HIGHER SECONDARY COURSE

CLASS - XI

Government of Kerala
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

State Council of Educational Research and Training

(SCERT); Kerala
2016
 THE NATIONAL ANTHEM
Jana-gana-mana adhinayaka, jaya he
Bharatha-bhagya-vidhata.
Punjab-Sindh-Gujarat-Maratha
Dravida-Utkala-Banga
Vindhya-Himachala-Yamuna-Ganga
Uchchala-Jaladhi-taranga
Tava subha name jage,
Tava subha asisa mage,
Gahe tava jaya gatha.
Jana-gana-mangala-dayaka jaya he
Bharatha-bhagya-vidhata.
Jaya he, jaya he, jaya he,
Jaya jaya jaya, jaya he!

PLEDGE
India is my country. All Indians are my brothers and sisters.
I love my country, and I am proud of its rich and varied
heritage. I shall always strive to be worthy of it.
I shall give my parents, teachers and all elders respect, and
treat everyone with courtesy.
To my country and my people, I pledge my devotion. In their
well-being and prosperity alone lies my happiness.

Prepared by :
State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)
Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram 695012, Kerala
Website : www.scertkerala.gov.in e-mail : [email protected]
Phone : 0471 - 2341883, Fax : 0471 - 2341869
Typesetting and Layout : SCERT
© Department of Education, Government of Kerala
To be printed in quality paper - 80gsm map litho (snow-white)
 Foreword

Dear learners,
The syllabus of Computer Application for the Humanities stream has been
revised in view of the growing importance of computer aided technology for
various applications, especially in the field of publishing, information sharing,
data analysis, etc. While designing the syllabus and the textbook, the other
subjects of the Humanities group were also taken into consideration. Such a
study will render the learning of those subjects more interesting and effective.
It will also enlighten the learner about emerging trends in the field of computer
applications and Information Technology.
The text book, designed in accordance with the syllabus for the academic year
2014 - 15, begins with the concept of data processing and presents a variety of
computer hardware and software for various applications of the times. In
addition to familiarising students with various hardware components used in
IT application development, the concerns and remedies for e-waste
management are also highlighted. A wide coverage is given for computer
network and Internet technology, underlining the virtues and vices in their
use. The syllabus and the text book provide adequate space to various software
packages, for analysis of data, its presentation and manipulating images, that
are highly in demand nowadays. This exclusive section incorporates the use of
advanced tools of these packages giving focus on lab activities.
I hope this book will meet all the requirements for stepping to levels of higher
education and pave the way to the peak of success.

Dr P. A. Fathima
Director
SCERT, Kerala
 Textbook Development Team
Computer Applications - Humanities
Prasanth P. M. Najeeb P. P.
HSST, St. Joseph's Boys' HSS, HSST, Himayathul Islam HSS,
Kozhikode. Kozhikode.
Vinod V. Sunil Kariyatan
HSST, NSS HSS, HSST, Govt. Brennen HSS,
Prakkulam, Kollam. Thalassery, Kannur.
Joy John Sai Prakash S.
HSST, St. Joseph's HSS, HSST, St. Thomas HSS,
Thiruvananthapuram. Poonthura, Thiruvananthapuram.
Aboobacker P. T. Mohammed Salim
HSST, Govt. GHSS, HSST, Oriental HSS,
Chalappuram, Kozhikode. Thirurangadi, Malappuram.
Shajan Jos N. A. N. Sathian
HSST, St. Joseph's HSS, HSST, GMHSS, Koyilandy,
Pavaratty, Thrissur. Kozhikode.
Mustafa Shamsul Haq K. K. Hassinnar Mankada
HSST, GHSS Kuthuparamba, Master Trainer, IT@School,
Kannur. Malappuram.
Experts
Dr. Lajish V. L.
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Computer Science, University of Calicut
Dr. Madhu S. Nair
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Computer Science, University of Kerala
Madhu V. T.
Director, Computer Centre, University of Calicut
Dr. Binu P. Chacko
Associate Professor, Dept. of Computer Science,
Prajyoti Niketan College, Pudukad
Dr. Sushil Kumar R.
Associate Professor, Dept. of English, D. B. College, Sasthamcotta
Dr. Vineeth K. Paleri
Professor, Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering, NIT, Kozhikode
Maheswaran Nair V.
Sub Divisional Engineer, Regional Telecom Training Centre, Kaimanom, Tvpm.
Artists
Sudheer Y. Vineeth V.
Academic Co-ordinator
Dr. Meena S.
Research Officer, SCERT
 CONTENTS
CONTENTS

1. Fundamentals of Computer _________________________ 07

2. Components of Computer System ___________________ 25

3. Data Processing with Electronic Spreadsheet ___________ 67

4. Data Analysis using Spreadsheet _____________________ 95

5. Presentation Software _____________________________ 127

6. Getting Started with GIMP _________________________ 155

7. Advanced Tools for Image Editing ____________________ 189

8. Computer Networks ______________________________ 219

9. Internet ________________________________________ 249

10. IT Applications ___________________________________ 277

Icons used in this textbook

Let us do

Check yourself

Information box

Lab activities

Learning outcomes
 Computers have now become an integral part of
our daily life. People use computers for a variety
of reasons and purposes. Be it education,
Key concepts
business, entertainment, communication,
• Data and Information government service or transportation, computers
are inevitable today. As far as students are
• Data processing
concerned, computers are used for learning
• Functional units of a different subjects effectively and for carrying out
computer learning activities apart from there primary function
• Computer - as data of computing. Try to recollect the situations where
processor we used computers and identify the benefits from
it. Therefore it is essential to know more about
o Characteristics of
computers
computers and its applications. This chapter
presents the concepts of data processing and
• Number system
functional units of computer. Different data
o Decimal number system representation methods used in computers are
also discussed in this chapter.
o Other number systems

o Number conversions 1.1 Data and Information

• Data representation Many of us are familiar with the terms - data and
o Representation of information. We often use these terms
numbers interchangeably in our daily life. But there exists
o Representation of fundamental differences between these two. As
characters part of our attempt to explore the field of
computers, it is very essential to distinguish
between these two terms.
Figure 1.1 shows a portion of the class diary of a
 teacher. Can you make out the words and numbers?
Since it is a teacher's diary, these can be the names of
some students. What do the numbers mean? One
cannot be sure. It can be the marks scored by students
in tests, their attendance for some months, or something
similar. We call these facts and figures data, because
they do not give a complete idea. Data denotes raw
facts and figures such as numbers, words, amount, Fig. 1.1 : Sample data
quantity etc. that can be processed or manipulated.
If these facts and figures were written as
shown in Figure 1.2, there would be no
confusion as to what they mean. It is clear
that the figures show the scores obtained by
students in Continuous Evaluation (CE)
activities. We can see that when the data is
arranged in a meaningful way, we get a clear-
cut idea about these facts and figures. This is
Fig. 1.2: Sample information known as information. It is a meaningful and
processed form of data.
Information may also act as data in other contexts. In our example of preparation of CE
scores of students, the teacher converts these numbers into a consolidated score out of
10. Similarly, after the evaluation of answer scripts of the public examination, each of
these students will be awarded a score out of 40. During the preparation of results of
examination, the scores of all the subjects are collected and corresponding grades are
granted. The personal details and grades are put in an appropriate format with suitable
labels and it becomes the mark sheet of the student, which is again information.
Figure 1.3 shows the score sheet of a student issued after the public examination. It
contains personal details of the student and the grades obtained in each subject. The
personal details like Anitha Mohan, Female, 13/04/1997, etc. are printed against proper
labels such as Name, Sex, Date of Birth, etc. Here the facts and figures that represent
the personal details and grades are the data. When these data are specified with suitable
labels, it becomes information about that student. Thus we can say that the score sheet
contains the information about the performance of a student in an examination. This
information adds to our knowledge about the level of achievement of the students in
various subjects. It also helps them to take decisions about their higher studies or to
plan their future.

8
 1. Fundamentals of Computer

ANITHA MOHAN
A\nX taml≥

FEMALE

ANITHA

Fig. 1.3 : SSLC score sheet

Information is always generated by performing some operations on data. In other words,
data is like raw material to generate information. Now let us try to distinguish between
these two terms. Table 1.1 summarises the comparison between data and informtaion.
Data Information
• Raw facts and figures • Processed data
• Similar to raw material • Similar to the finished product
• Cannot be directly used • Adds to knowledge and helps in
taking decisions
• Does not give precise and clear sense • Clear and meaningful
Table 1.1 : Comparison between data and information
As we know, information always adds to knowledge. One can apply this knowledge to
solve problems or in decision making. Generally, the ability to draw useful inferences
from the acquired knowledge is known as intelligence. It depends on how we process
knowledge and apply in various situations. Recent advancement in computer science
and technology have attempted to make computers do things, which at the moment
people do better, incorporating knowledge and intelligence. This is referred to artificial
intelligence.

9
 • Examine a telephone bill, electricity bill or water bill and
identify the data contained in it.

• Think of the purchase of some items from a shop. Identify the

Let us do data involved and see how it is converted into information.

• Identify data and information in any real life situation. Make

sure that you can clearly distinguish them.

1.2 Data processing

In the case of preparation of the score sheet mentioned in the previous section, the
scores given to each subject as part of Continuous Evaluation (CE) and Terminal
Evaluation (TE) are added together, and grades are determined based on some
predefined criteria. The activities or operations to generate information can collectively
be termed as process. Data processing refers to the operations or activities performed
on data to generate information. So we can say that information is the result of data
processing.
As shown in Figure 1.4, data is supplied for
processing and information is obtained after
processing. In other words, data is the input to
the process and information is the output from
the process.
Let us consider the case of the Single Window
System (Ekajaalakam) - the admission Fig. 1.4 : Data Processing
procedure for higher secondary courses in
Kerala. We can briefly list out its activities as follows:
1. The authority collects the data from applicants through application forms, in which
score sheet of Class X examination will be referenced to furnish the required
details. Note that in this context the facts and figures in the score sheet become the
data.
2. The collected data is then fed to the computer.
3. The input data is stored and will later be retrieved for processing.
4. The data within the computer is used for performing operations such as calcula-
tions, comparisons, categorisation, sorting, filtering etc.
5. The allotment slips for candidates and allotment lists for schools are generated.
The slips and lists are printed and may be stored for later reference. It may be
used as data to generate information in some other situation.
6. The slips are distributed to the applicants and lists are forwarded to schools.

10
 1. Fundamentals of Computer

Thus it is clear that data processing proceeds through six stages, as listed below:
(a) Capturing data
(b) Input of data
(c) Storage of data
(d) Processing / manipulating data
(e) Output of information
(f) Distribution of information
The thick arrow marks in Figure 1.5
indicate the flow of the activities in
data processing and the dotted lines
specify the flow of activities that are
optional. Let us take a close look at
these stages. Fig. 1.5 : Stages of data processing
(a) Capturing data
When we apply for admission to the higher secondary course, we usually provide the
details through a prescribed application form. The authority is actually collecting the
required data for the admission process through the proforma. This is the first stage in
data processing. The proforma, also known as the source document, is so designed
that all relevant data are to be recorded in proper order and format. Thus, preparation
of source document and data collection are the activities that take place in this stage.
Today, hard copy of the prescribed
application forms are not used for
collecting data. Instead, data are
directly entered through on-line
facility.
(b) Input
In the case of seeking admission, we
submit the filled up application form
to the school. There the data is
extracted and fed into the computer.
Sometimes, we may enter these
details directly into the computer. Feeding data to the computer for processing is known
as input. The input data is usually stored in computers before it is processed.

11
 (c) Storage
In many cases, the amount of data given to the computers will be large. Besides, the
data entry may not be completed in a single session or a day. In the case of admissions,
the data of lakhs of applicants is input to the computer. It usually takes a few weeks to
complete the data entry. So the data input at different times should be stored then and
there. The processing will start only after the entire data is stored. The information
obtained as a result of processing is also stored in the computer. This stored data and
information can be used in the future for various purposes.
(d) Process
The data stored in computers is retrieved for processing. Various operations like
calculation, classification, comparison, sorting, filtering, summarising etc. are carried
out as part of processing. In the case of admission to the higher secondary course,
Weighted Grade Point Average (WGPA) of each applicant is calculated. Then the
applicants are listed under various categories
based on the descending order of WGPA.
Here, school of choice, course, and
performance in various co-curricular
activities are considered. Finally, allotment
lists for schools and allotment slips for
applicants are prepared.

(e) Output
The information obtained after processing will be available in
this stage. Output stage should provide the information in such a
form that the beneficiary should be able to take decision or solve
the problem. In the case of admission to the higher secondary
course, allotment slip for the applicant and allotment list for the
school are generaeted in the desired format as outputs.

(f) Distribution of information

The information obtained in the output stage is distributed
to the beneficiaries. They take decisions or solve problems
according to the information. For example, in higher
secondary admission, the allotment slips are distributed
to applicants for joining the school allotted and allotment

12
 1. Fundamentals of Computer

lists are issued to the schools for admitting the eligible applicants. The allotment slips
may be used to prepare admission register or roll list of classes. The allotment lists may
be used to prepare nominal roll for registering the students for public examination.

• Identify and write the data processing activities in (i) opening

an account in a bank and (ii) applying for scholarships

• Identify data processing cases in other real life siyuations and

Let us do
write the activities performed in each stage.

Check yourself

1. Raw facts and figures are known as ________.

2. Processed data is known as _______.
3. Which of the following helps us to take decisions?
(a) data (b) information (c) knowledge (d) intelligence
4. Manipulation of data to get information is known as _______.
5. Arrange the following in proper order:
Process, Output, Storage, Distribution, Data Capture, Input
6. Pick the odd one out and give reason:
(a) Calculation (b) Storage (c) Comparison (d) Categorization
7. Why do we store information?
8. Information may act as data. State True or False.

1.3 Functional units of a computer

Even though computers differ in size, shape, performance
and cost over the years, the basic organisation of a computer
is the same. It is based on a model proposed by John Von
Neumann, a mathematician and a computer scientist. It
consists of some functional units namely Input Unit, Central
Processing Unit (CPU), Storage Unit and Output Unit. Each
of these units is assigned to perform a particular task. Let John Von Neumann
(1815 - 1864)
us discuss the functions of these units.

13
 Fig. 1.6 : Basic organization of computer

1. Input unit
The collected data and the instructions for their processing are entered into the computer
through the input unit. They are stored in the memory (storage unit). The data may be in
different forms like number, text, image, audio, video, etc. A variety of devices are
available to input the data depending on its nature. Keyboard, mouse, scanner, mic,
digital camera, etc. are some commonly used input devices. In short, the functions
performed by input unit are as follows:
1. Accepts instructions and data from the outside world.
2. Converts these instructions and data to a form acceptable to the computer.
3. Supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer for processing.
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The CPU is the brain of the computer. In a human body, all major decisions are taken
by the brain and other parts of the body function as directed by the brain. Similarly, in
a computer system, all major computations and comparisons are made inside the CPU.
It is also responsible for activating and controlling the operations of other units of the
computer. The functions of CPU are performed by three components - Arithmetic
Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and registers.
a. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
The actual operations specified in the instructions are carried out in the Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU). It performs calculations and logical operations such as comparisons and
decision making. The data and instructions stored in the storage unit are transferred to
the ALU and the processing takes place in it. Intermediate results produced by the
ALU are temporarily transferred back to the storage and are retrieved later when
needed for further processing. Thus there is a data flow between the storage and the
ALU many times before the entire processing is completed.

