on the contents of the data it receives or
retransmits, frames that are corrupted by noise and other factors can also be
repeated.
 The development of the hub replaced the repeater for all practical purposes,
because it performs the same functions, and can include additional features.

Routers
 Routers are network devices that literally route data around the network.
 By examining data as it arrives, the router can determine the destination address
for the data; then, by using tables of defined routes, the router determines the
best way for the data to continue its journey.
 Unlike bridges and switches, which use the hardware-configured MAC address to
determine the destination of the data, routers use the software-configured
network address to make decisions.
 This approach makes routers more functional than bridges or switches, and it
also makes them more complex because they have to work harder to determine
the information.
  A router is used to provide connectivity across wide area network (WAN) links
and route information between two LAN segments.
 The figure below shows a router with two LAN ports (marked AUI 0 and AUI 1)
and two WAN ports (marked Serial 0 and Serial 1). This router is capable of
routing data between two LAN segments and two WAN segments.

Gateways
 The term gateway is applied to any device, system, or software application that
can perform the function of translating data from one format to another.
 Actually, the term gateway refers more to a network role than a network device.
 For example, a router that can route data from an IPX network to an IP network
is, technically, a gateway.
 Another example of a gateway involves the Systems Network Architecture (SNA)
gateway, which converts the data format used on a PC to that used on an IBM
mainframe or minicomputer. A system that acts as an SNA gateway sits between
the client PC and the mainframe and translates requests and replies from both
directions.
 The definition of gateways is vague, it's because there is no definite answer. The
function of a gateway is very specific, but how the gateway functionality is
implemented is not.
Modems
 Modem is a contraction of the terms modulator and demodulator.
 Modems perform a simple function: They translate digital signals from a
computer into analog signals that can travel across conventional phone lines.
 Modems provide a relatively slow method of communication. In fact, the fastest
modem available on the market today has a maximum speed of 56Kbps.
 available as
o internal devices that plug into PCI/ISA slots
o external devices that plug into serial or USB ports;
o PCMCIA cards designed for use in laptops

Network Interface Cards (NICs)

 NICs are the mechanisms by which computers connect to a network.
 NICs come in all shapes and sizes, and they come in prices to suit all budgets.
 Known as network card, network adapter, and LAN adapter, etc.
 When buying one consider
o Network compatibility – Ethernet/Token Ring
o Bus compatibility – PCI/ ISA /PCI-e
 o Port compatibility – UTP/ Fibre
o Hardware compatibility – Easy to install / Recognized by many OS’s

Wireless Access Point (WAP)

 are a transmitter and receiver (transceiver) device used for wireless LAN (WLAN)
radio signals.
 Depending on the size of the network, one or more WAPs may be required.
Additional WAPs are used to allow access to more wireless clients and to expand
the range of the wireless network.
 Communication depends on
o Distance between the client and the WAP
o Environmental conditions

Transceivers
 The term transceiver does not necessarily describe a separate network device
but rather an integrated technology embedded in devices.
 transceiver = transmitter and a receiver
 device that receives data, converts it, and then sends it to another location
 RF transceivers, fiber-optic transceivers, Ethernet transceivers, are examples
 can also be used in pairs to insert a fiber segment into copper networks
Firewall
 a hardware or software system that is used to separate one computer or network
from another one.
 The most common type is used to protect a computer or an entire network from
unauthorized access from the Internet.
 can also be used to control the flow of data to and from multiple networks within
the same organization. Firewalls
 can be programmed to filter data packets based on the information that is
contained in the packets.

IP Terminology
 Bit A bit is one digit, either a 1 or a 0.
 Byte A byte is 7 or 8 bits, depending on whether parity is used.
 Octet An octet, made up of 8 bits, is just an ordinary 8-bit binary number.
 Network address This is the designation used in routing to send packets to a
remote network for example, 10.0.0.0, 172.16.0.0, and 192.168.10.0.
 You can depict an IP address using one of three methods:
 Dotted-decimal, as in 172.16.30.56
 Binary, as in 10101100.00010000.00011110.00111000
 Hexadecimal, as in AC.10.1E.38

Summary of the three classes of networks

Network Address Range: Class A

 0xxxxxxx
 00000000 = 0
 01111111 = 127

Network Address Range: Class B

 10000000 = 128
 10111111 = 191

Network Address Range: Class C

 11000000 = 192
  11011111 = 223

Network Address Ranges: Classes D and E

 The addresses between 224 to 255 are reserved for Class D and E networks.
 Class D (224–239) is used for multicast addresses and Class E (240–255) for
scientific purposes

Private IP Addresses

Subnet Masks
 A subnet mask is a 32-bit value that allows the recipient of IP packets to
distinguish the network ID portion of the IP address from the host ID portion of
the IP address.
 The network administrator creates a 32-bit subnet mask composed of 1s and 0s.
 The 1s in the subnet mask represent the positions that refer to the network or
subnet addresses.