CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

There has been a substantial advancement in the comprehension of human cognition

at all stages of development in the last three decades or so. The “World Conference on
Education for All” (1990) states that every person shall be able to benefit from the
educational opportunity designed to meet its basic learning needs viz. literacy and
learning content such as knowledge, values, skills and attitudes required for
qualitative growth and lifelong learning. As 21 st century is considered the knowledge
and information era, hence it is obvious that the nations who are enriched with the
knowledge domain, would excel and only educationally empowered would lead a
productive and qualitative life. According to Fraser & Greenhalgh (2001) knowledge
is available in abundance. The task of the learner has been transferred from that of
acquiring knowledge to become skillful, to that of sourcing out knowledge and
connect information. The Indian society is moving towards a knowledge economy and
marks an initiative towards the new education system. It will bring intellectuals from
India into the generation of specialized knowledge. Thus a strong scientific
background is required to develop an outstanding technical mind. Apparently only
Science education can provide such scientifically informed citizens to a nation. The
Indian education system has been attempting to strengthen its Science education by
revisiting it, in order to cope up with the expectations, needs and challenges of the
society. The Indian National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
have a separate department of Science education that is responsible for carrying out
research, development, training, evaluation and extension activities. Science is
regarded as a compulsory subject in the ongoing education system by the Indian
education commission (1964-66). The Commission further states that the quality of
teaching Science at all stages has to be raised considerably so as to achieve its
ultimate goals and objectives so as to escalate the ability of problem solving
equations, understanding basic achievements including self regulated learning skills.

Science has been considered as a major activity in society that contributes

significantly to bring positive changes in lifestyle and expectancy of the individuals.
Science education is responsible for enhancing student‟s knowledge and
understanding about the real world. It provides self-confidence to comprehend

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scientific facts, develop interest and acquire skills needed to carry forward research
work and adopt in depth study of the processes of Science. In other words Science is
knowledge about material and the natural world. Science undertakes systematic
observation, appropriate measurement, experimentation and speculation. Science
engages the child in meaningful learning that helps to acquire and validate scientific
knowledge. The Science education is accountable for learner‟s development as a
whole viz. morally, academically, aesthetically, culturally and emotionally. It helps
learner to develop constructively a critical attitude towards scientific values, ways of
working and worldly outlook. The scientific knowledge enables them to associate and
apply information wisely in response to the practical problems and related issues.
Science must be introduced in an integrated manner at different stages of education.
Students at secondary level at the foundational phase of entering into the field of
opportunities and challenges. If it is made compulsory and delivered in an authentic
technical and scientific form, it will not only prepare them for a bright future, it will
substantiate their scientific knowledge for sustainable learning. The National
Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005 recommends that the secondary Science
curriculum should occupy students in learning Science as a complex discipline that
drives them to participate actively in the whole learning process not only to solve
scientific problems but also help them to become self learners in a regulated form.
The above mentioned recommendations focus on secondary Science education to be
practical and experimental in nature. Since, Science is a poorly taught and achieved
subject in secondary schools. It has somewhere lacked behind to train students to
acquire creative ability to adopt scientific techniques. Students resist to choose
Science as a subject and drop out from Science courses at early stages. The
International monitoring studies of TIMSS (Third International Mathematics and
Science Study) and PISA (Program for International Student Assessment)
demonstrated that regardless of the great importance of Science in secondary
education it‟s still a fact that achievement of students in Science at internal and
external assessment has remained considerably poor. The Science education in the last
decades has failed to incorporate the basic skills of life in students. Thirty years
before Hoshangabad Science Teaching Programme (1972 -2002) stated that “the
dismal picture of Science education is nothing new; it is mainly emphasis of textbook
based rote learning with no scope for experimentation and exploration”.

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 As per the findings by the researchers it has been revealed that Science
education has been neglected grossly in the secondary schools due to lack of attention
given by the schools, the teachers and parents. It has been observed that the key issues
and challenges of Science education are far more with regard to instructional method,
laboratory and equipment facilities, curriculum materials, and evaluation system. It is
true that instructional method plays a significant role in Science education at every
stage of learning. Teaching learning process directly rely upon the methods used for
instruction. Appropriate methods and strategies lead to meaningful and lifelong
learning. Unfortunately, the researches being conducted have clearly revealed that the
methods employed for the knowledge dissemination are out dated and are not
equipped with the appropriate techniques and practices. They are conventional and
usually limited to passive learners who learn to get through the examination system
and not learn what actually Science education teaches. But, theoretical knowledge
without practice and understanding actually does not completely train them to face the
difficulties of life. These approaches have built on the assumptions that teaching is
required only for learning to occur (Thomas & Brown, 2011). The conventional
teaching methods have limitations, in encouraging students to develop scientific
attitude, ability to perceive and solve scientific problems and in return regulating their
own learning process which are essential at secondary level. It is an ongoing problem
in the state of Punjab which is largely seen and persists in the Government schools
with minimum guidance and learning. Schools are not following the requisite standard
of teaching. Thus, there is a need to redesign the teaching learning process in such a
way that it supports student‟s scientific skills. The identification and
recommendations of specific teaching approaches and techniques should be ensured.
The role of schools should be changed from depository of information and knowledge
to the constructivist learning environment; teachers should act as facilitator of
knowledge acquisition process and implementation of instructional techniques in the
educational system. Government schools must introduce the effective instructional
ways and techniques for teaching Science at early stages of education.
Implementation of innovative teaching methods in the Science education will
facilitate the development of basic scientific skills viz. self regulated learning skills,
problem solving ability, scientific attitude and thereafter scientific achievement
among students.

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 Improved achievement in Science and development of the higher order
thinking skills such as problem solving ability and self regulated learning skills is the
need of the hour. Today‟s society requires a workforce of skilled and intellectual
persons who can significantly contribute for its development by providing solutions to
the evolving problems. As students are going to be the future citizens and optimum
utilization of their abilities and potential might affect progress of the nation. Problem
solving ability enables them to face various emerging challenges effectively. Hence,
the cultivation of problem solving ability among students is of paramount importance.
Teaching and learning in Science should strictly focus to develop the skills and to
solve wide range of complex and abstract scientific issues among students. Teaching
should ensure that the scientific enquiry is taught through contexts taken from the
sections on life processes and living things, materials and their properties. In addition
to problem solving ability, development of self-regulatory learning skills in students
should be the most important outcome of Science education. As it motivates the
students to set goals for their learning, plan a course of action, select appropriate
learning strategies, self monitor and self evaluate their learning and performance.
Therefore, without problem solving and self-regulated learning skills, studies of
Science will only mean acceptance of conviction and will never lead to the
development of proper orientation towards various scientific endeavors. This notion
has positively driven teachers and researchers to develop appropriate and effective
instructional strategies to inculcate such skills, abilities and attitudes among students.
Various researchers, philosophers and thinkers have written about the constructivist
perspective on Science teaching. The key idea behind this approach is that knowledge
cannot be transferred from one body to another unless a trigger is provided. The
constructivist movement in Science education has entirely focused on student‟s ideas
or beliefs and their learning in terms of actual mental process involved. The
constructivist approach allows the learners to formulate or construct knowledge of
their own by interacting with the already existed knowledge and incoming knowledge
in their cognitive system. The constructivist method of teaching is purely learner
centered; evaluation centered, and diminishes the extra work load of a teacher or
instructor and prepares students for the real life situation. Such methods or approaches
hold both scientific validity and pedagogic utility. When the objectives of Science
education are identified, it has been seen that the Problem based learning and Concept
mapping are quite appropriate of these aims and are in accordance with the
constructivist approach of learning. Both the techniques are being validated by

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various researchers and educationists worldwide. Basically, Problem Based Learning
(PBL) was pioneered by Howard Burrows, an American physician for the first time,
in the late ‟60s at McMaster University in Canada within the medical program in
response to student‟s displeasing performance in the examinations because of the
emphasis on rote memorization of fragmented biomedical knowledge. Since then, it
has been modified and applied in various professional areas among them are dentistry,
nursing, business, law, social work, geography, social sciences and sciences. Problem
Based Learning (PBL) works in an innovative manner for future problem solvers and
enhances the development of self regulatory learning skills that ultimately leads to
lifelong learning. Similarly, Concept Mapping fits well in the constructivist aims and
objectives of Science teaching. It is an approach which systematically represents a set
of concepts embedded in a framework of propositions and was first developed by
Joseph D. Novak (1984) of the Cornell University. Both of these approaches are
commonly implemented in the educational system of developed nations such as
United States, Canada and other European nations for better learning outcomes at all
levels. But in India, the scenario of education system still relies on basic techniques of
imparting education. National Curriculum Framework (NCF) in 2005 mentioned
about the up gradation of secondary Science education system in India and laid stress
upon the adoption of innovative instructional strategies for Science classes. This
explains the need of directing Problem based learning (PBL) and Concept mapping to
logical directions. Even then a lot needs to be done to design and implement Problem
Based Learning (PBL) and Concept mapping techniques in India to overcome the
impediments in teaching learning process. Thus this study has evolved as a useful
benchmark to determine the effect of PBL and concept mapping techniques in
assimilating problem solving ability and self regulated learning skills among students
that ultimately enhances academic achievement.