14
 1. Fundamentals of Computer

b. Control Unit (CU)

Each of the functional units has its own function, but none of these will perform the
function until it is asked to. This task is assigned to the control unit. It invokes the other
units to take charge of the operation they are associated with. It is the central nervous
system that manages and co-ordinates all other units of the computer. It obtains
instructions from the program stored in the memory, interprets the operation, and issues
signals to the unit concerned in the system to execute them.
c. Registers
These are temporary storage elements that facilitate the functions of CPU. There are a
variety of registers; each is designated to store unique items like data, instruction, memory
address, results, etc.
3. Storage unit
The data and instructions entered in the computer through input unit are stored inside
the computer before actual processing starts. Similarly, the information or results
produced after processing are also stored inside the computer, before transferring to
the output unit. Moreover, the intermediate results, if any, must also be stored for further
processing. The storage unit of a computer serves all these purposes. In short, the
specific functions of storage unit are to hold or store:
1. data and instructions required for processing.
2. intermediate results for ongoing processing.
3. final results of processing, before releasing to the output unit.
The storage unit comprises of two types as detailed below:
Primary Storage: It is also known as main memory. It is again divided into two -
Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM). RAM holds
instructions, data and intermediate results of processing. It also holds the recently
produced results of the job done by the computer. ROM contains instructions for the
start up procedure of the computer. The Central Processing Unit can directly access
the main memory at a very high speed. But it is costly and has limited storage capacity.
Secondary Storage: It is also known as auxiliary storage and it takes care of the
limitations of primary storage. It has a huge storage capacity and the storage is permanent.
Usually we store data, programs and information in the secondary storage, but we have
to give instruction explicitly for this. Hard disk, CDs, DVDs, memory sticks, etc. are
some examples.
4. Output unit
The information obtained after data processing is supplied to the outside world through
the output unit in a human-readable form. Monitor and printer are the commonly used
output devices. The functions performed by output unit can be concluded as follows:
1. Receives the results produced by the CPU in coded form.

15
 2. Converts these coded results to human-readable form.
3. Supplies the results to the outside world.
1.4 Computer - as data processor
We have seen the activities involved in data processing and identified the different stages
in data processing. Imagine the situation where humans are involved in these stages for
performing the operations. It is sure that we will not get the information always in time
and without any error all the time. We always need accurate, comprehensive, reliable
and timely information in proper format and media so that it can be applied to the
context concerned to formulate knowledge. Only then problems can be solved and/or
decisions be made using intelligence. From the discussions we had so far, computers
can be considered as the best data processing machine. In short, computer may be
defined as an electronic machine designed to accept the data and instructions, performs
arithmetic and logical operations on the data according to a set of instructions and
output the results or information.

Fill up the following table by comparing human beings and the

computer in the context of data processing. In the case of
operations, the organs or components may be specified and for
Let us do characteristics, performance may be indicated. You can also add
more features.
Features Human being Computer
Operation
Input Eyes, Ears Keyboard, Mouse
Output
Calculation & Comparison
Temporary Storage
Permanent Storage
Controlling
Characteristics
Speed
Accuracy
Reliability
•
•

16
 1. Fundamentals of Computer

1.4.1 Characteristics of computers

You might have already recognized some of the characteristics of computers by
performing the learning activity of filling the comparison table given in the “Let us do”
box. As we know, computers can execute millions of instructions in a second. The
results produced after processing the data are very accurate, but computers do not
have adequate knowledge or intelligence to interpret the results. They only carry out
instructions like an obedient servant. The computer gives correct results only if the data
and instructions given are correct. The term Garbage In Garbage Out (GIGO) is used
to mean this feature. That is, if a wrong input is given to the computer, it will give a
wrong output. Look at Table 1.2 and identify the advantages and limitations of computer.
Computers
Advantages Limitations
Speed: A computer can perform millions of operations Lack of IQ: Many people
in a second or in fraction of second. It can do in a think that computer has
minute, as much work as a man do taking months and super human capabilities.
years. However this is not true. A
Accuracy: A computer can perform arithmetic computer does not have
operations with a very high degree of accuracy. By natural intelligence as
accuracy, we mean fewer errors in the output and humans have.
precision with which computations are performed. Lack of decision making
Diligence: Since computer is a machine, it can operate power: Computer cannot
for long hours untiringly. Unlike human beings, it will decide on its own and it
not show any emotion or disobey you. Hence computers does not possess intuitive
are best suited for routine jobs. capabilities like human
beings.
Versatility: Computer can be used to perform many
different kinds of processing tasks. It is a general
purpose data processing machine.
Huge memory: Computer has enormous memory
capacity. Huge volume of data can be stored in its
memory for processing. The storage capacity can also
be increased as per requirement.
Table 1.2 : Advantages and limitations of computers

17
 Check yourself

1. Who proposed the model of modern computers?

2. Name the components of CPU.
3. Which of the functional units of the computer is not directly involved in
data processing?
4. What is meant by 'execution of an instruction'?
5. Which part of a computer can be compared to the human brain?

1.5 Number system

A number is a mathematical object used to count, label and measure. A number system
is a systematic way to represent numbers. The number system we use in our day to day
life is the decimal number system that uses 10 different symbols or digits. The number
289 is pronounced as two hundred and eighty nine and it consists of the symbols 2, 8
and 9. Similarly there are other number systems. Each has its own symbol and method
for constructing a number. A number system has a unique base, which depends upon
the number of symbols. The number of symbols used in a number system is called base
or radix of a number system.

1.5.1 Decimal number system

The decimal number system consists of ten symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 to
form a number. Since there are ten symbols in this number system, its base is 10. So this
number system is also known as base-10 number system.
Consider two decimal numbers 743 and 347
743 à seven hundred + four tens + three ones. ( 7×102 + 4×101 + 3×100)
347 à three hundreds + four tens + seven ones. ( 3×102 + 4 ×101 + 7×100)
Here place value (weight) of 7 in first number 743 is 102 =100. But weight of 7 in
second number 347 is 100=1. The weight of a digit depends on its relative position.
Such a number system is known as positional number system. All positional number
systems have a base and the place value of a digit is some power of this base.

18
 1. Fundamentals of Computer

Place value of each decimal digit is power of 10 (i.e. 100, 101, 102, … for integer part
and 10-1, 10-2, ... for fractional part). Consider a decimal number 5876. This number
can be written in expanded form as
Place Value 103 102 101 100
Decimal Number 5 8 7 6
= 5 × 103 + 8 × 102 + 7 × 101 + 6 × 100
= 5×1000 + 8×100 + 7×10 + 6×1
= 5000 + 800 + 70 + 6
= 5876
In the above example, the digit 5 has the maximum place value, 103 =1000 and 6 has
the minimum place value, 100=1. The digit with most weight (maximum place value) is
called Most Significant Digit (MSD) and the digit with least weight (minimum place
value) is called Least Significant Digit (LSD). So in the above number MSD is 5 and
LSD is 6.
Left most digit of a number is MSD and right most digit of a number is LSD.
When we consider fractional numbers, place values of the digits to the right of decimal
point are negative powers of 10 (10-1, 10-2, 10-3, ...). Consider another example 249.367.
Place Value 102 101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3
Decimal Number 2 4 9 3 6 7
MSD (.) LSD
= 2 × 102 + 4 × 101 + 9 × 100 + 3 × 10-1 + 6 × 10-2 +7 × 10-3
= 2 × 100 + 4 ×10 + 9 × 1 + 3 × 0.1 + 6 × 0.01 + 7 × 0.001
= 200 + 40 + 9 + 0.3 + 0.06 + 0.007
= 249.367
So far we have discussed a number system which uses 10 symbols. Now let us see the
construction of other number systems with different bases.

1.5.2 Other number systems

The common number systems associated with computers are binary number system,
octal number system and hexa decimal number system. The base must be specified in
all number systems other than decimal number system.

19
 The general format is: (Number)base
This notation helps to differentiate numbers of different bases. If no base is given in a
number, it will be considered as decimal. In other words, specifying the base is not
compulsory in the decimal number system.
Binary number system uses only two symbols 0 and 1 to form a number. Bi means
two. Base of this number system is two and the place values are powers of 2 (20, 21,
22, ... for integer part 2-1, 2-2, ... for fractional part). So it is also called base-2 number
system. We use the subscript 2 to indicate that the number is in binary. The numbers
(1101)2, (101010)2 and (1101.11)2 are examples. The binary number (1101)2 is read
as "one one zero one to the base two". Each digit of a binary number is called bit. A bit
stands for binary digit. The binary number system is also a positional number system
where place value of each binary digit is power of 2.
Octal number system uses only eight symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 to form a number.
Octal means eight and hence it is also called base-8 number system. Base of this number
system is 8 and so the place value of each digit is power of 8 (80, 81, 82, 83,… for
integer part and 8-1, 8-2, ... for fractional part). The numbers (236)8, (175)8 are examples.
Hexadecimal number system uses 16 symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D,
E and F to form a number. Hexa means six and Deci means ten. That is why this
number system is called hexadecimal. Base of this number system is 16 and the place
values are powers of 16 (160, 161, 162, ... for integer part and 16-1, 16-2, ... for fractional
part). This number system is also called base-16 number system.In this system, in
addition to decimal digits (0 - 9), the symbols A, B, C, D, E, F are used to represent the
numbers 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 respectively.

1.5.3 Number conversions

A number in a particular system has an equivalent number in all the other systems. For
example, the decimal number 12 is equivalent to (1100)2, (14)8 and (C)16. Similarly the
binary number (110101)2 possesses the same value represented by the numbers (65)8,
(53)10 and (35)16. Conversion procedures are available to convert the numbers of one
base to the equivalent numbers in other bases. There are different types of number
conversions like decimal to binary, binary to decimal, decimal to octal, etc.

1.6 Data representation

Computers process different types of data such as numbers, characters, images, audios
and videos. We know that computer is an electronic device functioning on the basis of

20
 1. Fundamentals of Computer

two states - ON and OFF. All electronic circuits have two states - open and closed.
The two-state operation is called binary operation. Hence the data given to computer
should also be in binary form. In this section we will discuss various methods for
representing differnt types of data in a digital
computer. Computer uses a fixed number
of bits to represent a piece of data which
could be a number, a character, image, audio,
video etc. Data representation is the method
used internally to represent data in a
computer.

1.6.1 Representation of numbers

Numbers can be classified into integer numbers and floating point numbers. Integers
are whole numbers or fixed point numbers without any fractional part. A floating point
number or a real number is a number with fractional part. These two numbers are
treated differently in computer memory.
There are three methods for representing an integer number in computer memory. They
are (i) Sign and magnitude representation, (ii) 1's complement representation and
(iii) 2's complement representation.
1.6.2 Representation of characters
As in the case of numbers, there are different schemes or codes to represent characters.
Some of them are discussed in this section.

a. ASCII
The code called ASCII (pronounced “AS-key”), which stands for American Standard
Code for Information Interchange, uses 7 bits to represent each character in computer
memory. The ASCII representation has been adopted as a standard by the U.S.
government and is widely accepted. A unique integer number is assigned to each character.
This number called ASCII code of that character is converted in to binary for storing in
memory. For example, ASCII code of A is 65, its binary equivalent in 7-bit is 1000001.
Since there are exactly 128 unique combinations of 7 bits, this 7-bit code can represent
only128 characters.
Another version is ASCII-8, also called extended ASCII, which uses 8 bits for each
character, can represent 256 different characters. For example, the letter A is represented
by 01000001, B by 01000010 and so on. ASCII code is enough to represent all of the
standard keyboard characters.

21
 b. EBCDIC
It stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. This is similar to
ASCII and is an 8 bit code used in computers manufactured by International Business
Machine (IBM). It is capable of encoding 256 characters. If ASCII coded data is to be
used in a computer which uses EBCDIC representation, it is necessary to transform
ASCII code to EBCDIC code. Similarly if EBCDIC coded data is to be used in a
ASCII computer, EBCDIC code has to be transformed to ASCII.
c. ISCII
ISCII stands for Indian Standard Code for Information Interchange or Indian Script
Code for Information Interchange. It is an encoding scheme for representing various
writing systems of India. ISCII uses 8-bits for data representation. It was evolved by
a standardisation committee under the Department of Electronics during 1986-88, and
adopted by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS).Nowadays ISCII has been replaced
by Unicode.
d. Unicode
Using 8-bit ASCII we can represent only 256 characters. This cannot represent all
characters of written languages of the world and other symbols. Unicode is developed
to resolve this problem. It aims to provide a standard character encoding scheme,
which is universal and efficient. It provides a unique number for every character, no
matter what the language and platform be.
Unicode originally used 16 bits which can represent up to 65,536 characters. It is
maintained by a non-profit organisation called the Unicode Consortium. The Consortium
first published the version 1.0.0 in 1991 and continues to develop standards based on
that original work. Nowadays Unicode uses more than 16 bits and hence it can represent
more characters. Unicode can represent data in almost all written languages of the
world.

Let us sum up
Data processing is a series of activities by which data is converted into information.
The limitations of manual data processing are overcome by electronic data processing
and the computer is the best electronic data processor. A computer has five functional
units such as input unit, storage unit, arithmetic logic unit, control unit and output unit.
Though the data supplied to computers is of different forms, internally these are
represented using bits. Different number systems are associated with computer and
any number in one system has an equivalent form in another system. Different types
of coding systems are also available to represent characters in computer.

22
 1. Fundamentals of Computer

Learning outcomes
After the completion of this chapter the learner will be able to
• distinguish between data and information.
• identify various stages in data processing.
• list the functional units of a computer and explain the functions of each.
• explain why the computer is the best electronic data processing machine.
• infer the concept of data representation inside computers.
• list the features of various coding systems to represent characters.

Sample questions
Very short answer type
1. What is data?
2. Processed data is known as _______.
3. Hexadecimal number system uses ______symbols and octal number system uses
________ symbols.
4. EBCDIC stands for _______.
5. Name the coding system that can represent almost all characters used in the human
languages in the world.
II. Short answer type
1. Distinguish between data and information.
2. The application form for Plus One admission contains your personal details and
your choice of groups and schools.
a. Identify the data and information in the admission process.
b. Explain how the information helps the applicants and the school authorities.
c. Write down the activities involved in the processing of the data.
3. How is a computer superior to human in data processing?
4. Explain the role of storage in data processing activities.
5. List down the functions of input unit of a computer.

23
 6. Is secondary storage essential for a computer? Justify your answer.
7. Write down the role of control unit in a computer?
8. How does the memory unit help CPU to perform its function?
9. "Computers are slaves, humans are masters". Do you agree with this? Give
reasons.
10. List down the characteristics of computers.
11. Computer is a versatile machine. How?
12. What is meant by the term diligence, the characteristic of a computer?
13. Define the term data representation
14. What do you mean by a number system? List any four number systems.
15. What are the methods of representing characters in computer memory?
16. Write a short notes on ASCII and ISCII.
17. Briefly explain the significance of UNICODE in character representation.