PBL and Concept mapping are outlined as independent variables and

Academic achievement, problem solving ability and self regulated learning skills as
dependent variables supporting PBL and concept mapping techniques in Science
education.

1.1 : Emergence of Problem Based Learning (PBL): The evolution of PBL method
dates back to 80‟s when at the Mc Master University in Canada the performance of
the biomedical students remained low for many years due to overemphasis on rote
memorization of biomedical knowledge. It had become necessary to replace the rote

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learning to a stronger and valuable learning. Howards Burrows invented this new
technique of Problem Based Learning (PBL) to improve the student‟s achievement
and skills of learning. In the 1980s, the GPEP report (Report of the Panel on the
General Professional Education of the Physician and College Preparation for
Medicine) sponsored by the Association of American Medical Colleges (Muller,
1984) accelerated the wide spread of PBL in the United States. Subsequently,
numbers of medical schools, professional colleges and schools have begun taking
PBL as a strategy to impart knowledge and content to the students. They
recommended it to be implemented globally in educational sector for quality learning.
Problem based learning has its roots in the constructivist theory of learning given by
Jean Piaget (1972) and social development theory given by Vygotsky (1978). Both of
the theories asserted that humans can generate knowledge by an interaction between
their experiences and ideas. Savery and Duffy (1995) supported the claim that PBL is
a constructivist approach and agreed with the principles of constructivist instructions.
Problem Based Learning (PBL) as its name implies, always begins with a
contextualized, real world, ill structured and messy problem. This problem refers to
academically or professionally relevant issues (Yew & Schmidt, 2011). The
„problem‟ first in the PBL ensures that students know why they are learning and
about what they are learning (Gallanghar et al. 1995).

Problem Based Learning (PBL) has been viewed in different ways. Various
authors have tried to define PBL from various perspectives. Barrows and Tamblyn
(1980) defined the concept of PBL as the learning that results from the process of
working towards the understanding or resolution of a problem. In the PBL method
problem is encountered first in the learning process which serves as a focus or
stimulus for the application of problem solving or reasoning skills. It further helps for
the search for or study of information or knowledge needed to understand the
mechanisms responsible for the problem resolution. A much-quoted definition is the
one given by Albanese and Mitchell (1993), "Problem-based learning at its most
fundamental level is an instructional method characterized by the use of patient
problems as a context for students to learn problem-solving skills and acquire
knowledge about the basic and clinical Sciences. In the view of De Graff & Kolmos
(2007), “Problem Based Learning an educational strategy is a method which
organizes the learning process in such a manner in which students actively engage
themselves for finding answers.” According to Shamsan & Syed (2009) PBL is a

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strategy that promotes lifelong learning and is a powerful classroom process that uses
real-world problems that motivate students on identifying and applying concepts and
information related to research, PBL is an effective technique which involves active
learning rather than passive for students to learn, retain, integrate and apply
information. Klegeris and Hurren (2011) described PBL as a technique where
problems drive the learning in a learning environment in small groups, supervised by
tutors. This range of definitions illustrates how difficult it is to come to one universal
definition (Chen, Cowdroy, Kingsland & Ostwald, 1995). PBL can adopt various
forms, depending on the nature of the domain and the specific goals of the pro-grams
it is part of (Barrows, 1986; Boud, 1985). Savin-Baden (2000) argues that there
simply are no narrowly defined characteristics of PBL, only people working in
various contexts using various PBL-approaches. However, despite the many
variations of PBL that aim to match it with specific educational or disciplinary
contexts, for comparative research a core model or basic definition is needed to serve
as a basis of comparison with other educational methods. Barrows (1996) developed a
core model based on the original method from McMaster University. The McMaster
approach that originated in the context of medical education has served as a robust
basis for many other contexts (Boud & Feletti, 1991). Barrows‟s (1996) core model of
PBL describes six core characteristics/components of PBL.

Small
groups
(8-10)
Student
centered Facilitator
learning
Problem Based
Learning
(PBL)
Self
Authentic
Regulated
Problems
Learning
Problem
Solving
Skills

Figure 1.1 Core components of PBL

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Burrows model of PBL is an authentic model that works on the simple principle of
student centered learning. Students work in the small groups (8-10) and deal with the
contextualized problems. The teacher acts as a facilitator only throughout the teaching
learning task. Such activity strengthens student‟s ability to solve problems and help
them to take responsibility for their learning that ultimately enhances their cognitive
skills in Science.

1.2 : The Problem Based Learning (PBL) Process

Problem Based Learning is not just about problem solving and its processes; it is a
pedagogy based on constructivism in which realistic problems are used in conjunction
with the design of a learning environment. In a Problem Based Learning classroom,
students learn in the context of problem to be solved. The responsibility for learning
though lies with the students, the facilitator plays a significant role. PBL promotes
student learning from passive recipient to active, free, problem solver and a self
learner. It passes on the emphasis of educational programs from teaching to learning.
There are various models which explicit the PBL process in different ways. The
investigator has adopted the Maastricht model of PBL during the process of
investigation. In the Maastricht model it is assumed that Problem Based Learning is a
form of constructivist learning. Students are engaged in constructing theories about
world, represented by the problems presented. Problem Based Learning operates in
several major steps, as given in the “Seven-jump” model (Maastricht PBL model).

• Clarify the terms and concepts of the problematic scenario

• Define the problem
Intial
Stage
• Brainstorming to identify explainations
• Discuss and organise ideas
PBL • Generate learning issues
Stage
• Presentation of the proposed solutions
• Synthesizing and Reporting
Final
Stage

Figure 1.2 Seven Jump Model (Maastricht PBL model)

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The steps can be summarized into three major stages namely; initial stage, PBL stage,
and final stage (Masek and Yamin, 2010). In the first initial stage, the first activity
involves group formation. During the first session meeting, students will be randomly
divided into small groups (8-10). Each group will be then presented with a problem to
analyze and understand the problem (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). The specific activities in
this stage will include; the formulation of learning objectives (Schmidt, 1993),
identifying knowledge gaps (Barrows and Tamblyn, 1980), generating hypotheses
(Hmelo-Silver, 2004) defining the learning issues and the concepts to be learned
(Hmelo-Silver, 2004) and this will be mostly explained by defining “what they
know”, “what they do not know” and further “what they need to know”. In this case,
the teacher will act as facilitator to guide students‟ learning through the Problem
Based Learning process cycle (Hmelo-Silver, 2004). The PBL stage will begin with
independent self-study (Schmidt, 1983). Students will be expected to master the
knowledge that is relevant to the problem to be solved. Then, students will conduct a
group brainstorming and discussion session (Wee, 2004). They will exchange and
share the gathered information (Schmidt, 1983; Wee, 2004) with all the learning
issues. The hypotheses will have to be accepted by all group members. Then, the
facilitator or guide will monitor the group‟s progress by direct observation and
formative assessment. The direct observation involves coaching roles such as probing
and questioning, in order to trigger students‟ meta-cognition (Wee, 2004). The
facilitator will then immediately provides feedback after formative assessment
(Woods, 2000) and will always encourages students to keep up with self-assessment
(Barrows and Tamblyn, 1980; Woods, 2000). In the final stage, students will be
prepared for a project presentation and an assessment during the last meeting session.
Students will partially present their proposal of solution. The facilitator will evaluate
students‟ work based on either group or individual presentation (Kolmos and
Holgaard, 2007). In some cases, peer assessment is used to modify the group‟s mark;
leading to award students with an individual grades (Kolmos et al. 2007).