Long answer type

1. Taking the example of a real life situation like banking, briefly describe the activities
involved in each stage of data processing.
2. With the help of a block diagram, explain the functional units of a computer.
3. Briefly explain different methods for representing characters in computer memory.

24
 2

We are familiar with computers and their uses

today. Computer can be defined as a fast
Key concepts electronic device that accepts data, processes
it as per stored instructions and produces
• Hardware information as output. We know that a
o Processor computer has two major components -
o Motherboard hardware and software. Hardware refers to all
o Peripherals and ports physical components associated with a
o Memory (Primary
computer system while software is a set of
memory, Secondary instructions for the hardware to perform a
memory) specific task. When we use computers to solve
any problem in real life situations, the tasks are
o Input / output devices
usually set up to process data to generate
• e-Waste
information. This chapter presents the various
• Green computing
hardware components followed by electronic
• Software waste, its disposal methods and the concept of
o System software green-computing. Different classifications of
(Operating system, software are also dealt with. We also discuss
Language processors, the concepts of free and open source, freeware,
Utility software) shareware and proprietary software.
o Application software
2.1 Hardware
(General purpose,
Specific purpose) We know that a computer system consists of
o Free and open source
hardware and software. The term hardware
software concepts
represents the tangible and visible parts of a
computer, which consists of some
o Freeware and Shareware
electromechanical components. These
• Humanware / Liveware
hardware components are associated with the
 functional units of computer that we discussed in the previous chapter. Let us discuss
some of these components.
2.1.1 Processors
In high school classes we learned
that the Central Processing Unit
(CPU) / processor is responsible for
all computing and decision making
Fig. 2.1 : Central Processing Units
operations and coordinates the
working of a computer. The performance of a CPU determines the overall performance
of the computer (refer Figure 2.1). Since CPU is an Integrated Circuit (IC) package
which contains millions of transistors and other components fabricated into a single
silicon chip, it is also referred as microprocessor. A CPU is usually plugged into a large
socket on the main circuit board (the motherboard) of the computer. Since heat is
generated when the CPU works, a proper cooling system is provided with a heat sink
and fan. Intel core i3, core i5, core i7, AMD Quadcore, etc. are some examples of
processors.

Every computer contains an internal clock that regulates the rate at

which instructions are executed. The CPU requires a fixed number of
clock ticks (or clock cycles) to execute each instruction. The faster
the clock, the more instructions the CPU can execute per second.
Another factor is the architecture of the chip. The number of bits a processor can
process at one time is called word size. Processors with many different word sizes
exist: 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit, etc.

Registers are storage locations inside CPU, whose contents can be accessed more
quickly by the CPU than other memory. They are temporary storage areas for instructions
or data. They are not a part of memory; rather they are special additional storage
locations that offer computers the advantage of speed. Registers work under the direction
of the control unit to accept, hold, and transfer instructions or data and perform arithmetic
or logical operations at high speed. It speeds up the execution of programs.
Important registers inside a CPU are:
a. Accumulator: The accumulator is a part of the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU).
This register is used to store data to perform arithmetic and logical operation. The
result of an operation is stored in the accumulator.
b. Memory Address Register (MAR): It stores the address of a memory loca-
tion to which data is either to be read or written by the processor.

26
 2. Components of the Computer System

c. Memory Buffer Register (MBR): It holds the data, either to be written to or

read from the memory by the processor.
d. Instruction Register (IR): The instructions to be executed by the processor are
stored in the instruction register.
e. Program Counter (PC): It holds the address of the next instruction to be
executed by the processor.
2.1.2 Motherboard
A motherboard is a large Printed
Circuit Board (PCB) to which
all the major components
including the processor are
integrated. Figure 2.2 shows the
motherboard and its
components. It also provides
expansion slots for adding
additional circuit boards like
memory, graphics card, sound
card, etc. The motherboard
Fig. 2.2 : Motherboard
must be compatible with the
processor chosen.
2.1.3 Peripherals and ports
Peripherals are devices that are attached to
a computer system to enhance its
capabilities. Ports on the motherboard are
used to connect external devices. Figure 2.3
shows the various ports in a computer
system. Peripherals include input devices,
output devices, external storage and
communication devices. Peripheral devices
communicate with the motherboard, through
the ports available on the motherboard like
Video Graphics Array (VGA), IBM
Personal System/2 (PS/2), Universal Serial
Fig. 2.3 : Ports
Bus (USB), Ethernet, High Definition
Multimedia Interface (HDMI), etc. Let us look at some kinds of ports used on personal
computers.

27
 a. Serial port
A serial port / serial communication port transmits
data one bit at a time. In older computers devices
such as modem, mouse or keyboard were
Fig 2.4: Serial port
connected through serial ports (refer Figure 2.4).
Serial cables are cheaper to make and easier to shield from interference. Since its
speed is too low, they are being replaced by faster ports like PS/2, USB, etc.
b. Parallel port
Parallel ports can transmit several bits of data
simultaneously. It is faster than serial port and is
used to connect a printer or scanner to the
computer. Figure 2.5 shows a parallel port in a Fig. 2.5 : Parallel port
computer system.
c. USB port
Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a connection
that provides high speed data communication
between devices. Due to its high bandwidth
data transfer is faster. It is used for short-
distance communication. USB port is used
for connecting devices like keyboard, mouse,
printer, scanner, flash drive, external hard disk,
Fig. 2.6: USB ports
etc. Figure 2.6 shows the various types of
USB ports. The main advantage of USB ports are:
• USB ports are capable of supplying electric power to external devices. This tech-
nology led to the development of devices like external hard disk, flash drive, dongle,
etc. which draw power from the USB port. It can also be used for power devices
like mobile phones, tablets, laptops, etc.
• USB devices can be connected and disconnected even when the power is on .
d. LAN port
Alternatively referred to as an Ethernet port, network
connection, and network port, the Local Area Network
(LAN) port is a port connection that allows a computer
to connect to a network using a wired connection. The
registered jack RJ45 is a standard type of connector
Fig. 2.7 : LAN port and RJ45
used for connecting cables through LAN ports (refer
Figure 2.7). connector

28
 2. Components of the Computer System

e. PS/2 port
Personal System/2 (PS/2) ports are special ports invented
by International Business Machines (IBM) for connecting
the keyboard and mouse (refer Figure 2.8). These types
of ports are too slow and replaced by faster ports like
USB nowadays.
Fig. 2.8: PS/2 port
f. Audio ports
Audio ports are used to connect audio devices like speakers,
microphone, etc. The three small connectors shown in Figure
2.9 are used for connecting:
a. Line in - Sound input (from any audio device like
mobile line out, ipod, etc.)
b. Line out - Sound out (to connect your PC's sound
output to external speakers)
c. Mic in - Microphone input port.
Fig. 2.9: Audio port
g. Video Graphics Array (VGA) port
VGA is a popular display standard developed by IBM. The VGA port is used to
connect a monitor or a projector to a computer. The VGA connector has 15 pins
displayed in three rows as indicated in Figure 2.10. Super VGA (SVGA) was developed
to support 800 × 600 resolution and was later replaced
by Extended Graphics Array (XGA) that supports 1024
× 768 resolution. Regardless of what resolution a monitor
is able to support, they are commonly referred to as VGA. Fig. 2.10 : VGA port

h. High Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI)

HDMI is a type of digital connection capable of transmitting
high-definition video and multi channel audio over a single
cable (refer Figure 2.11). To do the same thing with analog
cables, we need to connect several video and audio cables.
2.1.4 Memory Fig. 2.11 : HDMI port

Memory is a place where we can store data, instructions and results temporarily or
permanently. Memory can be classified into two: primary memory and secondary
memory. Primary memory holds data, intermediate results and results of ongoing jobs
temporarily. Secondary memory on the other hand holds data and information
permanently. Before learning more about memory, let us discuss the different memory
measuring units.

29
 Binary Digit = 1 Bit 1 MB (Mega Byte) = 1024 KB
1 Nibble = 4 Bits 1 GB (Giga Byte) = 1024 MB
1 Byte = 8 Bits 1 TB (Tera Byte) = 1024 GB
1 KB (Kilo Byte) = 1024 Bytes 1 PB (Peta Byte) = 1024 TB
a. Primary storage
Primary memory is a semiconductor memory that is accessed directly by the CPU. It is
capable of sending and receiving data at high speed. This includes mainly three types of
memory such as RAM, ROM and Cache memory.
i. Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM refers to the main memory that microprocessor
can read from and write to. Data can be stored and
retrieved at random from anywhere within the RAM,
no matter where the data is. Data or instructions to be
processed by the CPU must be placed in the RAM
(refer Figure 2.12). The contents of RAM are lost
when power is switched off. Therefore, RAM is a
volatile memory. Storage capacity of RAM is 2 GB Fig. 2.12 : RAM
and above.
The speed of a RAM refers to how fast the data in memory is accessed. It is measured
in Mega Hertz (MHz). When a computer is in use, its RAM contains the following:
1. The operating system software.
2. The application software currently being used.
3. Any data that is being processed.
ii. Read Only Memory (ROM)
ROM is a permanent memory that can perform only read
operations and its contents cannot be easily altered. ROM
is non-volatile; the contents are retained even after the
power is switched off. ROM is used in most computers
to hold a small, special piece of 'boot up' program known
as Basic Input Output System (BIOS).This software runs
when the computer is switched on or 'boots up'. It checks
the computer's hardware and then loads the operating Fig. 2.13 : ROM chip
system. It is slower than RAM. Figure 2.13 shows a
typical ROM chip.

30
 2. Components of the Computer System

There are some modified types of ROM that include:

1. PROM - Programmable ROM which can be programmed only once. PROM's
are programmed at the time of manufacture.
2. EPROM - Erasable Programmable ROM that can be erased using ultra violet
radiation and can be programmed using special electronic circuits.
3. EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM which can be erased and
rewritten electrically.
Table 2.1 shows the comparison between RAM and ROM.
RAM ROM
• It is faster than ROM • It is a slower memory
• It stores the operating system, • It stores the program required to boot
application programs and data when the the computer initially
computer is functioning. • Usually allows reading only.
• It allows reading and writing. • It is non-volatile, i.e. its contents are
• It is volatile, i.e. its contents are lost retained even when the device is
when the device is powered off. powered off.
Table 2.1 : Comparison of RAM and ROM
iii. Cache memory
Cache memory is a small and fast memory between the processor and RAM (main
memory). Frequently accessed data, instructions, intermediate results etc. are stored in
cache memory for quick access. When the processor needs to read from or write to a
location in RAM, it first checks whether a copy of that data is in the cache. If so, the
processor immediately reads the cache, which is much faster than reading from RAM.
Cache is more expensive than RAM, but it is worth using it in order to maximise system
performance. Commonly used cache memories and their capacities are as follows Level
1 Cache (128 KB), Level 2 Cache (1 MB), Level 3 Cache (8 MB) and Level 4 Cache
(128 MB).
b. Secondary or Auxiliary memory
Secondary memory is of permanent nature. Unlike the contents of RAM, the data
stored in these devices does not vanish when power is turned off. Secondary memory
is much larger in size than RAM, but is slower. It stores programs and data but the
processor cannot access them directly. Secondary memory is also used for transferring
data or programs from one computer to another. It also acts as a backup. The major
categories of storage devices are magnetic, optical and semiconductor memory.

31
 i. Magnetic storage devices
Magnetic storage devices use plastic tape or metal/plastic disks coated with magnetic
materials. Data is recorded magnetically in these devices. Read/write heads are used to
access data from these devices. Some of the popular magnetic storage devices are
magnetic tapes, floppy disks, hard disks, etc.
Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tape is a backup device that can store huge volume of data. The cost per unit
volume of a magnetic tape is less compared to other magnetic storage devices.
It is a recording medium consisting of a thin tape with a coating of fine magnetic material.
It can be used for recording analog or digital data. Data is stored in frames across the
width of the tape with a read/write head. The frames are grouped into blocks or records
which are separated from other blocks by gaps as shown in Figure 2.14.

Fig. 2.14 : Magnetic Tape and Blocks of data on tape

It takes a lot of time to locate data in a magnetic tape, as it is a sequential access

medium, similar to an audio cassette. For example, if we need to access the 100th
record on the tape, we must first move through the previous 99 records. The capacity
of tape media is referred in Terabytes.
Hard disk
The hard disk consists of metal disks coated with magnetic material concealed in dust
free containers. Hard disks have very high storage capacity, high data transfer rates and
low access time. It is more durable and less error prone. It is the most common secondary
storage device used in computers.
A hard disk may contain one or more platters. Each
platter requires two read/write heads, one for each
surface. A tiny electromagnetic read/write head
attached to an access arm magnetises tiny spots on the
disk to store data as shown in Figure 2.15. The same
electromagnetic head can later sense the magnetic fields
of the spots, allowing the data to be read back from
the disk. Fig. 2.15 : Hard disk

32
 2. Components of the Computer System

Data is stored on the surface of a platter in sectors

Tracks Sector
and tracks. Tracks are concentric circles on a platter
and a sector is a pie-sliced part of a disk platter as
shown in Figure 2.16. Formatting is the activity of
creating sectors and tracks on the disk. Only then can
read/write operation be performed on the disk. If a
disk having data is formatted, then all data will be lost.
Large disks can be partitioned logically into distinct
Fig. 2.16 : A platter
sections or volumes. These volumes are independent
of each other and can be formatted independently.
Rating of Hard Disk Drive (HDD) depends on capacity, speed and
access time.
Storage capacity : 500GB, 1TB or more
Speed : How fast the disk spins, rotations per minute
(rpm) usually 5400 rpm/7200 rpm
Access time : Time to retrieve bits of data from disk (in
milliseconds)

ii. Optical storage devices

Optical disk is a data storage medium which uses low-powered laser beam to read
from and write data into it. It consists of an aluminum foil sandwiched between two
circular plastic disks. Data is written
on a single continuous spiral in the form
of pits and lands as shown in Figure
2.17. The laser beam reads this pits
and lands as 0s and 1s. It is very cheap
to manufacture optical disks in large
quantities and are a popular secondary
storage medium. The main types of Fig. 2.17 : CD, DVD and Blu-ray disk - pits &
optical disks are CD, DVD and Blu- lands
Ray.
Compact Disk (CD)
Compact Disk is an optical storage medium capable of storing
upto 700 MB of data. A CD drive uses red laser beams for reading
from and writing data into CD. There are two types of CDs,
CD-R and CD-RW. In CD-R (CD-Recordable) data can be written Fig. 2.18 : CD

33
 once and read many times where in CD-RW (CD-Rewritable) disks can be erased
and rewritten at any time.
Digital Versatile Disk (DVD)
Digital Versatile Disc is an optical storage media similar to CD-ROM, but with a higher
storage capacity. This is achieved by using smaller spots to record data. Recording and
reading of data is done using DVD drive. Here also red laser beam is used for doing
these operations. The capacity of a DVD varies from 4.37 GB to 15.9 GB. There are
three major types of DVDs: DVD-ROM, DVD-RW and DVD-RAM.
DVD-ROM : DVD-Read Only Memory functions in the same way as
CD-ROM
DVD-RW : DVD-Rewritable disks can be erased and rewritten at any time.
DVD-RAM : DVD Random Access Memory discs can be recorded and erased
repeatedly. These are compatible only with devices manufactured
by companies that support the DVD-RAM format. It is compa-
rable to DVD-Rewritable disk, but have higher lifetime and can be
erased more often than a DVD-RW.
A normal DVD known as DVD-5 stores 4.37 GB data where as a dual layer double
side DVD known as DVD-18 can store 15.9 GB.
Blu-ray DVD
Blu-ray is an optical disk format developed to enable recording, rewriting and playback
of High Definition (HD) video as well as storing huge amounts of data. CD and DVD
technologies use red laser to read and write data while blu-ray format uses a blue-violet
laser. Hence it has the name Blu-ray. The benefit of using a blue-violet laser is that it has
a shorter wavelength than a red laser, which makes it possible to focus the laser spot
with greater precision. This allows data to be packed more tightly. Therefore it is possible
to store more data on the disk even though it is of the same size of a CD/DVD. The
format offers more than five times the storage capacity of traditional DVDs and can
hold up to 25 GB on a single-layer disc and 50 GB on a dual-layer disc.
iii. Semiconductor storage (Flash memory)
Flash drives use EEPROM chips for data storage. They do not contain any moving
parts and hence they are shockproof. Flash memory is faster and durable when compared
to other types of secondary memory. The different variants of flash memories are available
today.