1.3 : Integration and Effectiveness of Problem Based Learning (PBL)

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) has gained a reputation of producing students with

comprehensive abilities which prepare them for the changing world in the

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globalization era. PBL has also been widely implemented in education systems
worldwide because it is perceived as a pedagogical strategy which combines
theoretical subject knowledge with practical skills (Amador et al, 2006; Poikela &
Poikela, 2006; Schwartz et at, 2001). So, the efficiency of Problem Based Learning
needs to be determined in order to acquire the basic Science process skills as well as
higher order thinking skills. As Problem Based Learning approach orients students
towards reflecting on, interpreting and searching solutions to the problems faced by
them, it encourages students to access knowledge by themselves. The PBL scenarios
implemented in the classrooms are so connected with the student‟s daily lives that
enable them to comprehend Science related issues very effectively. Furthermore,
Problem Based Learning gives students the opportunity to experience the curriculum
beyond classroom and they explore and discover scientific truths. Moreover, the PBL
method does not simply teach the students to think rather, it provides something to
think about. This instructional approach gives an active role to the students in the
learning process as compared to traditional notions. (Duch et al. 2001). In Problem
Based Learning environment, students are presented with the course content from
simple to increasing levels of complexities. Also, Problem based learning encourages
students to think and solve problems in a limited amount of time (Cotton, 2011) and
provides authentic experiences that foster active learning, support knowledge
construction, and naturally integrate school learning and real life (Torp & Sage,
2002). A number of studies have proved the effectiveness of PBL. PBL generate
students‟ interest and motivation (Demirel & Arslan Turan, 2010; Ersoy & Baser,
2010; Inel & Balım, 2011; Tosun & Taskesenligil, 2013) and improve scientific
process skills (Gürses et al., 2007; Kaptan & Korkmaz, 2001; Oskay, 2007; Tatar &
Oktay, 2011; Tosun & Taskesenligil, 2013). For instance a study conducted by
Sungur & Tekkaya (2006) investigated the effectiveness of PBL and traditional
instructional approaches on various facets of students‟ self regulated learning skills
and found that PBL has enhanced their self regulating learning skills more in
comparison to traditional method. Aslihan & Mustafa (2014) studied that conceptual
understanding in teaching of Magnetism topics has been increased using PBL
approach in the teaching learning process. Similarly, Wyne et at. (2015) revealed
from their study that the use of technology facilitated PBL pedagogy and had a
positive effect on nursing students‟ academic achievement and critical thinking
dispositions. Zejnilagic et al. (2015) concluded that PBL has improved the students‟

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achievement in chemistry. A very recent study by Gunter & Alpat (2017) proved that
Problem Based Learning positively enhanced the academic achievement of students
studying electrochemistry. Hence, Problem Based Learning is an integrated and
progressive kind of instructional approach that provides the active role to the students
in learning process thereby improving their problem solving ability, academic
achievement, responsibility to access information, to achieve educational goals.

1.4 : Approaches of Problem Based Learning in Science Education

As Science is the pursuit and application of knowledge and understanding of the

natural and social world following a systematic methodology based on evidence
(Science Council, 2009). It deals with scientific principles, facts, fundamentals and
ideas that contribute towards sustainable development of the individual as well as the
society. Indian education system has emphasized the importance of Science education
at the school level. The schools do need to change their approach to Science education
if they want to prepare future citizens to make decisions on science-related issues. In
this regard, Problem Based Learning (PBL) is an efficient modality through which
pupils may be helped to acquire basic competencies in Sciences. It creates an
environment in which teacher plays the role of a coach or facilitator for the student‟s
thought process. The facilitator is also responsible for the guiding the students in
problem investigation activity, facilitating their learning and advancing towards
superior levels of understanding. The method assists the students to differentiate and
experience the two identified separate aspects of scientific enquiry viz. „ideas and
evidence‟ and „investigation skills‟ on a regular bases. Problem based learning
approach helps students to deal with real life situations and not merely adhere to the
Science problems. In the Problem Based Learning oriented Science classrooms
students are encouraged to access knowledge by their own. The scenarios or problems
presented in the Problem Based Learning classroom are closely connected with daily
life situations. It enables students to understand how Science classes are so
interrelated with real life. Teaching learning activities are performed within small
groups comprised of 8 or 10 students that help students to strengthen their cooperation
and communication with their peer and their respective environment. Specifically, the
practitioners identified four adaptations essential for making Problem Based Learning
method practical in Science education.

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1. Students concentrate on the problem concerning a Science concept. Using the
specific problem or concept, students explore and inspect the significance of
scientific content.

2. Students have the responsibility to test their ideas experimentally. Students should
generate some of the data to solve their problems themselves rather than
depending on the work of others (teacher - supplied information, or information
from experts and mentors). Teachers provide information only.

3. Students have the opportunity to manage or administer the gathered data. Students
learn how to keep good notebooks, learn new techniques to record, save and store
data.

4. Students are free to present the solutions of the respective problems orally or in
concrete form.

Following adaptations need to be incorporated in order to recognize the impact of

PBL strategy on achieving the desired objectives of teaching learning process.

The actual conversion of a conventional curriculum to a PBL curriculum may be very

difficult to adopt in the absence of resources. The limited scope in PBL may dilute the
goals of PBL. There is a need to change and strengthen the PBL approach by national
policies and assessment of goals. In order to make it authentic and genuine, the
effective implementation of PBL has to be life related, positive, modern, experimental
and result based. The pioneering job of establishing PBL to real life has been
demanding. The experts have been divulging to find relevant solutions in policies,
classrooms and Science education.

1.5 : Problem Based Learning in relation to Achievement, Problem Solving

Ability and Self Regulated Learning Skills

The effectiveness of the Problem Based Learning in the context of Achievement,

Problem Solving Ability and Self Regulated Learning Skills has been supported in the
literature by number of studies conducted by the researchers. It provides authentic
experiences that foster range of skills comprising active participation in the learning
process, taking responsibility of own learning, becoming better learners, knowledge
retention, problem solving ability, critical thinking, intrinsic motivation, self

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evaluation, goal setting, self efficacy and development of scientific process skills etc.
Thus, learning in this way is target oriented and self motivating. It helps pupil learn
while searching for the solution to respective problems. For instance Polanco et al.
(2004) investigated the effect of Problem Based Learning on engineering students‟
academic achievement. Akinoglu and Tandon (2007) examined the effectiveness of
Problem Based Learning on students‟ academic achievement and concept learning in
Science and revealed that it has positively affected the dependent variables. Bayrak
(2007) investigated the effects of Problem Based Learning on academic achievement,
science process skills and attitudes towards science lesson through a pretest-posttest
control group design, and they revealed that PBL had positively affected these
variables. Similarly, Gulsum et al. (2007) studied the effectiveness of Problem based
learning on academic performance of elementary school students in science and
revealed that it had a positive impact on performance of students in Science. Tarhan et
al. (2013) also examined the effectiveness of PBL on 9 th grade students‟
understanding and learning achievement. Ali, Hukamdad, Akhter, and Khan (2010)
found that using PBL techniques increased the maths achievement of one group of
eighth-grade students in Bannu, Pakistan. Celik et al. (2011) concluded from his
study that Problem Based Learning had a positive relationship with the students‟
success in physics course. Implementation of PBL approach contributed in higher
scores. Sesen & Tarhan (2013) revealed that PBL is effective in concept learning in
chemistry and enhancing achievement among students. It was revealed that Problem
Based Learning method is more effective than traditional teaching method on
students‟ achievement. Similary, Crowley, B.M. (2015) found that elementary
students outperformed in mathematics when taught by PBL approach and achieved
higher scores in the achievement tests. Rebecca et al (2016) also supported the
effectiveness of PBL technique in enhancing the academic achievement of
undergraduate students of University of Uyo, Nigeria. PBL proved to foster the
academic scores in the subject of Science. In Problem Based Learning, Diana Wood
appreciate that pupil will face a problem in the beginning then they will find and
define their own learning objectives. After identifying the problem, pupil study
independently, trying to discover knowledge, strategies with which they can solve the
respective problem. In working groups, they confront with ideas and solving
techniques, they share among each other the acquired knowledge, trying to refining
and perfecting them. Thus PBL is a strategy which has a considerable contribution in