34
 2. Components of the Computer System

USB flash drive

A flash drive is a small external storage device,
which consists of flash memory typically the size
of a human thumb. USB flash drives are portable
and rewritable. The storage capacity of a USB
drive currently varies from 2 GB to 32 GB. Fig. 2.19 : Flash drive

Flash memory cards

Flash memory card is another type of flash memory. They are
flat and have a size of about 1 inch × 0.75 inch with a thickness
of about 2 mm. Memory cards currently have storage capacities
in the range of 1 GB - 32 GB. Flash memory cards also have a
smaller version which is used within cell phones, tablets, etc (refer
Figure 2.20). These smaller cards are about 6 mm × 3 mm in
Fig. 2.20 : Flash
size and are less than 1 mm thick.
memory cards
Role of different types of memories in
computer
Let us discuss an example of data processing. Consider the case of a payroll program
to calculate the salary of an employee. The data for all the employees is available in the
hard disk. All the data about a particular employee is taken
to the RAM and from there data related to salary calculation
(bonus, deductions, etc.) is taken to the cache. The data
representing the hours worked and the wages is moved to
their respective registers. Using data on the hours worked
and the wage, ALU makes calculations based on instructions
from control unit. For further calculations, it moves the
overtime hours, bonus, etc. from cache to registers. As the
CPU finishes calculations about one employee, the data
about the next employee is brought from secondary storage Fig. 2.21 : Memory
into RAM, then cache and eventually into the registers. hierarchy
Table 2.2 summarises the characteristics of the various kinds of data storage in the
storage hierarchy. Modern computers are designed with this hierarchy due to the
characteristics listed in the table.

35
 To see how registers, memory and second storage work together, let us
use the analogy of making a salad. In our kitchen we have:
• A refrigerator where we store vegetables for the salad.
• A counter where we place all vegetables before putting them on the cutting
board for chopping.
• A cutting board on the counter where we chop vegetables.
• A recipe that details what
vegetables to chop.
• The corners of the cutting board
are kept free for partially chopped
piles of vegetables that we intend
to chop more or to mix with other
partially chopped vegetables.
• A bowl on the counter where we
mix and store the salad.
• Space in the refrigerator to put the
mixed salad after it is made.
The process of making the salad is then: bring the vegetables from the fridge to the
counter top; place some vegetables on the chopping board according to the recipe;
chop the vegetables, possibly storing some partially chopped vegetables temporarily
on the corners of the cutting board; place all the vegetables in the bowl and keep it
back in the fridge if not served on the dinner table.
In this context the refrigerator serves as secondary (hard disk) storage. It can
store high volumes of vegetables for long periods of time. The counter top functions
like the computer's motherboard - everything is done on the counter (inside the
computer). The cutting board is the ALU - the work gets done there. The recipe is
the control unit - it tells you what to do on the cutting board (ALU). Space on the
counter top is the equivalent of RAM - all required vegetables must be brought from
the fridge and placed on the counter top for fast access. Note that the counter top
(RAM) is faster to access than the fridge (disk), but cannot hold as much, and
cannot hold it for long periods of time. The corners of the cutting board where we
temporarily store partially chopped vegetables are equivalent to the registers. The
corners of the cutting board are very fast to access for chopping, but cannot hold
much. The salad bowl is like a cache memory, it is for storing chopped vegetables to
be temporarily removed from the corners of the cutting board (as there is too much)
or the salad waiting to be taken back to the fridge (putting data back on a disk) or
to the dinner table (outputting the data to an output device).

36
 2. Components of the Computer System

Storage Speed Capacity Relative Cost Volatile

Registers Fastest Lowest Highest Yes

Cache More Fast Low Very High Yes
RAM/ROM Very Fast Low/Moderate High Yes
Hard Disk Moderate Very High Very Low No
Table 2.2 : Comparison of different types of memory

Check yourself

1. The fastest memory in a computer is ________.

2. The storage capacity of a single layer DVD is ________.
3. What is cache memory?
4. What is the use of program counter register?
5. What is HDMI?

2.1.5 Input/Output devices

The computer will be of no use unless it is able to communicate with the outside
world. Input/output devices are required for users to communicate with the computer.
In simple terms, input devices feed data and instructions into the computer and output
devices present information from a computer system. These input/output devices are
connected to the CPU through various ports or with the help of wireless technologies.
Since they reside outside the CPU, they are called peripherals.
a. Input devices
An input device is used to feed data into a computer. It is also defined as a device that
provides communication between the user and the computer. We will now discuss
some input devices in detail.
i. Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common input device. It allows the user to input alphabets,
numbers and other characters. Keyboard detects the key pressed and generates the
corresponding ASCII code which can be recognised by the computer. The standard
US keyboard introduced in 1986 has 101 keys. It has a keyboard layout called the

37
 QWERTY design. QWERTY gets its name from the first six letters across in the upper-
left-hand corner of the keyboard as show in Figure 2.22.

Fig. 2.22 : Keyboard

Keyboards can be classified as wired and wireless. Wired keyboards are connected to
the CPU through a serial, PS/2 port or a USB port. Wireless keyboards are connected
to the computer through infrared (IR), radio frequency (RF) or bluetooth connections.
Portable flexible keyboards are also available now. New generation keyboards like
laser keyboards that project the keyboard layout to any surface are being developed.
ii. Mouse
A mouse is a small hand-held device used to indicate the position of a cursor or its
movement on a computer display screen by rolling it over a mouse pad / flat surface. A
mouse has one or more buttons and possibly a scroll wheel. Scroll wheel is used for
scrolling the screen vertically or horizontally. The different types of mouse are ball,
optical and laser mouse. Ball mouse works on the
principle of the movement of the ball, whereas optical
mouse uses LED and laser mouses use laser beams for
sensing the movement. Laser mouse has more precise
movements when compared to other types of mouse.
Wired mouse, uses serial, PS/2 and USB ports to
Fig. 2.23 : Mouse
communicate, where as a wireless mouse communicates
with the computer via radio waves.
iii. Light pen
A light pen is a pointing device shaped like a pen. The tip of the light pen contains a
light-sensitive element which when placed against the screen, detects the light from the

38
 2. Components of the Computer System

screen enabling the computer to identify the location of the

pen on the screen. Light pens have the advantage of 'drawing'
directly onto the screen. They are used by engineers, artists,
fashion designers for Computer Aided Designing (CAD)
and drawing purposes.
iv. Touch screen Fig. 2.24 : Light pen

It is an input device that allows the user to operate by

simply touching on the display screen. Some
computers, tablets, smart phones, etc. have touch-
sensitive display screens. It can also be operated using
a stylus which gives more precision. Information kiosks
at railway stations and bank ATMs also use touch
screens as input device.
Fig. 2.25 : Touch screen
v. Graphic tablet
A graphics tablet consists of an electronic writing area and a
special "pen" that works with it. Graphic tablet allows artists
to create graphical images with motions and actions similar
to traditional drawing tools. The pen of the graphics tablet is
pressure sensitive. Hard or soft pressure on the tablet using
the pen can result in brush strokes of different width in an Fig. 2.26 : Graphic tablet
appropriate graphics program.
vi. Touchpad
A touchpad is a pointing device found on the portable computers
and some external keyboards. It allows us to move the mouse
pointer without the need of an external mouse. Touchpad is
operated by using finger and dragging it across the flat surface; as
the finger moves on the surface, the mouse cursor will move in Fig. 2.27 : Touchpad
that same direction. The touchpad also has two buttons below the
touch surface that enables to click.
vii. Joystick
Joystick is an input device used for playing video games, controlling
training simulators and robots. Joysticks and other game controllers
can also be used as pointing device. The joystick has a vertical
stick which can move in any direction. It can be used to control Fig. 2.28 :
Joystick

39
 objects in a video game or to make menu selections by the movement of a cursor
displayed on the screen. It has a button on the top that is used to select the option
pointed by the cursor.
viii. Microphone
A microphone can be attached to a computer to input sound. It accepts sound which is
analogue in nature as input and converts it to digital format. The digitised sound can be
stored in the computer for processing or playback. A
computer loaded with speech recognition software like
the one preinstalled in Windows 7, can convert what a
person has said into text, which can be saved for word
processing. A voice recognition program can process
the input and convert it into machine-recognisable
Fig. 2.29 : Microphone
commands.
ix. Scanner
Scanners can capture information, like pictures or text, and convert it into a digital
format that can be edited using a computer. The quality of the image depends on the
resolution of the scanner. The resolution of the image scanned is expressed in Dots Per
Inch (DPI). The higher the DPI, the better the resolution.
The different variants of scanners are flat bed, sheet feed
and hand held scanner. A sheet feed scanner can scan a
single sheet, whereas flat bed can scan even from a book,
but they are not portable. A hand held scanner is portable
but the scanning action is not smooth as the scanner is moved
manually. Fig. 2.30 : Scanner

Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software is used to recognise the printed text in
an image scanned and convert it into proper text format, which can be edited by a text
editor. Advanced OCR system can read printed text in a large variety of fonts but has
difficulty with hand written text. Accurate OCR SDK, Hindi OCR software, Akshara
Malayalam OCR, etc. are examples of OCR softwares.
x. Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR technology scans a printed form and reads
predefined positions, and records the marks on the
form. This technology is useful for applications in which
large number of hand-filled forms need to be
processed quickly with great accuracy, such as Fig. 2.31 : Optical Mark
objective type tests and questionnaires. Reader

40
 2. Components of the Computer System

OMR sheets are normaly use to evaluate multiple choice questions

in competitive exams. It consists of bubble shaped options to
mark answers. Candidates are required to darken the correct
bubble option using a pen or pencil. OMR readers can recognise
these marks and the appropriate software uses this input for
evaluation (refer Figure 2.31). For accuracy of results, good
quality paper and accurate alignment of printing is essential. Fig. 2.32 : OMR sheet
xi. Barcode/Quick Response (QR) code reader
A barcode is a set of vertical lines of different thickness and
spacing that represent a number. Barcode readers are devices
that are used to input data from such set of barcodes (refer
Figure 2.33). Hand-held scanners are commonly seen in shops
Fig. 2.33 : Barcode
to scan codes and price information for each of the items so
reader
that billing will be easier. Mobile phones with camera and special
software can also be used as a barcode reader.
A QR code is similar to barcodes. Barcodes are single dimensional
whereas QR codes are two dimensional as shown in Figure 2.34.
The two dimensional way of storing data allows QR code to store
more data than a standard barcode. This code can store website
URLs, plain text, phone numbers, email addresses and any other
alphanumeric data. The QR code can be read using a barcode Fig. 2.34 : QR code
reader or a mobile phone with a camera and a special software
installed.
xii. Biometric sensor
A biometric sensor is a device that identifies unique human
physical features with high accuracy. It is an essential
component of a biometric system which uses physical features
like fingerprints, retina, iris patterns, etc., to identify, verify and
authenticate the identity of the user. The three major types of
biometric sensors are semiconductor sensor, optical sensor Fig. 2.35 : Biometric
sensor
and ultrasound sensor. Figure 2.35 shows a finger print sensor.
xiii. Smart card reader
A smart card is a plastic card that stores and transacts data. The data card may contain
a memory or a microprocessor. Memory cards simply store data, while a microprocessor

41
 card, on the other hand, can add, delete and manipulate information in its memory. The
smart card is used in most banking, healthcare, telephone calling, electronic cash
payments and other applications.
Smart card readers are used to access data in a smart
card. It can be contact type or contactless. A contact
type of reader requires physical contact with the cards,
which is made by inserting the card into the reader. A
contactless type of reader works with a radio frequency
that communicates when the card comes close to the
reader. Many contactless readers are designed
specifically for toll gate payment in transportation
applications and person identity applications. Fig. 2.37 : Smart card reader

xiv. Digital camera

A digital camera can take pictures and videos and convert them into digital format.
Pictures or videos taken using a digital camera are stored inside its memory and can be
transferred to a computer by connecting the camera to it.
The quality of the lens, the density of Charge Couple
Device (CCD), resolution (measured in megapixel),
optical zoom and the software used in the camera
determines the quality of the picture. Each picture is
made up of thousands of tiny pixels (picture elements)
and the camera stores the data about the color of
each dot. The quality of the picture is determined by
Fig. 2.38 : Digital camera
the number of pixels in each picture. Digital cameras
have resolutions ranging from 2 mega pixel to 24
megapixels and optical zoom ranging from 3x to 60x.
Web camera is a compact and less expensive version of a digital
camera. It is used in computers for video calling, video chatting,
etc. It does not have an internal memory. Applications like
Skype, Yahoo Messenger, etc. use webcam to capture images.
Now, laptops also come with an inbuilt web camera.