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enriching and a fathoming understanding and problem solving ability (Wood, 2003).
To support this, various researches were conducted. Gallangher et al. (1992) revealed
that problem based learning provided students with a guided experience in solving ill-
structured problems. Hmelo-Silver (2004) concluded that students exposed to
Problem Based Learning consistently display growth in problem-solving and critical
thinking skills. Bosse (2007) found that students participating in Problem Based
Learning tutorial sessions appear to exhibit problem-solving skills, analytical thinking
skills and personal and interpersonal attributes. A study by Kedi (2003) on the
development of life skills such as communication, problem solving ability and self-
directed learning showed that PBL approach has a positive relationship with the
development of these life skills. Senocak & Sozbilir (2008) found that problem based
learning (PBL) is an instructional model that helped students to think, solve problems
and important concepts and aimed to improve students' conceptual knowledge. Park,
S.J & Choi S.H (2015) investigated that the learning attitudes, problem-solving skills
critical thinking disposition of nursing students have been enhanced by applying
Problem Based Learning approach in their course work. Seyhan & Gungor, H. (2015)
conducted a study to determine the effects of PBL on the development of science
process skills, logical thinking skills and perceptions on problem solving ability in the
science laboratory and came up with the positive results. Rokhmawati. et al. (2016)
implemented PBL model to improve problem solving skill and self efficacy of IX
class students and concluded that PBL model can improve the students‟ self efficacy
and problem solving ability. Further, Astriani et al. (2017) investigated the effect of
problem based learning to students‟ mathematical problem solving ability and
concluded that PBL model positively affected the mathematical problem solving
ability among class VIII students. Sahyar et al. (2017) have studied the effect of
Problem Based Learning and self regulated learning towards the physics problem
solving ability of students at senior high school in Indonesia and revealed that both
the approaches fostered the problem solving ability among students. Sihaloho et al
(2017) analyzed the effect of Problem Based Learning (PBL) model towards students‟
creative thinking and problem solving ability in senior high school and showed that it
had a positive effect on both the variables Literature also indicated that in PBL
students are motivated to implicate effectively in every problem solution, decide
which strategies and techniques should be used, which solution ways should be used
and how to incorporate selected solution into application plan. There are few studies

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that provide empirical evidence concerning the effectiveness of PBL on students‟ self
regulated learning skills. For instance, Hoffman and Ritchie (1997) stated that when
students use PBL approach, it can promote transfer of knowledge and self regulated
learning skills. Sungur & Tekkaya (2006) examined the effectiveness of Problem
Based Learning and traditional methods on the various facets of the student‟s self
regulated learning, including motivation and learning strategies and revealed that PBL
students has high levels of intrinsic motivation, task value, use of elaboration learning
strategies, critical thinking and metacognitive self regulation. Loyens et al. (2008)
studied the role of self directed learning in problem based learning and examined how
SDL was implemented in PBL environments. It was concluded that conceptual clarity
of what SDL entails and guidance for both teachers and students can help PBL to
bring forth self-directed learners. In addition to this, Eom, M.R et al (2010)
investigated that PBL helps in the inculcating self directed learning readiness and
problem solving ability. Temel (2013) found that Problem Based Learning fosters self
regulated learning skills among students. From the above mentioned studies it can be
concluded that Problem Based Learning (PBL) method places an importance on being
an active responsible participant in one`s education rather than being a passive
method of information to increase autonomy, maturity and self-confidence.

1.6 : Emergence of Concept Mapping Instructional Strategy

The desire to improve Science achievement at secondary level through more

advanced and effective instructional strategies has obtained a lot of attention to
understand how learners learn (Aziz, 2015). The cognitive scientists are of the view
that learners are the processors of information who can engage themselves in the
processing of knowledge and use variety of strategies to store and retrieve knowledge.
These mental exercises help students to perceive, arrange and remember incoming
knowledge more efficiently. According to Novak (1987), research has shown that few
students at the secondary school or college level have had any formal instruction in
learning how to learn. Moreover, Novak and his colleagues (Novak, 1984; Gowin, &
Johansen, 1983) were particularly interested in differences between rote and
meaningful learning and in the role of prior knowledge in learning. The efforts in
assisting the learner to learn have led to the development of metacognitive strategies
to enhance meaningful learning (Novak, Gowin & Johansen, 1983; Resnick, 1983;
Gibbs, 1981; Flavel, 1976; Biggs, 1988; Thomas et al 2007). Concept mapping is an

15
example of such a metacognitive strategy (Novak, 1984; Gunstone, 1992) that helps
learner to take responsibility of his/her own learning in a meaningful way. It was
developed in the course of Novak‟s research program at Cornell University in the
early 70s (Olusanya, 1998; Ahove, 2001) in which he sought to follow and understand
changes in children‟s knowledge of Science. Novak‟s work was based on the learning
psychology of David Ausubel (1968‟ 1978). The fundamental idea in Ausubel‟s
cognitive psychology is that meaningful learning takes place by the assimilation of
new concepts and propositions into existing concept and propositional frameworks
held by the learner. Students learn information meaningfully by storing it in the long
term memory in association with similar, related pieces of information (Chularut et al.
2004). Further, concept mapping has its roots in constructivist theory also in which
new knowledge is formulated using the existed experiences in the cognitive structure
of an individual. Research by Johnstone and Otis (2006) showed that students who
used concept maps for planning, study, and revision achieved higher results than
students who did not use Concept Mapping.

Basically, Concept Mapping is a practical learning tool which comes under the
broad family of graphic organizing tools such as mind mapping and spider diagrams.
It is the representation of knowledge comprised of concepts and the relationships
between them. Concept maps starts with a key concept. Here, concept may be defined
as regularities in objects or events designated by some label, usually a term
(Wandersee, 1990). These concepts are linked through lines and linking words to
form statements and propositions (Novak & Canas, 2006). The hierarchy is indicated
by putting the more general concepts at the top and more specific concepts below or
extending outward. The relationship between different domains of knowledge is
indicated by cross-links, which are also connected using labeled lines, describing the
nature of the relationship. Finally, examples could be added, linked to the related
concept in the most subordinate position on the map. As a whole Concept maps have
been defined as two-dimensional, hierarchical, node-linked diagrams that depict
verbal, conceptual, or declarative knowledge in visual or graphic forms (Quinn el al.
2004; Horton el al. 1993). Concept maps are used to assess the organization of
learning, to tap into the cognitive structure and understand specific educational
concepts in the subject matter (Novak, 1984). Research indicates that concept
mapping is an effective learning strategy that precipitates learning in child (Roth &

16
Roychoudhury, 1993; Stice & Alvarez, 1987) and adult learners (McClure & Bello,
1999; Novak & Gowin, 1984) in variety of domains. Figure 1.3 shows the Novak &
Gowin (1984) model of concept map.

Figure 1.3 Model of a Concept Map (Novak & Gowin, 1984)

Scientists have explained the concept of mapping knowledge graphically in number of

ways. For instance, in the words of Joseph D Novak (1984) concept map is a
systematic, schematic and graphical tool that presents a set of concepts or ideas
enclosed in a framework of prepositions. A concept centered teaching is a teacher-
student interactive and constructivist approach, which leads to meaningful learning.
Ausubel (1963) stated that the most important single factor influencing learning is
what the learner already knows, ascertain it and learn accordingly. Ausubel‟s idea of
hierarchical presentation of concepts was later described as cognitive maps or concept
maps (Ezeudu, 1995). Jonassen et al. (2006) described concept maps as the
representations of the knowledge or information in the form of concepts or their
interrelationship that human beings store in their cognitive structure. Ahove (2001)
stated that concept mapping strategy is hinged on the fact that concepts do not exist in
isolation, rather are inter-related with others ideas or facts to make meaning. Novak &
Canas (2006) explained that concepts maps are the graphical tools used for organizing
and representing knowledge. According to Nelson (2007), “Concept Mapping is a
nonlinear, graphic representation of unstable domains, depicting major concept nodes
and the interrelationships of those nodes. It is a learning strategy identified as having

17
a significant impact on retention and retrieval of information, with continued
processing of data over time”. Olusola & Hammed (2008) defined concept mapping
as a process or technique of representing concepts and their inter relationship in a two
dimensional structure, showing the concept in a topic/units in their aches and
interconnections. Following the definition of concept mapping given by various
researchers it can be concluded that Concept mapping is a technique of planning a
learning strategy, developing a process of providing meaningful learning and
presenting ideas or concepts graphically.

1.7 : Development of Concept Mapping

Several types of concept mapping have been configured with structures such as
hierarchy, cyclic, chain, spider maps and networks. These could be used to mentally
represent the knowledge embedded in one‟s long term memory. Novak (1998)
emphasized the importance of hierarchical type of concept mapping for knowledge
representation in which the most general concept is placed at the top and the more
specific concepts and specific examples are arranged hierarchically below. Following
steps should be considered while forming the concept map as per Novak„s model
(Novak & Cones, 2004).

• Identification of key concept

Step 1 • Listing of general and specific concepts hierarchically

• Construction of preliminary concept map draft

Step 2

• Linking genearl and specific concept domains of knowledge

Step 3 using prepositions

• Reviewing of final concept map

Step 4

Figure 1.4: Steps for the construction of Concept maps

First step begins with the identification of the key concepts that apply to this domain
followed by the creation of a list in rank order from the most inclusive concepts to the
most specific concept. The next step comprises of the construction of preliminary
draft by arranging the concepts hierarchically. Here, linking lines that directly connect

18
concepts and known to have relationships are added followed by adding words to
each line that describe the relationships clearly. After the construction of a
preliminary map, cross links are sought. These are the linkages between domains of
knowledge on the map that help to demonstrate how these domains are related to one
another. Finally, the map is retrieved. In the end final map is reviewed on the basis of
appearance, accuracy, thoroughness and organization. Thus the process of concept
map construction comprises of 4 major activities.

1. Identification of the core or key concept of the map by enclosing it in a graphic

element (usually known as a node or symbol).

2. Entering the subordinate or specific concepts in similar nodes which radiates from
the main concepts.

3. Identifying the relationships between each subordinate concept and the key
concept by creating and labeling a link (line) between the two.

4. Conceptual relationships between and among concepts is portrayed by repeating

the process as information is added to the map.

Concept mapping consistently provide excellent opportunities to the teachers to

discover what their students are thinking and to assist them in clarification of their
thinking and communication skills. Since, concept maps are best suited in the learning
process so they must be implemented in the curriculum.

1.8 : Integration and Effectiveness of Concept Mapping

Concept mapping has been reported as an effective strategy that helps students to
learn meaningfully by making explicit links between scientific concepts (Adamczyk,
Willson & Williams, 1994; Fisher, Wandersee & Moody, 2000; Novak & Gowin,
1984). They can be embedded as metacognitive tools, collaborative learning tools and
assessment tools. In support of its metacognitive function, Iuli & Helled (2004)
asserted that concept maps were developed as a meta-cognitive tool that helps
students to understand Science by revealing gaps in understanding, identifying
misconceptions, promoting reflective thinking and facilitating shared understanding.
Ritchhart et al. (2009) stated that concept maps as a metacognitive tool that supports
student self-reflection about their conceptions of thinking and thinking processes.

19
Horton et al. (1993) compared the effects of concept mapping reported in 19
classroom-implemented quantitative studies. The meta-analysis found that concept
maps as learning tools produced positive effects on student achievement and attitudes.
Further, concept maps can support learners by eliciting existing connections and
reveal missing connections between ideas, especially cross-connections (Shavelson et
al. 1994). Canas et al. (2003) found concept maps to be effective learning tools with
positive effects on knowledge acquisition. Concept maps can not only be seen as a
cognitive tool that helps to elicit ideas and a meta-cognitive tool that help to support
the generation of self-explanations, but also as social artifacts through which students
can communicate (Roth & Roychoudhury, 1993). The spatial arrangement of concept
maps allows for fast information retrieval (Hook & Boerner, 2005), which further
support social interaction. When concept maps are generated collaboratively in
groups, they become shared social artifacts that elicit existing and missing
connections and spur discussion among students and teachers. Concept mapping has
been reported to aid collaborative learning (Sizmur & Osbourne, 1997), and to
improve students‟ problem-solving ability (Okebukola, 1992). Studies conducted by
Okebukola,(1992); Okebukola, (1989) have reported that students who collaboratively
generated concept maps achieved higher scores than those who have constructed their
concept maps individually. Concept maps used as assessment tools helps to elicit
students‟ connections between ideas (Edmondson, 2000; Ruiz-Primo, 2000; Stoddart,
Abrams, Gasper, & Canaday, 2000; Mintzes et al. 2001). More constrained forms of
concept map assessment have been found to be highly correlated with multiple choice
tests (Liu & Hinchey, 1993; Liu & Hinchey, 1996; Schau, Mattern, Weber, Minnick,
& Witt, 1997; Rice, Ryan, & Samson, 1998). Course grades in a college biology
course showed moderate correlation to concept mapping scores (Farrokh & Krause,
1996).Novak and Gowin stated that in the act of mapping learner exert effort to
clarify meanings, by identifying important concepts, relationships, and structure
within a specified domain of knowledge. This activity fosters reflection on one‟s
knowledge and understanding, focus attention on learning need, providing a kind of
feedback that helps students to monitor their learning and, perhaps with assistance of
teachers or peers,. Thus helping students to reflect and contrast their existing ideas
with new ideas in the learning process. The use of concept maps can promote
conceptual understanding by identifying cause–effect relationships, prioritizing and
organizing concepts, and displaying other meaningful patterns of ideas that ultimately

20
become part of a learner‟s long-term memory (Romance & Vitale, 1999). Olusola &
Hammed (2008) maintained that concept mapping as an instructional technique can
be useful in the following ways. (i) As an evaluation tool to facilitate meaningful
learning. (ii) As a teaching learning device by the teacher to enable student learn the
meaning of concepts and their relationships. (iii) As a learner centered tool which can
be used to summarize articles or chapters of textbooks. (iv) It can be used to
summarize a lesson and as a tool to find out how learners understand and relate
concepts. Hence it has evolved as a successful tool for both teachers and students to
teach and learn (Dogusoy, 2012). k

Concept mapping in its pure form treats teaching and learning as a student-
centered process. The process of constructing a concept map is a powerful learning
strategy that forces the learner to actively think about the relationship between the
terms. This makes Concept Mapping especially suited for studying Science as the
learners often perceive incorrectly that studying Science means simply memorizing
facts (Dorough and Rye, 1997).

1.9 : Approaches of Concept Mapping in Science education

As Science comprises of abstract principles and considered as the pursuit of

comprehending and applying knowledge of natural and social world to solve real life
problem through systematic methodology based on evidence. There is a need to raise
the standard of Science education through more effective and innovative instructional
strategies and increasing importance of learner-centeredness in the teaching learning
process. It is better to adopt Concept Mapping strategies at all levels of learning and
instruction. As per various researches, Concept mapping has been gaining importance
in the field of science education. It is observed as an outcome of recent advances in
the cognitive science and new philosophy of Science. Scientific objectives can be
learned only by learning a concept. The new philosophers of science reject the
traditional cumulative view of scientific knowledge and replace it with a conceptual
change, as reflected in the works of Bello & Abimbola (1997). With the
implementation of concept maps in the Science classroom, learning can be enhanced
and students can be facilitated towards learning which in turn help pupils to be more
knowledgeable and aware about the structure of information. It engages the learners
in construction of knowledge by linking sub concepts to more general concepts to

21
promote meaningful learning. Concept Mapping is a considerable and effective tool
for upgrading student‟s understanding, comprehension and retention of Science
material in a long term memory. In addition, concept mapping has been implemented
to inculcate positive self concept, attitudes toward Science and ultimately meaningful
learning (Novak & Gowin, 1984). Concept Mapping promotes minds on approach to
study. Concept mapping enables pupil to formulate or construct knowledge in their
own language and remember what they have learnt. Concept Mapping helps students
in modifying knowledge structure containing conceptual misconceptions and assists
them to elaborate the conceptual understanding of the theory they already retain.
Concept mapping when adapted as an instructional and revision tool promotes higher
order thinking impacting science teaching and learning. The effectiveness of concept
mapping in the learning of scientific concepts has been supported by many studies.
Such as a study conducted by Elhelou, M.W. (1997) revealed that concept mapping
approach reflected its positive effect on learning of science material among second
grade students of Arab. Roth and Roychoudhary (2006) concluded that concept
mapping has positive effect on achievement, pupil‟s self concept, self regulation of
learning, attitude towards science (Novak & Gowin, 1994) and increased
responsibility for learning (Gurley, 1982). As a learning strategy, concept mapping is
most effective and innovative if it is conducted on an ongoing basis over the course of
instruction (Zeitz & Anderson, 1992). This allows pupil to modify their self-made
maps to grow learning and theory of knowledge. Hence, concept mapping has a close
connection with attaining achieving Science achievement and preparing students to be
aware of their own learning process. A bond of relationships developed between
ability and achievement as explained below.