Fig. 2.39 : Web

42
 2. Components of the Computer System

b. Output devices
Output devices are devices that print/display output from a computer. Outputs generated
by the output devices may be hardcopy output or softcopy output. Hardcopy outputs
are permanent outputs which can be used at a later date or when required. They produce
a permanent record on paper. The common output devices that produce hardcopy
outputs are printers and plotters. Softcopy outputs are electronic and are available on
the screen in a digital form. They do not produce a permanent record. A common
softcopy output device is the Visual Display Unit (VDU).
i. Visual Display Unit (VDU)
A Visual Display Unit (VDU) is an output device that visually conveys text, graphics
and video information. Information shown on a display device is called softcopy because
the information exists electronically and is displayed for a temporary period of time.
Display devices include Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors, Liquid Crystal Display
(LCD) monitors, Thin Film Transistor (TFT) monitors, Light Emitting Diode (LED)
monitors, gas plasma monitors.
Some of the characteristics of a VDU are size, resolution, pixel-pitch and response
time. VDUs are available in different sizes. The size of a monitor is measured diagonally
across the screen, in inches. The resolution of the monitor is the maximum number of
pixels it can display horizontally and vertically (such as 800 × 600 or 1024 × 768 or
1600 × 1200). The pixel spacing on the screen is called the dot pitch. A screen with
smaller dot pitch produces sharper images. Response time refers to the time taken for
a pixel to turn from a state of brightness to a state of darkness and then back again.
Monitors, with lesser response time provide better movie viewing experience.
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitor
The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitor resembles television sets of the past. Two types
of CRT monitors are available, monochrome and color. A monochrome monitor displays
characters and images in a single colour on a dark
background. Another variation of monochrome monitor
capable of displaying different shades of grey is called a
grey scale monitor. A colour monitor uses three different
basic colours such as red, blue and green to display 16
to 1 million different colours. These monitors are
preferred by some graphic artists for their accurate
colour rendering and by some gamers for faster response
to rapidly changing graphics. Fig. 2.40 : CRT monitor

43
 Flat panel monitor
Flat panel displays are thinner, lighter in weight, consume less power and emit less heat
compared to CRT monitors. Flat panel monitors are most commonly used in computers,
especially in laptops. Different types of flat panel monitors are LCD Monitors, LED
Monitors, Plasma Monitors and OLED Monitors.
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitors: LCD displays
consists of liquid crystals sandwiched between two plastic
plates. These crystals rearrange to form an image when an
electric current is passed through them. A light source at the
back of this plate makes the picture visible. This light source
Fig. 2.41 : LCD can be fluorescent lamp or LED.
Light Emitting Diode (LED) Monitors: LED monitors use LED directly behind the
liquid crystal display (LCD) in order to light up the screen. This technique is very effective
and gives each area of the screen its own light, which can be on or off. LED screens can
produce massive contrast ratios making the difference between the lights and the blacks
appear almost perfect. This technology is expensive. The advantage of using LED is
better color quality, clarity, wider viewing angle, faster refresh rates and power savings.
Plasma Monitors: A flat-panel display consists of sandwiching neon/xenon gas between
two sealed glass plates with parallel electrodes deposited on their surfaces. When a
voltage pulse is passed between two electrodes, the gas lights up as different colours,
creating images on a monitor. Plasma monitors provide high resolution but are expensive.
Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED) Monitors: The panel of OLED is made up
of millions of tiny LEDs. The O in OLED stands for organic which means there is
carbon in the light emitting layer of the panel. OLED screens are thinner and lighter than
LCDs and LEDs. They can produce better quality images and have a better viewing
angle. OLEDs consume less power, but are very expensive.
LCD projector
An LCD projector is a type of video projector for
displaying video, images or computer data on a large
screen or other flat surface. It is a modern equivalent
of the slide projector or overhead projector. A beam
of high-intensity light travels through thousands of
shifting pixels in an LCD display. This beam of light
then passes through a lens which projects and focuses
the image on the surface. Fig. 2.42 : LCD projector

44
 2. Components of the Computer System

ii. Printer
Printers are used to produce hardcopy output. Based on the technology used, they can
be classified as impact or non-impact printers. Impact printers use the typewriting or
printing mechanism where a hammer strikes the paper through a ribbon in order to
produce output. Dot-matrix printers fall under this category. Non-impact printers do
not touch the paper while printing. They use different technologies to print characters
on paper. Inkjet, Laser and Thermal printers fall under this category of printers.
Two factors that determine the quality of a printer are its resolution and speed. Resolution
is measured in terms of DPI. Speed is measured in terms of number of characters
printed in a unit of time and is represented as characters per second (cps), lines per
minute (lpm), or pages per minute (ppm).
Dot Matrix Printer (DMP)
Dot matrix printers use small electromagnetically activated
pins in the print head and an inked ribbon, to produce images
by impact. The most commonly used printer heads consists
of 9 pins. Certain printers use 24 pins for better print quality.
These printers are slow and noisy, and are not commonly
used for personal use. The Dot Matrix Printers are widely Fig. 2.43 : DMP Printer
used at cash counters in shops due to their low printing cost
and for the reason that we get carbon copies from them.
Inkjet printer
Inkjet printers form the image on the page by spraying tiny
droplets of ink from the print head. The printer needs several
colours of ink (cyan, yellow, magenta and black) to make
colour images. Some photo-quality ink jet printers have more
colours of ink. Ink jet printers are inexpensive, but the cost Fig. 2.44 : Inkjet Printer
of ink cartridges makes it a costly affair in the long run.
Laser printer
A laser printer produces good quality output. The image to
be printed is transferred to a drum using a laser beam. The
toner powder from the toner cartridge is then sprayed on
the drum. The toner powder sticks onto the portions traced
on the drum by the laser beam. It is transferred to a paper
by rolling the paper over the drum. Through heating the
powder is fused on to the paper. Fig. 2.45 : Laser printer

45
 Monochrome and colour laser printers are available. Colour laser printers use multiple
colour toner cartridges to produce colour output and are expensive. Laser printers are
faster and their speed is rated in pages per minute (ppm).
Thermal printer
Thermal printing produces a printed image by selectively heating
heat-sensitive thermal paper when it passes over the thermal
print head. The coating turns black in the areas where it is heated,
producing an image. Thermal printers print quiet and faster than
dot matrix printers. They are also smaller, lighter and consume
less power, making them ideal as portable printers. Thermal Fig. 2.46 :
printers are popular as printers at Point-of-Sale terminals. Thermal printer

Dot Matrix
Features Laser Printers Inkjet Printers Thermal Printers
Printers
Printing Ink powder Liquid ink Heat sensitive Ink soaked
material used paper ribbon
How it prints? It fuses the It sprays liquid Thermal paper is Pins are pushed
powder on the ink on paper passed over the against ribbon
through
paper through microscopic thermal print on paper.
heating. nozzles. head.

Printing speed 20 pages per 6 pages per 150 mm per 30 - 550

minute minute second characters per
second
Quality Printing quality Printing quality Poor quality Poor printing
is good. Best is good, printing of quality for
for black and especially for images. Good images. In
white. smaller fonts. quality text terms of text,
printing. printing is good.
Quiet, prints Quiet, high print Quiet, fast, smaller, Cheaper to print
Advantages faster, high quality, no warm lighter & consume as ribbon is
print quality. up time, device less power. cheap. Carbon
cost is less. Portable. copy possible.
More Ink is expensive, Requires special Initial purchase
Disadvantages susceptible to ink is not thermal quality is expensive,
paper jams. waterproof, and paper. Poor maintenance is
Toner is nozzle is prone quality printing. expensive,
expensive. to clogging. printing is not
Device itself is fast, makes
expensive. noise.
Table 2.3 : Comparison of printers

46
 2. Components of the Computer System

iii. Plotter
A plotter is an output device used to produce hardcopies of graphs and designs on the
paper. A plotter is typically used to print large-format graphs or maps such as construction
maps, engineering drawings and big posters. It is used in the design of cars, ships,
aircrafts, buildings, highways etc. Plotters are of two types: Drum plotters and Flatbed
plotters.
Drum plotter
A drum plotter is also known as roller plotter. It consists
of a drum or roller on which a paper is placed and the
drum rotates back and forth to produce the graph on
the paper. It also consists of a drawing arm that holds a
set of coloured ink pens or pencils. The drawing arm
moves side to side as the paper is rolled back and forth
through the roller. In this way, a perfect graph or map is
created on the paper. Fig.2.47 : Drum plotter

Flatbed plotter
A flatbed plotter is also known as table plotter. It plots on
paper that is spread and fixed over a rectangular flatbed
table. The flatbed plotter uses two drawing arms, each of
which holds a set of coloured ink pens or pencils. The
drawing arms move over the stationary paper and draw
the graph on the paper. Flatbed plotter is very slow in
Fig.2.48 : Flatbed plotter
drawing or printing graphs. The large and complicated
drawing can take several hours to print.
iv. Three dimensional (3D) printer
A 3D printer is a new generation output device used to print 3D objects. It can produce
different kinds of objects in different materials, using the same printer. A 3D printer can
print anything from ceramic cups to plastic toys, metal
machine parts, stoneware vases, fancy chocolate cakes,
etc.
The 3D printing process turns the object to be printed into
thousands of horizontal tiny little layers. It then prints these
layers from the bottom to top, layer by layer. These tiny
layers stick together to form a solid object. Fig.2.49 : 3D Printer

47
 v. Audio output device
The audio output is the ability of the computer to produce
sound. Speakers are the output device that produces sound.
It is connected to the computer through audio ports. The
speaker produces sound by the movement of the diaphragm
in the speaker, forward and backward according to the
electrical signals coming out of the audio port. For high quality
sound reproduction computers use 2.1 (3 speakers), 5.1 (5
speakers) and 7.1 (7 speakers) speaker systems. Fig.2.50 : Speakers

2.2 e-Waste
e-Waste refers to electronic products nearing the end of their "useful life". Electronic
waste may be defined as discarded computers, office electronic equipment, entertainment
device, mobile phones, television sets and refrigerators. The used electronics which are
destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling or disposal are also considered as e-
Waste.
Nowadays electronics is part of modern life - desktops, laptops, cell phones, refrigerators,
TVs and a growing number of other gadgets. Every year we buy new, updated
equipments to satisfy our needs. More than 300 million computers and one billion cell
phones are produced every year. All of these electronics goods become obsolete or
unwanted, often within two or three years of purchase. This global mountain of waste is
expected to continue growing at 8% per year.
Rapid changes in technology, changes in media, falling prices and planned obsolescence
have resulted in a fast-growing surplus of electronic waste around the globe. It is estimated
that 50 million tons of e-Waste are produced each year. Only 15-20% of e-Waste is
recycled, the rest of these materials go directly into landfills and incinerators. Sale of
electronic products in countries such as India and China and across continents such as
Africa and Latin America are set to rise sharply over the next 10 years.
2.2.1 Why should we be concerned about e-Waste?
Electronic waste is not just waste. It contains some very toxic substances, such as
mercury, lead, cadmium, brominated flame retardants, etc. The toxic materials can
cause cancer, reproductive disorders and many other health problems, if not properly
managed. It has been estimated that e-Waste may be responsible for up to 40% of the
lead found in landfills.

48
 2. Components of the Computer System

Chemical Source Consequence

Lead Found as solder on printed Lead can cause damage to the
circuit boards and in central and peripheral nervous
computer monitor glass. systems, blood systems, and kidneys
in humans.
Mercury Found in printed circuit Affect a baby's growing brain and
boards, LCD screen nervous system. Adults can suffer
backlights. organ damage, mental impairment
and a variety of other symptoms.
Cadmium Found in chip resistors and Cause various types of cancer.
semiconductors. Cadmium can also accumulate in,
and harm the kidneys.
BFRs-Brominated Found in printed circuit These toxins may increase the risk
Flame Retardants boards and some plastics. of cancer.
Table 2.4 : Hazardous chemicals, its source and consequence
2.2.2 What happens to the e-Waste?
Unfortunately, an incredibly small percentage of e-Waste is recycled. Even when we
take it to a recycling center it is often not actually recycled - in the way most of us
expect.
CRTs have a relatively high concentration of lead and phosphors both of which are
necessary for the display. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
included discarded CRT monitors in its category of “hazardous household waste”. The
majority of e-Waste is most often dumped or burned - either in formal landfills and
incinerators or informally dumped or burned. These inappropriate disposal methods
for electronic waste fail to reclaim valuable materials or manage the toxic materials
safely. In effect, our soil, water and air are
easily contaminated.
e-Waste should never be disposed with
garbage and other household wastes. This
should be segregated at the site and sold
or donated to various organisations.
Considering the severity of the e-Waste
problem, it is necessary that certain
management options be adopted by
government, industries and the public to Fig. 2.51 : Defective and obsolete electronic
handle the bulk e-Waste. items

49
 Realising the growing concern over e-Waste, Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
of Government of India has formulated "The e-Waste (Management & Handling) Rules,
2011" and are effective from 01-05-2012. These rules shall apply to every producer,
consumer, collection centre, dismantler and recycler of e-Waste involved in the
manufacture, sale and processing of electrical and electronic equipment or components.
The implementation and monitoring of these guidelines shall be done by the State Pollution
Control Boards concerned.
Government of Kerala has introduced strict measures for safe collection and disposal
of e-Waste through a government order. The government has defined the role of
manufacturers, local bodies and the Pollution Control Board (PCB) in safe disposal of
e-Waste. Under the Extended Producer Responsibility, manufacturers of electrical and
electronic goods will be required to take back used products from consumers directly
or through agents or introduce buyback arrangement. They will also have to supply the
e-Waste to authorised recycling units. Consumers have been directed to return used
products of known brands to the manufacturers or deposit them at the collection
centresset up by local bodies.The PCB will be required to identify agencies for recycling
or disposal of e-Waste and organise awareness programmes on e-Waste disposal.
2.2.3 e-Waste disposal methods
The following disposal methods can be used for disposing e-Waste.
a. Reuse: It refers to second-hand use or usage after the equipment has been
upgraded or modified. Most of the old computers are passed on to relatives/
friends or returned to retailers for exchange or for money. Some computers are
also passed on to charitable institutions, educational institutions, etc. Inkjet
cartridges and laser toners are also used after refilling. This method reduces the
volume of e-Waste generation.
b. Incineration: It is a controlled and complete combustion process in which the
waste is burned in specially designed incinerators at a high temperature in the
range of 900 to 1000 degree Celsius.
c. Recycling of e-Waste: Recycling is the process of making or manufacturing
new products from a product that has originally served its purpose. Monitors,
keyboards, laptops, modems, telephone boards, hard drives, compact disks,
mobiles, fax machines, printers, CPUs, memory chips, connecting wires and cables
can be recycled.
d. Land filling: It is one of the most widely used, but not recommended methods
for disposal of e-Waste. In this method soil is excavated from the trenches made
and waste material is buried in it, which is covered by a thick layer of soil.

50
 2. Components of the Computer System

2.2.4 Students’ role in e-Waste disposal

• Stop buying unnecessary electronic equipments.
• When electronic equipments get faulty try to repair it instead of buying a new one.
• Try to recycle electronic equipments by selling them or donating them to others
extending their useful life and keeping them out of the waste stream.
• If you really need to buy new electronics, choose items with less hazardous
substances, greater recycled content, higher energy efficiency, longer life span,
and those that will produce less waste.
• Visit the manufacturer's website or call the dealer to find out if they have a take
back programme or scheme for your discarded electronics.
• If the device is battery-operated, buy rechargeable instead of disposable batteries.
• Buy products with good warranty and take back policies
2.3 Green computing or Green IT
Green computing is the study and practice of environmentally sustainable computing or
IT. Green computing is the 'designing, manufacturing, using and disposing of computers
and associated components such as monitors, printers, storage devices, etc., efficiently
and effectively with minimal or no impact on the environment.'
One of the earliest initiatives towards green
computing was the voluntary labelling program
known as 'Energy Star'. It was conceived by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1992
to promote energy efficiency in hardware of all
kinds. The Energy Star label has become a
common sight, especially in notebook computers
and displays. Similar programs have been adopted Fig.2.52 : Energy Star label
in Europe and Asia. The commonly accepted
Energy Star symbol is shown in Figure 2.52.
Government regulation is only a part of an overall green computing idea. The work
habits of computer users and businesses have to be modified to minimise adverse impact
on the global environment. Here are some steps that can be taken:
• Turn off computer when not in use.
• Power-on the peripherals such as laser printers only when needed
• Use power saver mode.
• Use laptop computers rather than desktop computers whenever possible.
• Take printouts only if necessary.