1.10 : Concept Mapping in relation to Achievement, Problem Solving Ability and

Self Regulated Learning Skills

Concept maps helps to learn and clarify relationships between existing and perceived
knowledge (Anderson-Imman & Zeitz, 1993). Hence it enhances student‟s academic
achievement, incorporates in them the higher thinking skills and directs them to be the
self regulated learners. To support this various researches have been conducted.
Stensvold Mark S. and Wilson T. John (1990) conducted a study on the effectiveness
of Concept Mapping and found that Concept Mapping enhances the student's
achievement. The study by Barenholz and Tamir (1992) described the use of concept

22
mapping in design, instruction and assessment related to microbiology lessons
prepared for high school students. This study indicated that students utilizing concept
mapping displayed an overall higher achievement than students in traditional classes.
Horton et al. (1993) studied the effectiveness of concept mapping as an instructional
tool and found concept mapping enhances the achievement of students in the subject
of Science. Lawal (2004), investigated the effects of concept mapping on cognitive
preference and students academic achievement in genetics and the results showed a
significant difference in favour of concept mapping strategy. Similarly, Aisahana
(2007) studied the effects of concept mapping on mathematics achievement of Junior
Secondary school students. Chiou (2008) examined whether students improve their
learning achievement and interest in accounting after been treated with concept
mapping strategy. Liu, P.L (2011) investigated the relationship between computer-
based concept mapping and creative performance among university students and
discovered that concept mapping has direct effect on both students „academic
achievement and creativity. Udeani and Okafor (2012) conducted a study on One
hundred and twenty four biology slow learners with the motive of comparing
effectiveness of the expository and concept mapping instructional strategy of
presenting secondary school biology concepts to slow learners. They found that
students with normal abilities and slow learners too were benefitted with Concept
Mapping. The female slow learners taught with the Concept Mapping instructional
strategy performed significantly better than their male counterparts though taught by
the same method. In contrast, the results obtained by Cheema and Mirza (2013)
showed that male students taught through Concept Mapping performed significantly
better than the female students. Results indicated that concept mapping positively help
them to comprehend, integrate and clarify the concepts of accounting and also
enhance their interests in learning accounting. Albashairah and Albdoor (2012)
studied the relationship of concept mapping strategy and achievement of students in
the environmental sciences and determined that students‟ achievement in Science
persistently increased. As Concept mapping help to concentrate on the key concept, it
helps the student to explore information and strategies regarding that particular
concept that leads to the development of thinking skills. Braselton & Decker (1994)
carried out an experimental study with sixth-grade mathematics students and found
that concept mapping helps to improve the students‟ problem-solving abilities and
learning. Penallo R. & Hennery, T. (1995) studied the effect of Concept Mapping and

23
cooperative learning on achievement, transfer problem solving abilities and attitude
towards the instructional experience of middle school Science students. Austin and
Shore (1995) found concept maps were useful in assessing the understanding of
relationships between the concepts required for multiple-step problem solving in
physics. Another study by De Wispelaere & Kossack, (1996) in a Spanish junior high
and high school class examined that concept mapping has improved students‟ higher
order thinking skills such as problem solving, critical thinking and decision making as
measured by performance on chapter quizzes, tests, and student projects. A study
conducted by Sizmur & Geban (1997) concluded that concept mapping improved
students‟ problem solving ability. In a similar effort, Ezenwa (2005) observed that
concept mapping instructional strategy promote knowledge construction, encourage
independent thinking and actively foster deeper understanding of concepts or large
thinking skills and lead to greater command and ownership of content. Mayuri, C. D.
(2008) studied the effectiveness of Concept Mapping on science achievement of
secondary school students and researcher also found the effect of Concept Mapping
on scientific aptitude and problem solving ability. Researcher found that Concept
Mapping was effective in enhancing the achievement and problem solving ability of
the students. Concept mapping positively enhances the self regulated learning skills
among students. Chularut et al (2004) found that using concept mapping strategy in
English teaching positively inculcate self regulated learning skills among students As
students construct their own knowledge, they are more likely to motivate themselves
to use different learning strategies to direct and regulate their learning process..

It can be summarized that the present study will reflect upon the concepts of
the issues in hand and it is an attempt to evolve the concept theory into practical
approach for quality learning for future.

1.11 : Theoretical Framework of the Study

The relevance of views and strategies in study shapes the present and future by
linking it to the existing theories of the past. The framework examines and explores
the process for implementation. The gathered evidence builds a framework for
construction of knowledge and its application. The theories discovered by established
psychologists such as Jean Piaget, Vygotsky and Ausubel highlight the assessment of
previous knowledge with existing knowledge thereby resulting in meaningful

24
learning. The present research is consistent with the Jean Piaget Constructivist theory
(1936), Ausubel‟s Assimilation Theory (Ausubel, 1968; Ausubel, Novak, &
Hanesian, 1978) and Lev Vygotsky„s Social Development Theory. These theories
have direct application to education. The theories as explained by different
psychologists will exhibit throughout the interaction with environment, internal
support and the learner centered approaches.

1. Jean Piaget theory of Cognitive development: Piaget (1936) was the first
psychologist to systematically study the cognitive development. His contributions
include a four stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed observational
studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal
different cognitive abilities. Piaget‟s (1936) theory of cognitive development is a
comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human intelligence. The
theory believed that children construct an understanding of the world around them,
experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in
their environment, and then adjust their ideas accordingly . Jean Piaget (1974)
suggested that individuals construct new knowledge from their experiences and
preexisting knowledge using the processes of accommodation and assimilation.
Assimilation is the cognitive process by which individuals manage how to take new
information and incorporates that new knowledge into already existing knowledge.
While accommodation exhibits how learner reframes the cognitive structural
representation of the external world to fit in new experiences.

Piaget takes a constructivist point of view and believes that learners are not
passive in their knowledge. Piaget‟s theory suggests that students need a curriculum
that supports their cognitive development by learning concepts and logical steps.
Problem Based Learning and Concept mapping strategies employed in the present
study are constructivist based techniques that are directly related to the Jean Piaget‟s
cognitive development theory.

2. Lev Vygotsky Social Development Theory: The work of Lev Vygotsky (1962)
has become the foundation of much research and theory in cognitive development
over the past several decades, particularly of what has become known as Social
development Theory. Vygotsky theory stresses the fundamental role of social
interaction in the development of cognition. He believed that community plays a

25
central role in the process of meaning making. According to Vygotsky, language and
culture play essential roles both in human intellectual development and in how
humans perceive the world. Humans‟ linguistic abilities enable them to overcome the
natural limitations of their perceptual field by imposing culturally defined sense and
meaning on the world. In other words the theory emphasized on the collaborative
learning methods that help learners to develop teamwork skills and higher order
thinking skills. As, in Problem based learning and concept mapping students are
grouped into smaller groups to perform a task with peer interaction or with adult
guidance. It favors learners to work with peers and share their findings and ideas to
reach the solution. Hence, both approaches have its roots in the Vygotsky Social
development theory.

3. Ausubel’s Assimilation Theory of Meaningful Learning: Assimilation theory is

one of the cognitivst learning theories developed by an American educational
psychologist David Ausubel during 1960‟s. David Ausubel‟s (1968) Assimilation
learning theory focuses on what he describes as „Meaningful Learning‟. Basically,
Ausubel‟s theory explains that learning occurs through the assimilation of new
concepts into existing concept frameworks held by the learner. He refers to this
process where new ideas or concepts are linked with previously acquired knowledge
as meaningful learning. Ausubel compared meaningful learning to rote learning and
concluded that concepts that are studied meaningfully are retained in long term
memory. Similarly, PBL and Concept mapping enable students to link upcoming
knowledge to the already existing knowledge for meaningful learning of the course
content.

The above mentioned framework is directly linked with the present study. The emergence
of Problem based learning (PBL) and Concept mapping is clarified by five tenets.
These are as follows:

1. Approach towards construction of knowledge

2. Process of Learning

3. Social support and peer collaboration

4. Learner centered learning environment

5. Incorporation of meaningful learning

26
 1. Approach towards Construction of Knowledge

Jean Piaget, Vygotsky and Ausubel believed that humans are perceivers and interpreters
of knowledge who construct their own interpretations through cognitive activities. In
Problem based learning, when learners come across problematic scenarios they try to
find out possible solutions. From the problem scenario they identify conditions to
develop schemas. With the evolution of specific schema, learner judge whether the
problem is similar to or different from previous problem. The constructivist nature of
Problem Based Learning is useful for developing the problem solving ability, self
regulated learning skills, and other process skills among learners. Similarly, Concept
mapping fits well with constructivist approach that learner “construct their own
distinctive understanding of concept”. Concept mapping allows the learners to learn
the new information based on what they have already learned by connecting concepts
through linking words. The strategy of concept mapping enhances student‟s
knowledge and equips them to organize concept in a network of multiple connections
throughout learning.

2. Process of Learning

Knowledge construction process is stimulated by the cognitive conflict that is the state of
mental discomfort produced when the learner is confronted with new information that
contradicts their previous beliefs and ideas that ultimately promotes student‟s
thinking ability and learning (Wee, 2004; Semerci, 2006). Both strategies employed in
the present study create a dissonance between what is known and what is observed in
the environment. Resolving the cognitive conflict is intrinsic to the problems and
concepts presented to the students in Problem Based Learning and Concept mapping
strategy. It ensures self regulated learning on the part of the learner. Cognitive conflict
engages students in Problem Based Learning and Concept mapping as they
immediately contributes towards understanding the concepts and problems. Hence it
promotes thinking and learning skills towards meaningful learning.

3. Social support and Peer Collaboration

Vygotsky (1978) felt strongly that learning occurs when knowledge is mediated by
knowledgeable social agents. He considered learning as a social advancement that
involves language, real world situations, textual/structural concepts and interaction.

27
As we proceed in learning, our beliefs and knowledge about concepts are influenced
by social interactions (with peer and teachers). Students are enabled to the inculcation
of problem solving abilities and enhanced learning once they debate and mingle with
peer groups. In Problem Based Learning, group brainstorming process leads to the
development of thinking skills. According to Wee (2004), student‟s interaction with
peer and facilitator serves as stimuli during problem solving process. In the domain of
Concept mapping students interact with each other regarding the concepts maps
presented. The knowledge and beliefs of the fellow learners or practitioners influences
the thinking and leads to self regulated learning skills finally leading to achievement.

4. Learner centered learning environment

As in constructivist learning environment learners are the center of learning and they
formulate new knowledge based on past experiences, it incorporates learning in them
and gives meaning to the old and the new knowledge with the help of social support.
Hence, learners exhibit their understanding in complex situations (Jonassen, 2000).
Learners can flexibly construct their own mental modes and cognition. Therefore, the
whole process is learner centered and responsible for the learning. In this regard, the
Problem Based Learning and concept mapping engage learners in the process of
knowledge construction, cognitive conflict, collaborative learning so that they build a
sense of understanding the concepts that develop competence of self regulated
learning and problem solving ability among students.

5. Incorporation of Meaningful Learning

Meaningful learning, according to Ausubel (1963), results when a person consciously

integrates new knowledge to the relevant concepts and propositions that she/he
already possesses. Meaningful learning is concerned with the process of student‟s
learning of large amount of meaningful material from verbal/textual presentations in
learning activities. Scholars (Novak, Govin & Jonassen, 1983) emphasized that the
concepts must be endowed with meaning. They claim that meaningful learning builds
upon an original cognitive structure that has already been comprehended. Problem
based learning is linked with the Ausubel‟s meaningful learning theory as in Problem
Based Learning, problem scenarios are presented in the textual format and then
students apply their previously constructed ideas to find out possible solutions under
given scenarios that leads to new knowledge construction. In concept mapping

28
attributes of meaningful learning exists. As students create new concepts in
hierarchical order and then find the relationships between them. It then promotes
students learning, abilities to solve problems, regulate their learning process, answer
questions that require application, and synthesis of the concepts.

Three of the selected theories indicate that knowledge is not simply a separate thing to
be possessed by a learner, but it arises from the interaction and encounters of minds
with the world of their own. These encounters can occur between themselves and the
things with which we interact such as individuals or with more traditional source of
information (books and material on internet). It is believed that any learning activity is
supported by a valid theory. Hence the development of problem solving ability, self
regulated learning skills and achievement in Problem Based Learning and Concept
Mapping environment is theoretically based. The three theories viz. Jean Piaget
Constructivist theory (1936), Ausubel‟s Assimilation Theory (Ausubel, 1968;
Ausubel, Novak, & Hanesian, 1978) and Lev Vygotsky„s Social Development Theory
explained in detail lay the foundation of this study.

1.12 : Significance of the Study

Science comprises of abstract concepts and complex theories. Teaching of Science

with traditional methods does not impart sufficient information to equip the student‟s
minds to analyze and learn. The students are not able to comprehend with these
teaching methods and do not achieve the desired goals. Teaching of Science subject at
secondary level is treated as one of the most important subject in school curriculum. It
can play a vital role in development of human resources. In this regard, the
commissions, NPE (National Policy on Education), NCERT (National Council of
Educational Research and Technology) have highlighted the significance of linking
problem solving with analytical skills to promote spirit of experiment and enquiry in
everyday life, in return to discover the relationship of Science with health, agriculture,
industry and other aspects of daily life. The present system promotes only passive
learning in the field of Sciences. Students do not perform well in the examinations
because passive learning endorses rote memorization only. Bright students show less
interest in Science due to limited opportunities and poor teaching. Sometimes,
students perform well in Science but their knowledge about the outside world is
restricted and limited. Further, the curriculum overemphasizes the content, without

29
showing intellectual achievement behind many scientific ideas and the role of
scientific evidence in constructing knowledge. The methods employed in teaching
Science lack clear aims for how children‟s Scienctific knowledge may develop.
Teaching of Science needs to be improved and strengthened according to modern day
educational requirements. In Science, investigations should be open ended and
hypothetical. Indian schools need to revisit their teaching methods of Science subject.
The decline of enrolment in Science in secondary education over the years is alarming
due to the evidence of poor quality in teaching Science education at secondary level.
Appropriate measures need to be adopted to help improvement in Science teaching,
integration of technology, develop good comprehensive and communication skills
along with enhanced teaching methodologies. Studies since 1970‟s have compared
experimental classrooms with controlled groups. New teaching aids have been tried
out. Lecture method has been compared with active teaching learning method and so
on. It has been emphasized that experiments are valuable in Science learning to give
first-hand information. To make learning effective, there is a need for a paradigm shift
from casual practice of rote learning to the practice of constructivist learning. The
basic premise of the constructivist principle is that the students must explore their
ideas and aspects of Science. The main thrust of this principle is to show how the
knowledge construction process can take unexpectedly nonscientific routes, but also
to catalogue the kinds of ideas students bring with them to their Science lessons as
starting points for knowledge construction. The constructivist movement in Science
education has focused on student‟s ideas and beliefs. There is still a great deal of
work to be done on how student‟s ideas develop with time, what factors channel and
control this development and on understanding how learning Science is contingent
upon prior learning. The present study provides the foundation for an ongoing,
progressive research programme about consolidation and integration of the learning
by learners. The constructivist approach is probably the most useful starting point
from which the Science teachers and educational professionals can think about how
Science learning occurs. Thus, teaching of Science needs to be treated skillfully to
improve problem solving abilities among students, enhance thinking and broaden their
knowledge. In this regard, Problem Based Learning (PBL) and Concept Mapping is
indeed the constructivist learning strategies in which students take fresh information
and incorporate new knowledge with already existing knowledge. It orients students
towards reflecting upon, interpreting and seeking solutions to the problems faced by