51
 • Use Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) monitors rather than Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
monitors.
• Use hardware/software with Energy Star label.
• Dispose e-Waste according to central, state and local regulations.
• Employ alternative energy sources like solar energy.
The environmentally responsible and eco-friendly use of computers and their resources
is known as green computing.
How to make computers green?
The features that are important in making a computer greener include size, efficiency
and materials. Smaller computers are greener because they use fewer materials and
require less electricity to run. Efficient use of energy is also an important component of
a green computer. Smaller computers such as laptops are more energy-efficient than
bigger models and LCD screens use much less energy than the older CRT models. The
use of hazardous materials such as lead and mercury should be minimised. To promote
green computing the following four complementary approaches are employed:
Green design: Designing energy-efficient and eco-friendly
computers, servers, printers, projectors and other digital
devices.
Green manufacturing: Minimising waste during the
manufacturing of computers and other components to reduce
the environmental impact of these activities.
Green use: Minimising the electricity consumption of
computers and peripheral devices and using them in an eco-friendly manner.
Green disposal: Reconstructing used computers or appropriately disposing off or
recycling unwanted electronic equipment.

Check yourself

1. The environmentally responsible and eco-friendly use of computers and

their resources is known as _________.
2. The process of making or manufacturing new products from the product
that has originally served its purpose is called _______.
3. Compare dot matrix printers and laser printers.
4. List any two input and output devices each.

52
 2. Components of the Computer System

1. Conduct a survey in your locality to study the impact of

e-Waste on the environment and health of the people and
write a report.
Let us do 2. Discuss the importance of green computing.

2.4 Software
Software is a general term used to denote a set of programs that help us to use computer
system and other electronic devices efficiently and effectively. If hardware is said to
form the body of a computer system, software is its mind. There are two types of
software:
• System software
• Application software
2.4.1 System software
It is a set of one or more programs designed to control the operations of a computer.
They are general programs designed to assist humans in the use of computer system by
performing tasks such as controlling the operations, move data into and out of a computer
system and to do all the steps in executing application programs. In short, system
software supports the running of other software, its communication with other peripheral
devices. It helps the users to use computer in an effective manner. It implies that system
software helps to manage resources of the computer. Figure 2.53 depicts how system
software interfaces with user and hardware.

Fig. 2.53 : Software with user and hardware interface

53
 System software is a set of system programs which aids in the execution of a general
user's computational requirements on a computer system. The following are the
components of system software.
a. Operating system
b. Language processors
c. Utility software
a. Operating system
Operating system is a set of programs that acts as an interface between the user and
computer hardware. The primary objective of an operating system is to make the
computer system convenient to use. Operating system provides an environment for
user to execute programs. It also helps to use the computer hardware in an efficient
manner.
Operating system controls and co-ordinates the operations of a computer. It acts as the
resource manager of the computer system. Operating system is the most important
system software. It is the first program to be loaded from hard disk in the computer
and it resides in the memory till the system is shut down. It tries to prevent errors and
the improper use of computer.
Major functions of an operating system
The major functions of an Operating System are process management, memory
management, file management, security management and command interpretation.

Fig. 2.54 : Operating System as a resource manager

54
 2. Components of the Computer System

i. Process management
By the term process we mean a program in execution. The process management module
of an operating system takes care of the allocation and de allocation of processes and
scheduling of various system resources to the different requesting processes.
ii. Memory management
Memory management is the functionality of an operating system which handles or
manages primary memory. It keeps track of each and every memory location to ensure
whether it is allocated to some process or free. It calculates how much memory is to be
allocated to each process and allocates it. It de-allocates memory if it is not needed
further.
iii. File management
The file management module of an operating system takes care of file related activities
such as organising, naming, storing, retrieving, sharing, protection and recovery.
iv. Device management
Device management module of an operating system performs the management of devices
attached to the computer. It handles the devices by combining both hardware and
software techniques. The OS communicates with the hardware device via the device
driver software.
Examples of various operating systems are DOS, Windows, Unix, Linux, Mac OS X,
etc.
b. Language processors
We know that natural languages are the medium of communication among human beings.
Similarly, in order to communicate with the computer, the user also needs to have a
language that should be understood by the computer. Computer languages may be
broadly classified into low level languages and high level languages.
Low-level languages are described as machine-oriented languages. In these languages,
programs are written using the memory and registers available on the computer. Since
the architecture of computer differs from one machine to another, there is separate low
level programming language for each type of computer. Machine language and assembly
language are the different low level languages.
Machine language: We know that a computer can understand only special signals,
which are represented by 1s and 0s. These two digits are called binary digits. The
language, which uses binary digits, is called machine language. Writing a program in

55
 machine language is definitely very difficult. It is not possible to memorise a long string
of 0s and 1s for every instruction.
Assembly language: Assembly language is an intermediate-level programming language.
Assembly languages use mnemonics. Mnemonic is a symbolic name given to an operation.
For example ADD for addition operation, SUB for subtraction operation, etc. It is
easier to write computer programs in assembly language as compared to machine
language. It is machine dependent and programmer requires knowledge of computer
architecture.
High Level Languages (HLL): These are like English languages and are simpler to
understand than the assembly language or machine language. High level language is not
understandable to the computer. A computer program written in a high level language is
to be converted into its equivalent machine language program. So these languages require
a language translator (compilers or interpreters) for conversion. Examples of high level
programming languages are BASIC, C, C++, Java, etc.
Need for language processor
The programs consisting of instructions to the computer, written in assembly language
or high level language are not understood by the computer. We need language processors
to convert such programs into low level language, as computer can only understand
machine language. Language processors are the system programs that translate programs
written in high level language or assembly language into its equivalent machine language.
Types of language processors
l Assembler: Assembly languages require a translator known as assembler for
translating the program code written in assembly language to machine language.
Because computer can interpret only the machine code instruction, the program
can be executed only after translating. Assembler is highly machine dependent.
l Interpreter: Interpreter is another kind of language processor that converts a
HLL program into machine language line by line. If there is an error in one line, it
reports and the execution of the program is terminated. It will continue the
translation only after correcting the error. BASIC is an interpreted language.
l Compiler: Compiler is also a language processor that translates a program written
in high level language into machine language. It scans the entire program in a
single run. If there is any error in the program, the compiler provides a list of
error messages along with the line number at the end of the compilation. If there

56
 2. Components of the Computer System

are no syntax errors, the compiler will generate an object file. Translation using
compiler is called compilation. After translation compilers are not required in
memory to run the program. The programming languages that have a compiler
are C, C++, Pascal, etc.
Figure 2.55 shows process involved in the translation of assembly language and high
level language programs into machine language programs

Fig. 2.55 : Language processing

c. Utility software
Utility software is a set of programs which help users in system maintenance tasks and
in performing tasks of routine nature. Some of the utility programs with their functions
are listed below:
l Compression tools: Large files can be compressed so that they take less
storage area. These compressed files can be decompressed into its original form
when needed. Compression of files is known as zipping and decompression is
called unzipping. WinZip, WinRAR, etc. are examples of compression tools.
l Disk defragmenter: Disk defragmenter is a program that rearranges files on a
computer hard disk. The files are arranged in such a way that they are no longer
fragmented. This enables the computer to work faster and more efficiently.
l Backup software: Backup means duplicating the disk information so that in an
event of disk failure or in an event of accidental deletion, this backup may be
used. Backup utility programs facilitates the backing up of disk.

57
 l Antivirus software: A computer virus is a program that causes abnormality in
the functioning of a computer. Antivirus software is a utility program that scans the
computer system for viruses and removes them. As new viruses are released fre-
quently, we have to make sure that latest antivirus versions are installed on the
computer. Most of the antivirus programs provide an auto-update feature which
enables the user to download profiles of new viruses so as to identify and inacti-
vate them. Norton Antivirus, Kaspersky, etc. are examples of antivirus programs.
2.4.2 Application software
Software developed for specific application is called application software. It includes
general purpose software packages and specific purpose software. GIMP, Payroll
System, Airline Reservation System, Tally, etc. are examples of application software.
a. General purpose software packages
General purpose software are used to perform operations in a particular application
area. Such software is developed keeping in mind the various requirements of its users.
They provide a vast number of features for its users. General purpose software is
classified as word processors, spreadsheet software, presentation software, database
software and multimedia software.
l Word processing software: Word Processing software is designed for creating
and modifying documents. It helps to create, edit, format and print textual matters
easily. Formatting features include different font settings, paragraph settings, bul-
lets and numbering, alignments and more. In addition to this it can check spelling
and grammar in the document, insertion of pictures, charts and tables. We can
specify headers and footers for every page in the document. The most popular
examples of this type of software are MS Word, Open Office Writer, etc.
l Spreadsheet software: Spreadsheet software allows users to perform calcula-
tions using spreadsheets. They simulate paper worksheets by displaying multiple
cells that make up a grid. It also allows us to insert drawing objects in the worksheet
and create different types of charts for graphical representation of numerical data.
Microsoft Excel, Open Office Calc, Lotus 1-2-3 and Apple Numbers are some
examples of spreadsheet software.
l Presentation software: The software that is used to display information in the
form of a slide show is known as presentation software. Presentation software
allows preparing slides containing pictures, text, animation, video and sound

58
 2. Components of the Computer System

effects. Microsoft PowerPoint and Open Office Impress are examples for
presentation software.
l Database software: Database is an organised collection of data arranged in
tabular form. Database Management System (DBMS) consists of a collection of
interrelated data and a set of programs to access those data. The primary goal of
a DBMS is to provide an environment that is both convenient and efficient to use
in retrieving and storing database information. They provide privacy and security
to data and enforce standards for data. Examples of DBMS software are Microsoft
Access, Oracle, PostgreSQL, My SQL, etc.
l Multimedia software: Multimedia is the integration of multiple forms of media.
This includes text, graphics, audio, video, etc. Multimedia software can process
information in a number of media formats. It is capable of playing media files.
Some multimedia software allows users to create and edit audio and video files.
Audio converters, audio players, and video editing software are some forms of
multimedia software. Examples are VLC Player, Adobe Flash, Real Player,
Media Player, etc.
b. Specific purpose software
Specific purpose software is a highly specialised software designed to handle particular
tasks. These are tailor-made software to satisfy the needs of an organisation or institution.
It is also known as customised software. Since customised software is developed for a
single customer, it can accommodate that customer's particular preferences and
expectations. Some examples of specific purpose application software are listed in
Table 2.5.

Application Software Purpose

• Payroll System • Payroll system maintains the details of
employees of an organisation and keeps
track of their salary details.
• Inventory Management System • It is used for tracking inventory levels,
orders, sales and deliveries in a business
firm.
• Human Resource Management System • It is used for managing human resource
in an organisation.
Table 2.5 : Examples of Application Software

59
 Check yourself

1. Define operating system.

2. Give two examples for OS.
3. A program in execution is called ______.
4. Mention any two functions of OS
5. Name the software that translates assembly language program into ma-
chine language program.
6. Differentiate between compiler and interpreter.
7. DBMS stands for _________.
8. Give two examples for customised software.
9. Duplicating disk information is called _________.

2.5 Free and open source software

Free and open source software gives the user the freedom to use, copy, distribute,
examine, change and improve the software. Nowadays free and open source software
is widely used throughout the world because of adaptable functionality, less overall
costs, vendor independency, adherence to open standards, interoperability and security.
The Free Software Foundation (FSF) defines the four freedoms for free and open
source software:
Freedom 0 - The freedom to run program for any purpose.
Freedom 1 - The freedom to study how the program works and adapt it to your
needs. Access to source code should be provided.
Freedom 2 - The freedom to distribute copies of the software.
Freedom 3 - The freedom to improve the program and release your improve-
ments to the public, so that the whole community benefits.
The following are some of the examples of free and open source software:
GNU/Linux: GNU/Linux is a computer operating system assembled under the model
of free and open source software development and distribution. It was organised in the
GNU project introduced in 1983 by Richard Stallman in the FSF.

60
 2. Components of the Computer System

GIMP: It stands for GNU Image Manipulation Program. It is an image editing software.
It can be used for retouching photographs, creating and editing images. It supports
graphic files of different formats and allows converting from one format to another.
Mozilla Firefox: It is one of the most popular web browsers created by the Mozilla
Corporation. It provides added security features for safe browsing.
OpenOffice.org: It is a complete office suite that contains word processor (Writer) to
prepare and format documents, spreadsheets (Calc) and presentations (Impress). It
works on both Linux and Windows platforms.
2.6 Freeware and shareware
Freeware refers to copyrighted computer software which is made available for use free
of charge for an unlimited period.
The term shareware refers to commercial software that is distributed on a trial basis. It
is distributed without payment and with limited functionality. Shareware is commonly
offered in a downloadable format on the Internet. The distribution of this kind of software
aims at giving the users a chance to analyse the software before purchasing it. Some
shareware works for a limited period of time only.
Table 2.6 highlights a comparison between freeware and shareware:

Freeware Shareware
Freeware refers to software that anyone Sharewares give users a chance to try the
can download from the Internet and use software before buying it.
for free.
All the features are free. All features are not available.
To use all the features of the software, user
has to purchase it.
Freeware programs can be distributed free Shareware may or may not be distributed
of cost. freely. In many cases, author's permission
is needed to distribute the shareware.
Table 2.6 : Comparison of freeware and shareware

1. Conduct a debate on free software and proprietary software

2. Discuss four freedoms which make up a free software.

Let us do

61
 2.7 Proprietary software
Proprietary software is a computer program that is an exclusive property of its developer
or publisher and cannot be copied or distributed without licensing agreements. It is sold
without any access to source code and is therefore not possible to change or improve
by the user. Some examples of proprietary software are Microsoft Windows Operating
System, MS Office, Mac OS, etc.
2.8 Humanware or Liveware
Humanware or liveware refers to humans who use computer. It was used in computer
industry as early as 1966 to refer to computer users, often in humorous contexts by
analogy with software and hardware. It refers to programmers, systems analysts,
operating staff and other personnel working in a computer system (refer Table 2.7).
Humanware Job Description
System Administrators Upkeep, configuration and reliable operation of
computer systems; especially multi-user computers
such as servers.
Systems Managers Ensure optimal level of customer services and maintain
expertise in all business unit systems and develop
professional relationships with all vendors and
contractors.
System Analysts Design new IT solutions to improve business efficiency
and productivity.
Database Administrators Create, monitor, analyse and implement database
solutions.

Computer Engineers Design either the hardware or software of a computer

system.
Computer Programmers Write the code that computers read in order to operate
properly.
Computer Operators Oversee the running of computer systems, ensuring
that the machines are running, physically secured and
free of any bugs.