30
them outside and in science classes. The students are encouraged to access knowledge
by themselves that leads to Meaningful learning. Such instructional approaches are
more supportive of Problem solving ability and self regulated learning skills. Such
approaches assure learning outcomes, stimulate active learning, support knowledge
construction and naturally integrate Meaningful learning. Though very little research
has been done in the field of Problem Based Learning (PBL) and Concept Mapping in
developing problem solving ability, towards building scientific attitude and
Achievement in Science. Therefore, the study reflects upon the concepts of issues in
hand and highlights the potential of Problem Based Learning (PBL) and Concept
Mapping for secondary science students to effectively perform and achieve. It
certainly improves upon problem solving ability and self regulated learning skills. The
initiatives of New Education Policy (2020) may open up new avenues for PBL and
concept mapping in relation to achievement, problem solving ability and self
regulated learning skills. There is a lot of hope that Science education at every stage
of schooling may promote scientific tempers among students.

The research data collected and analyzed will further help in testing the knowledge,
improving problem solving abilities and self regulated learning skills through Problem
Based Learning (PBL) and Concept Mapping teaching strategies. The analysis will go
a long way in improving the techniques of teaching and achieving learning goals. The
application on Science subject will be a step towards improvement in teaching
learning process.

1.13 : Operational Definitions

Operational definitions are derived after reviewing the vast literature having the same
concept as taken by the researcher. It indicates the terms; the researcher intends to
measure and specifically explains the concept of the variables undertaken in the study.
The operational definitions of the independent and dependent variables in the present
study are explained below.

Problem Based Learning (PBL)

In the present study, Problem Based Learning (PBL) is considered as the

constructivist instructional approach in which students learn the course content by

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dealing with ill structured, open-ended problems in small groups and individually
with the guidance of the teacher.

Concept Mapping

Concept Mapping is an instructional strategy representing the structure of

information, concepts, and their relationships in the form of a hierarchical graphic
network composed of nodes, linking lines and prepositions.

Achievement in Science

In the present study Science Achievement has been taken as the scores obtained by
the students on an achievement test in Science developed on the content of ninth class
Science subject. Basically, it was to test their retention and understanding of the
scientific content.

Problem Solving Ability

The definition of Problem solving ability under study is explained as the ability of
ninth class Science students to systematically follow planned steps by using acquired
knowledge, skills and strategies to satisfy the demands of an unfamiliar situation or
problem faced in Science subject.

Self Regulated Learning Skills

Self regulated learning skills has been considered as an ability of class ninth Science
students to understand, plan, execute and assess their learning process in Science
subject. It enhances continuous decisions on cognitive, motivational and behavioral
aspects.

1.14 : Statement of the Problem

The intent behind carrying out this research was to study the impact of innovative
teaching strategies viz. Problem Based Learning (PBL) and Concept Mapping on
student‟s Achievement, Problem solving ability and Self-regulated learning skills in
Science subject. Thus, the statement of the problem is IMPACT OF PROBLEM
BASED LEARNING AND CONCEPT MAPPING STRATEGIES IN SCIENCE ON
ACHIEVEMENT, PROBLEM SOLVING ABILITY AND SELF REGULATED
LEARNING SKILLS AMONG NINTH CLASS STUDENTS

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1.15 : Objectives

The intent of the study assimilated the underlined objectives to proceed in a

systematic way. The framing of the objectives provided the specific direction to the
study based on available and existing sources. The research objectives have been
formulated to assess achievement, problem solving ability and self regulated learning
skills of the students in Science.

1. To determine the significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test mean
scores of ninth class students in Achievement, Problem solving ability and self
regulated learning skills for Problem Based learning strategy.
2. To determine the significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test mean
scores of ninth class students in Achievement, Problem solving ability and self
regulated learning skills for Concept mapping strategy.
3. To determine the significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test mean
scores of ninth class students in Achievement, Problem solving ability and self
regulated learning skills for Conventional method.
4. To determine the significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test mean
scores of ninth class boys and girls in Achievement, Problem solving ability and
self regulated learning skills for Problem Based learning strategy .
5. To determine the significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test mean
scores of ninth class boys and girls in Achievement, Problem solving ability and
self regulated learning skills for Concept mapping strategy .
6. To determine the significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test mean
scores of ninth class boys and girls in Achievement, Problem solving ability and
self regulated learning skills for Conventional method.
7. To find the significant difference among PBL Experimental group (E 1), Concept
mapping Experimental group (E2) and Control group (C) for Achievement,
Problem solving ability and self regulated learning skills.
a. At Pretest level b. At Posttest level
8. To find the significant difference among PBL Experimental group (E 1), Concept
mapping Experimental group (E2) and Control group (C) for Achievement,
Problem solving ability and self regulated learning skills with respect to gender.
a. At Pretest level b. At Posttest level

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 1.16 : Hypotheses
Hypotheses examine a research activity to achieve the desired goals. It authenticates the
research. It allocates data collection. It answers the ambiguous queries and avoids
irrational research. It enables the researcher as a navigator.
Hence, the following hypotheses were framed by the investigator.

1. There will be no significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test mean
scores of ninth class students in Achievement, Problem solving ability and self
regulated learning skills for Problem Based learning strategy.
2. There will be no significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test mean
scores of ninth class students in Achievement, Problem solving ability and self
regulated learning skills for Concept mapping strategy.
3. There will be no significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test mean
scores of ninth class students in Achievement, Problem solving ability and self
regulated learning skills for Conventional method.
4. There will be no significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test mean
scores of ninth class boys and girls in Achievement, Problem solving ability
and self regulated learning skills for Problem Based learning strategy .
5. There will be no significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test mean
scores of ninth class boys and girls in Achievement, Problem solving ability
and self regulated learning skills for Concept mapping strategy .
6. There will be no significant difference between the Pre-test and Post-test mean
scores of ninth class boys and girls in Achievement, Problem solving ability
and self regulated learning skills for Conventional method.
7. There will be no significant difference among PBL Experimental group (E 1),
Concept mapping Experimental group (E 2) and Control group (C) for
Achievement, Problem solving ability and self regulated learning skills.
a. At Pretest level b. At
Posttest level
8. There will be no significant difference among PBL Experimental group (E 1),
Concept mapping Experimental group (E 2) and Control group (C) for
Achievement, Problem solving ability and self regulated learning skills with
respect to gender.
a. At Pretest level b. At Posttest level

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 1.17 : Delimitations of the Study
Keeping in view the constraints of time and tardy resources, certain delimitations need to
be imposed for conducting the study. The present study is delimited to the following
areas.

1. The study was carried out in two blocks of the Hoshiarpur District viz. Block
Hoshiarpur-1 and Block Hoshiarpur-2.
2. The study was delimited to only eight Government schools (Government High
School, Nasrala, Government Senior Secondary School, Piplanwala, Government
High School, Digana Kalan, Government High School, Kamalpur, Government
High School, Shergarh, Government high School, Mandiala, Government High
School, Nangal Saheedan, Government High School, Hoshiarpur) of Hoshiarpur
block -1 and Hoshiarpur block -2. Four schools from each block (Hoshiarpur
block -1 and Hoshiarpur block -2) were selected.
3. The study was considered for two teaching strategies viz. Problem Based Learning
(PBL) and Concept mapping.
4. The study was confined to selected content (Lesson 4: Structure of Atom and
Lesson-7: Diversity in Living Organisms) from the ninth class textbook of
Science subject from Punjab School Education Board (PSEB).
5. The study was restricted to 240 ninth class students selected on the basis of simple
randomization technique of sampling.
6. Only three experimental variables were examined viz. Achievement, Problem
solving ability and Self regulated learning skills in Science.

As the study was delimited to certain areas, the researcher proceeded towards the
attainment of the goals and plan his/her study in a schematic manner. The researcher
reviewed the related literature carefully and comprehended the implementation of
both the strategies at national and international level.

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