Table 2.7 : Examples of humanware

62
 2. Components of the Computer System

Check yourself

1. An example of free and open source software is ______.

2. The software that give users a chance to try it before buying is ______.
3. What do you mean by free and open source software?
4. Write an example of proprietary software.
5. Give two examples of human-ware.

Let us sum up
A computer system consists of hardware and software. Hardware refers to the
visible and tangible parts of computer. Processor, motherboard, peripheral and ports,
memory devices, input/output devices, etc. belong to hardware components of
computer. Memory is classified into primary and secondary memories. Primary
storage consists of RAM, ROM and cache. Seciondary storage devices are further
classified into magnetic storage, optical storage and semi conductor storage devices.
There are variety of input devices which include keyboard, mouse, light pen, touch
screen, graphic tablet, touchpad, joystick, microphone, scanner, OMR, barcode
reader, biometric sensor, smart card reader, digital camera, etc. Similarly, there are
output devices like visual display units, printers, plotters, audio output devices, etc.
The used electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling or disposal
are considered as e-Waste. There are different methods for e-Waste disposal which
include re-use, incineration, recycling, land filling, etc. Green computing is the study
and practice of environmentally sustainable computing or IT.
Software refers to the intangible or invisible part of the computer which is a set of
programs that help us to use computer system and other electronic devices efficiently
and effectively. Software is classified into system software and application software.
System software include operating system, language processors and utility software.
Application software is further divided into general purpose software and specific
purpose software. Free and open source software are available which give freedom
to use, copy, distribute, examine, change and improve the software. The term freeware
refers to software that can be downloaded from the Internet and use for free.
Shareware give users a chance to try the software before buying it. There is one
more component associated with computer, the humanware. It refers to humans
who use computer at various level.

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 Learning outcomes
After the completion of this chapter the learner will be able to
• explain the basic organisation of computer system.
• list the use of different types of input and output devices.
• distinguish between system software and application software.
• identify the importance of e-Waste disposal.
• identify the importance of green computing concept.
• classify the different types of software.
• list the functions of operating system.
• use word processor, electronic spreadsheets and presentation software.
• classify the different types of computer languages.
• list the uses of different types of utility software.
• promote open source software.
• explain the term humanware or liveware.

Sample questions
Very short answer type
1. What are the components of a digital computer?
2. Write the main functions of central processing unit.
3. What are the different types of main memory?
4. What is the advantage of EEPROM over EPROM?
5. When do we use ROM?
6. What is an input device? List few commonly used input devices.
7. What do you mean by an output device? List few commonly used output devices.
8. What is a storage device? List few commonly used storage devices.
9. What is the role of ALU?
10. What is a control unit?

64
 2. Components of the Computer System

11. What are registers? Write and explain any two of them.
12. Differentiate between hard copy and soft copy.
13. What is e-Waste?
14. What is operating system?
15. What is a language processor?
16. Mention the categories of computer languages.
17. What is disk defragmenter?
18. What is proprietary software?
19. What do you mean by open source software?
Short answer type
1. Briefly explain any three input devices.
2. Compare CRT with LED monitor.
3. Differentiate RAM and ROM.
4. List and explain e-Waste disposal methods.
5. Enumerate the steps that can be taken for the implementation of green computing
philosophy.
6. What do you mean by customized software? Give examples.
7. Distinguish between low level and high level languages.
8. Differentiate compiler and interpreter.
9. Describe the use of electronic spreadsheets.
10. What is utility software? Give two examples.
11. Categorise the software given below into operating system, application packages
and utility programs.
Linux, Tally, WinZip, MS-Word, Windows, MS-Excel
12. Differentiate between freeware and shareware.
13. What are the four freedoms which make up free and open source software?
14. What do you mean by humanware? Give any two examples.

65
 Long answer type
1. Describe in detail the various units of the Central Processing Unit.
2. Briefly explain various types of memory.
3. Explain the classification of printers.
4. "e-Waste is hazardous to our health and environment." Justify the statement. List
and explain the methods commonly used for e-Waste disposal.
5. Define the term green computing. List and explain the approaches that you can
adopt to promote green computing concepts at all possible levels.
6. List and explain various categories of software.
7. Describe the use of various utility softwares.
8. Define the term 'operating system'. List and explain the major functions of operat-
ing system.
9. List and explain general purpose application software with examples.

66
 With the advent of the computer and related
technologies, data processing has become simple,
accurate, interesting and fast. There are many
Key concepts software tools for handling character and numeric
• Electronic spreadsheet data. The software package for processing
software numbers and characters in tabular form is generally
• Spreadsheet basics
• Components of a
known as electronic spreadsheet. In this chapter
spreadsheet window we discuss the basic concepts of an electronic
• Entering data in a spreadsheet which will be hereafter referred as
spreadsheet
spreadsheet. Here we use different formulae for
• Working with formula
• Saving a spreadsheet various calculations, present the data in a well
• Closing and opening formatted manner and print the document. The
• Formatting a different ways of cell referencing are also discussed
spreadsheet - cells, here.
columns, rows, sheets,
merge cells
• Inserting cells, rows, 3.1 Spreadsheet software
columns or worksheets
A spreadsheet is an electronic document in which
• Deleting cells, rows,
columns and worksheets data is arranged in rows and columns in the form
• Editing features of a table. The data stored in the spreadsheet can
• Freezing rows and be manipulated and used in calculations as required.
columns
• Cell referencing
The problem with manual spreadsheets is that if
o Relative any error is found within the data, all the answers
o Absolute must be erased and recalculated manually. In the
• Page formatting and case of an electronic spreadsheet, formulae will
printing
o Print ranges
automatically update the results whenever data is
o Headers and footers changed. This also helps to answer 'What If'
o Page breaks questions, i.e., what will happen to the result if the
o Page style settings value of a data is changed? People in business often
o Printing
use this feature of spreadsheet for carrying out
o Export and PDF
business forecasting.
 VisiCalc is considered as the first spreadsheet program that combined
all essential features of a modern spreadsheet like interactive user
interface, automatic recalculation, formula lines, range copying, etc.
Dan Bricklin, a Masters student in Business Administration at Harvard
Business School was joined by Bob Frankston who wrote programs to develop VisiCalc
in 1979. VisiCalc was initially developed for Apple II and was later adapted to work
on IBM Personal Computers also. It was one among the first software available on an
IBM PC.

An electronic spreadsheet allows operations like entering, editing, formatting, calculating,

sorting, filtering, charting and analysing alpha numeric data. They are used for preparing
financial documents, reports, processing information from scientific researches, statistical
analysis, etc. Lotus1-2-3, Quattro Pro, Microsoft Excel, Open Office Calc, etc. are
well known examples of spreadsheet packages.
The following are the major features of an electronic spreadsheet:
• stores large volume of data in tabular form like marklists, financial statements from
a company, attendance sheet in a class, etc.
• carries out numeric calculations, comparisons and analysis using formulae and
functions.
• automatically updates results, if any change is made in the related data.
• provides text formatting features like alignment, borders, merge cells, font setting,
etc. and produce formatted reports/documents.
• offers facilities like sorting, filtering, etc.
• creates charts for graphical data analysis.
In this chapter we discuss the features of electronic spreadsheet based on Open Office
Calc in detail.

3.2 Spreadsheet basics

Electronic spreadsheet allows users to work with spreadsheets. A spreadsheet can
contain one or more worksheets. By default, there will be three worksheets in a
spreadsheet named Sheet1, Sheet2 and Sheet3. Each sheet consists of many rows
and columns. We can insert more sheets into a spreadsheet if required.

68
 3. Data Processing with Electronic Spreadsheet

Let us see how a worksheet looks like.

A Row

A Cell A Column

Fig.3.1 : Spreadsheet window

3.2.1 Rows and columns

A worksheet is organised in rows and columns. We can see a number of rows and
columns in the above worksheet as shown in Figure 3.1. At the top of all the rows there
is a grey coloured row called the column header and at the left end of all the columns
there is a grey coloured column called the row header. The column header displays the
column names A, B, C, .., Z, AA, AB,…..,etc. and row header displays the numbers 1,
2, 3, . . . , etc. The total number of rows and columns of the spreadsheet will be different
in different versions of the spreadsheet package.

3.2.2 Cell
Cell is the intersection of a column and a row. It is the smallest unit of the worksheet
where data and formula can be placed. Each cell has a unique address. It is referred by
the combination of the column name and the row number. For instance, the cell address
A5 means; the intersection of column A and row 5.

In Figure 3.1, D8 is the currently active cell where the cell pointer points to. Cell pointer
is the dark cell-boundary which can be moved anywhere in the worksheet. It is the cell
where the next entry would take place.

69
 3.2.3 Range
Range is a group of adjacent cells that form a rectangular area. A range may contain just
a single cell, or many cells. A range is specified by the addresses of the first cell in the
range and the last cell in the range. For instance, a range starting from B3 to E10 (Figure
3.2) is written as B3: E10, where ':' is the range indicator. The smallest range is a single
cell and the largest range is the entire worksheet.

Range B3:E10

Fig. 3.2 : Range of cells

3.3 Components of a spreadsheet window

The main components of a spreadsheet window are Menu bar, Toolbars, Formula bar,
Sheet tab and Status bar as shown in Figure 3.3. Let us discuss these components.

3.3.1 Menu bar

Menu bar contains pull down menu options like File, Edit, View, Insert, Format,
Tools, Data, Window and Help. Each contains various options to perform operations
on spreadsheet.
File menu contains menu options that apply to the entire spreadsheet like Open, Save,
Export, Print, etc. Edit menu consists of features like Cut, Copy, Paste, Find, Replace,
Undo, etc. View menu contains options for displaying toolbars, viewing full screen, etc.

70
 3. Data Processing with Electronic Spreadsheet

Menu bar Toolbar Formula bar

Name box

Rows
Columns

Sheet tabs

Status bar

Fig. 3.3 : Components of spreadsheet window

Format menu consists of command for formatting cells, columns, rows, sheets, etc.
Data menu provides features for sorting, filtering, etc. Window menu allows to freeze
and split the window displayed.

3.3.2 Toolbars
Toolbars contain icons or short-cut buttons for commonly used menu commands. The
two important Toolbars are Standard toolbar and Formatting toolbar. A Standard
toolbar consists of icons for saving, opening existing spreadsheets, creating new
spreadsheets, cut, copy, paste, print, etc. Formatting toolbar contains icons and listboxes
for formatting spreadsheet like changing font, style, size, alignments, etc.

3.3.3 Formula bar

Formula bar consists of Name Box, Function Wizard, Sum Button, Function Button
and Input line. On the leftmost side of the formula bar is a small text box called Name
Box. It displays the address of the current cell. When a range of cells is selected, the
name box displays the range. The Function Wizard button opens a dialog box consisting
of the built-in function available in spreadsheet. The Sum button is used to calculate
and display the sum. Clicking the function button inserts an '=' sign in the Input line, that
allows the user to enter a formula. Input line displays the contents of the current cell. If
the cell contains a formula, it displays the formula, not the resultant value.

71
 3.3.4 Sheet tab
Sheet tab shows the worksheets available in the spreadsheet. We can use Sheet tab
option to switch from one sheet to another. It provides an easy way to copy, move,
delete, insert and rename the sheets.
3.3.5 Status bar
The Status bar is an area where the current status about the worksheet is displayed.
For example, the result of certain operations like sum, average, etc. of a selected range
will be displayed here.

Check yourself

1. In a worksheet, ________ is formed when a row meets a column.

2. A worksheet file with one or more sheets is called ________.
3. In a worksheet, D10: H25 is called a ________.
4. The cell having a bold boundary is the ________cell.
a. first b. last c. current d. next
5. The user can move from one sheet to another in a worksheet is done using
________of spreadsheet window.
6. ________shows the address of the current cell.
7. The short-cut buttons of important commands are present in ________.
a. Menu bar b. Toolbar c. Formula bar d. Status bar

3.4 Entering data in a worksheet

We can enter different types of data like numbers, text, date and time or formula in a
worksheet. To enter data in a cell, place cell pointer in the desired cell, and then type
the data.
To edit the contents of a selected cell, press the function key, F2 or double click in the
cell. Editing can also be done by clicking and typing in the Input line box in the Formula
bar.

72
 3. Data Processing with Electronic Spreadsheet

The following are the different types of data that can be entered in a cell.

a. Numbers
Worksheets are mainly used for entering and manipulating numeric data. By default,
numbers are right aligned as shown in Figure 3.4. To enter a negative number either
type a minus ( - ) sign to the left of it or enclose it in parenthesis. Examples of numbers
are 35, 225.75, -50, (105.5).

b. Text
Texts are alphanumeric data entered in a worksheet. By default, text is left-aligned in a
cell. To enter a number as text, put a single quote (') to the left side of the number.

Numeric data
(right aligned in
a cell)

Text data
(left aligned in a cell)
Fig. 3.4 : Text and numeric data
c. Date and Time
Spreadsheet recognises a variety of date and time formats. The date elements can be
seperated using a slash (/) or hyphen (-). Time elements can be seperated using colon
(:). Some examples are 12/01/2014, 10:00:00 AM.

d. Formula
A formula is an equation that begins with an equal (=) sign. The cell containing a formula
displays the resultant value of the formula. A formula can be used to show a relationship
between cells. It can contain operators. The commonly used operators are +, -, *, / and
^ (exponentiation). A formula can also contain functions. We will discuss about functions
in the next chapter. For example, a formula that calculates the sum of the values of the
cells A1 and B1, is written as = A1 + B1.

73
 3.5 Working with formula
Let us consider the salary details of the employees of a company ABC Ltd. The salary
details consists of Employee number, Name of the employee, Designation, Basic Pay,
Dearness Allowance (DA), Provident Fund deduction and Net Salary as shown in
Figure 3.5.

Fig. 3.5 : Salary details of ABC Ltd.

Let us calculate DA and Net Salary of each employee. DA is calculated as 40% of the
Basic Pay. Net Salary can be calculated using the formula
Net Salary = Basic Pay + DA - PF
The DA of the first employee is to be calculated and displayed in the cell E3. For this
place the cell pointer in cell E3 and enter the formula =D3 *40/100 as shown in Figure
3.6. The cell D3 contains the Basic Pay of the first employee. The formula for calculating
DA can also be calculated as =D3*40%.

Fig. 3.6 : Formula for calculating DA

After pressing the Enter key, the result of the formula is displayed in the cell E3. Now
we need to find the DA of other employees. This can be done by copying the formula
to other cells in the column E. For this, select the cell E3 and move the mouse pointer to
the right bottom corner of the cell. Note that the mouse pointer turns to a thin + symbol.
Click and drag downwards to copy the formula to other cells. The result is displayed
as in the Figure 3.7.

74
 3. Data Processing with Electronic Spreadsheet

Fig. 3.7 : DA calculated for all employees

Now, to calculate the Net Salary, use the formula = D3+E3-F3 in cell G3 and then copy
the formula to the cells below. The result is displayed as in Figure 3.8. Note that the cell
contains the result of the formula and the Input line in the Formula bar displays the
formula as in Figures 3.7 and 3.8.

Fig. 3.8 : Salary Bill of ABC Ltd.

3.6 Saving a spreadsheet
Spreadsheets can be saved using the Save option from the File menu (File à Save).
We can also save using the Save button on the Standard toolbar or by pressing Ctrl+S
keys on the keyboard. In the Save As dialog box that appears, choose a folder, enter
a file name and then click the Save button. The file is saved with the extension .ods.
The file extension for the file may differ with package and version. For example, Microsoft
Excel uses .xls or .xlsx as extension.
Once the file is saved, selecting the save option again will update the same file. If you
need to save the file with a new name, choose the Save As option in the File menu
(File à Save As).

3.7 Closing and opening spreadsheets

After finishing the work with the current spreadsheet, we can close it using the Close
option in the File menu (File à Close). If changes are made to the spreadsheet after
the last save, the spreadsheet prompts a dialog box as to whether to save the changes

75
 or not. Note that closing a spreadsheet does not exit the spreadsheet application. To
exit a spreadsheet application use File à Exit.
To open an existing spreadsheet, choose File à Open. In the Open dialog box that
appears select the file and click Open.

• The loan details of customers in a finance company are shown

in the table. Use these details to find the interest payable. The
interest is calculated using the formula Loan Amount × Number
of Years × Rate of Interest. Interest is calculated at the rate of
Let us do
12%.
Loan No. Name Loan Years Interest
Amount Amount
L301 Rohith 60000 2
L302 Krishna 80000 1
L303 Anoop 10000 2
L304 Bipin 90000 3

3.8 Formatting a spreadsheet

The general appearance and arrangement of data in a spreadsheet is known as formatting.
Formatting makes the worksheet attractive. Formatting mainly focuses on numbers,
text (font, font size, font colour) and setting alignment, borders and background. The
data in a spreadsheet can be formatted in several ways.

3.8.1 Formatting cells

The cell formatting options are available in the Cells menu item of the Format menu
(Format à Cells…). It displays a Format Cells dialog box as shown in Figure 3.9.
Numbers, font, font effects, alignment, borders, background, etc. can be formatted
using Format Cells dialog box. The general appearance and arrangement of data in a
cell or a range of cells is known as cell formatting. In the following section we will
discuss the different cell formatting features.

a. Formatting numbers
The number formats can be applied to data in the cells using the Numbers tab of the
Format Cells dialog box. The appearance of numbers in a cell can be changed as
Percentage, Currency, Date, Time, Scientific, etc. The number of decimal places,
leading zeros, thousands separator, etc. can also be specified using this option. Note

76
 3. Data Processing with Electronic Spreadsheet

that the value in the cell is not

affected while formatting.

b. Formatting font
Font tab of Format Cells dialog
box is used to change the font
face, size and style (bold,
italics) of a cell or a range of
cells. Effects like font colour,
underline, overline, strike
through and shadow can be
specified using the Font Effects
tab. Some of these options are
Fig. 3.9 : Format Cells dialog box
also available in the Formatting
toolbar.

c. Aligning cell content

The contents in a cell can be aligned both horizontally and vertically using the Alignment
tab of Format Cells dialog box. Indentation can be specified to the text inside a cell.
The orientation of the text inside a cell can be mentioned.

d. Setting borders
The Borders tab is used to set the borders, its style and colour. The spacing of text from
the border can also be specified. A shadow can be given to cells using the Shadow
Style option in the Borders tab.

e. Setting background colour

A background colour can be given to a cell using the Background tab. A colour set can
be removed by selecting the No Fill option in this tab.
The salary details spreadsheet of ABC Ltd. can be given cell formatting to appear as in
Figure 3.10.

Fig. 3.10 : Salary Bill of ABC Ltd. after cell formatting

77
 3.8.2 Formatting columns
Column formatting features are available in the Column option of the Format menu
(Format à Column). The different options in the Column submenu helps to set the
column width, optimal column width, hide or show columns.
To set the width of a column, select the required column and choose Width option from
the Column submenu. Enter the required width in the dialog box that appears. The
Optimal Width option is used to resize the width of the column to the minimum required
width that suits the contents of the selected cell. The value given in the Add box of
Optimal Column Width dialog box shown in Figure 3.11 adds the specified value to
this minimum width for the column. Note that by double clicking on the right border of
the column header, the column
can be resized to fit the longest
entry in the column.
We can hide a column by first
selecting a cell in the column to
be hidden and then use the
menu item Format à Column
à Hide. The column will be
Fig. 3.11 : Optimal Column Width dialog box hidden on the screen, but the
data in the column will be used
for the calculations in the sheet. Column hiding is generally used before printing. We can
verify whether columns are hidden by checking the column header names. A hidden
column can be made visible by selecting the adjacent columns and then use the menu
item Format à Column à Show.

3.8.3 Formatting rows

The row formatting options are available in the Format à Row menu. The height of a
row or the optimal height of the row can be set using this feature. Options for hiding or
displaying are also available here.
To set the height of a row, select the menu option Format à Row à Height. The
Optimal Height, i.e., the minimum height required for the selected row can be set using
Format à Row à Optimal Height menu option. To hide a row, select a cell in the row
and then choose menu item Format à Row à Hide. Hidden rows can be identified
by verifying the row header names. To make hidden rows visible, select the rows above
and below the hidden row and then use the menu option Format à Row à Show.

78
 3. Data Processing with Electronic Spreadsheet

3.8.4 Formatting sheets

By default, a spreadsheet consists of three worksheets named Sheet1, Sheet2 and
Sheet3. A worksheet can be renamed using the menu option Format à Sheet à
Rename. This displays a dialog box that prompts the user to enter a new name for the
selected sheet. Renaming can also be done by clicking the right mouse button on the
sheet name and selecting Rename option from the menu that appears. A sheet can be
hidden by selecting the menu item Format à Sheet à Hide. This hides the currently
selected sheet. To view the hidden sheets, use the menu option Format à Sheet à
Show. The hidden sheets will be
displayed in Show Sheet dialog
box as shown in Figure 3.12.
Select the sheet to be displayed
and click OK.

3.8.5 Merge cells

Combining multiple cells into one
cell is called merging of cells.
Merging is often used when a title
is to be centered over a particular
Fig. 3.12 : Show Sheet dialog box
section of a spreadsheet. When a
group of adjacent cells are merged,
only the text in the upper-leftmost box is displayed in the merged cell. The data in the
other cells will be lost. The merged cell will have the address of the upper-leftmost cell.
Select the cells to be merged and use the Merge Cells option from Format menu
(Format à Merge Cells). We can also use the Merge Cell button in the Format toolbar.
In our example, we will merge the cells A1:G1. To move the heading to the centre of the
salary statement use the Alignment tab of Format Cells dialog box. The result is as
shown in Figure 3.13.

Fig. 3.13 : Merged and center aligned heading

79
 • Prepare a neatly formatted timetable of your class. Format
the cells with proper font type, size and colour (different colour
for different subjects). The first row should display the class
name in merged form.
Let us do

Check yourself…

1. The function key used to edit the contents of a cell is ________

2. The symbol used in spreadsheet for exponentiation is ________
3. What do you mean by optimal width of a column?
4. How can you hide a worksheet in a spreadsheet?
5. What is merging of cells?
6. Another way to enter the number -55 in a cell is ________

3.9 Inserting cells, rows, columns and worksheets

We can insert cells, rows or columns in a specified position of a worksheet. This feature
is often needed while working with spreadsheet. After insertion the column names and
row numbers are automatically rearranged. The cell addresses referred in the existing
formulae are adjusted accordingly.

a. Inserting cell
We can insert blank cells above or to the left of the active cell on a worksheet. This will
shift the cells below in the same column downwards or in the same row to the right. We
can also insert rows above and columns to the left of the active cell on a worksheet. To
insert a cell, use the Cells… option from the Insert menu (Insert à Cells …). Note that
if more than one cell is selected, it will insert the same number of cells selected.
Consider the worksheet given in Figure 3.14. Let us now insert a cell in the position B4.
Select B4 and choose Cells from the Insert menu. In the Insert Cells dialog box, choose
the option Shift cells down. The result is displayed as in the Figure 3.15.

80
 3. Data Processing with Electronic Spreadsheet

Fig. 3.15 : Worksheet after cell

Fig. 3.14 : Insert Cells dialog box
insertion
b. Inserting row
To insert a single row, select the row or a cell in the row above where a new row is to
be inserted. For example, to insert a new row above row 4, click a cell in row 4. To
insert multiple rows, select the same number of rows above where the rows are to be
inserted. Rows can be inserted using the Rows option of Insert menu (Insert à Rows).

c. Inserting column
To insert a single column, select the column or a cell in the column immediately to the
right of the new column to be inserted. For example, to insert a new column to the left
of column B, click a cell in column B. To insert multiple columns, select the same number
of columns immediately to the right of the new columns to be inserted. For example, to
insert three new columns, select three columns. Columns can be inserted using the
Columns option of Insert menu (Insert à Columns). We can also right click the column
name and choose Column option from the popup menu.
Let us insert a new column Gross Salary in our Salary Bill example before the PF
column. Select the column F, choose Column option from the Insert menu and type
'Gross' as the column heading. The worksheet will now appear as in Figure 3.16.
Gross Salary is the sum of Basic Pay and DA. Type the formula for calculating Gross
Salary =D3+E3 in the cell F3 and copy it to the cells below.

Fig. 3.16 : Pay Bill after inserting a new column

81
 d. Inserting a worksheet
A worksheet can be added to a spreadsheet using the menu item Sheet … from the
Insert menu. To insert a sheet, select the sheet before or after which the new sheet or
sheets are to be inserted from the Sheets tab. Choose Insert à Sheet… It will display
the Insert Sheet dialog box as in Figure 3.17. We can specify the position of the sheet,
number of sheets, name of sheet, etc. in this dialog box.

Fig. 3.17 : Insert Sheet dialog box

3.10 Deleting cells, rows, columns and worksheets
Spreadsheet provides us the facility to delete the desired number of cells, rows, columns
or worksheets. Select the cell, row or column to be deleted. Choose Delete Cells …
option from Edit menu (Edit à Delete Cells…). If cells are selected the Delete Cells
dialog box as shown in Figure 3.18 appears. The dialog box displays options to Shift
cells up, Shift cells left, Delete entire row(s) and Delete entire column(s). Choose
an option and click OK.
If a range of cells are to be
deleted, select from the options
Shift cells up or Shift cells left
in the Delete Cells dialog box
based on requirement.
If the entire row or multiple
rows are selected by clicking
Fig. 3.18 : Delete Cells dialog box
the row headers, the Delete

82
 3. Data Processing with Electronic Spreadsheet

Cells option of the Edit menu will delete the entire rows. Similarly if entire column or
columns are selected, the Delete Cells option will delete the entire columns. Note that
Delete Cells dialog box will not be displayed in these cases.

It is possible to remove a worksheet permanently from the workbook. From the Edit
menu, select Delete option from the Sheet sub menu (Edit à Sheet à Delete). This
will prompt a confirmation dialog box for deleting the selected sheet.

3.11 Editing features in spreadsheets

Spreadsheets provide various editing features to fill a range with a value or a series of
values, copy or move a cell or range of cells, delete the contents of cells, etc. These
easy to use features enhance the usage of various data manipulation operations in a
spreadsheet.

3.11.1 Filling a range

A range of cells can be filled with
a value or a series. To fill a
range of cells with the same
value, enter the value in a cell
and select the range of cells in
which the values are to be filled.
Select the menu item Fill from
Edit menu and choose the Fig. 3.19 : Fill Series dialog box
appropriate direction.
To fill a range of cells with a series of values, type the starting value and then select the
range of cells to be filled. Choose the Edit à Fill à Series option. A dialog box as in
Figure 3.19 appears.
This dialog box allows
to set direction, series
type, start value, end
value and increment
value. Choose the
appropriate option and
click OK.
Fig. 3.20 : Filling Series examples

83
 A shortcut way to fill cells is to click on the Fill Handle in the lower right hand corner of
the cell and drag it in the direction to be filled. If the cell contains a number, the number
will fill in series. If the cell contains a text, the same text will fill in the direction you
choose (Figure 3.20).

3.11.2 Copying and moving cells

The contents of a cell or a
range of cells can be copied to
another cell in the worksheet.
For this, select the range and
then choose Copy from the Edit
menu. The contents of the cell
are copied to the special
memory area called clipboard
of the operating system. Select
the destination cell and choose
Paste option from Edit menu.
The contents are pasted to the
new location from the
Fig. 3.21 : Paste Special dialog box
clipboard. The Paste Special
option in the Edit menu given in Figure 3.21 allows advanced paste options. Formulae,
text, numbers, formatting, etc. can be selectively copied using this feature.
The contents of a cell or a range of cells can be moved to another cell in the worksheet.
For this, select the range and then choose Cut option from the Edit menu. Select the cell
to which the contents are to be moved and choose Paste option from the Edit menu.
Here also the contents are copied
to the clipboard and then moved to
the new location. The contents can
also be moved by dragging the
selected cells.

3.11.3 Deleting cell contents

The contents of a cell can be deleted
using the menu option Delete
Contents… from the Edit menu (Edit
à Delete Contents…) or using Fig. 3.22 : Delete Contents dialog box

84
 3. Data Processing with Electronic Spreadsheet

Delete key on the keyboard. This displays a Delete Contents dialog box as shown in
Figure 3.22. Using this option the text, numbers, formula, formats, etc. can be deleted
in the selected range. The Delete all option deletes the entire content of the cells within
the selected range.
3.12 Freezing rows and columns in a worksheet
Freezing locks a specified number of rows at the top of a spreadsheet or a specified
number of columns on the left of a spreadsheet or both. While scrolling inside the sheet,
the frozen columns and rows always remain in view. Freezing is the act of making a
selected set of columns or rows immovable while scrolling the worksheet. To freeze
rows, click on the row header below the rows to be frozen. Select Freeze option from
Window menu (Window à Freeze). Similarly, to freeze columns, click on the column
header to the right of the columns to be frozen and select the Freeze option from the
menu. After freezing rows 1 and 2, the Pay Bill worksheet will appear as in Figure 3.23
when scrolled 2 rows down. Note that in the figure, rows 3 and 4 have moved up and
rows 1 and 2 remain frozen as we have scrolled down.

Fig 3.23 : Pay Bill after freezing rows 1 and 2

Check yourself

1. How do you insert a cell in a worksheet?

2. What are the two methods of moving a range in a worksheet?
3. The act of making a column or row immovable is referred _______.
4. How can you fill the same value in a range of cells?
5. What is the difference between deleting a cell and deleting cell contents?

85
 3.13 Cell referencing
Every cell in a spreadsheet has a cell reference which acts as an address of the cell.
These references can be used in formulae to perform various calculations. When the
data in a cell which is referenced elsewhere is changed, the formula which contains the
reference will be recalculated to reflect the change.
When a cell is referenced in a formula, the reference (cell address) can either be typed
in the formula or the mouse can be used to click on the cell to create a reference to it.
Any cell reference entered in a formula will be colour coded. The formula will show
different colours for different references and the cells will be outlined with the same
colour used in the formula as shown in Figure 3.24.

Fig. 3.24 : Colour coded cell references

In Figure 3.24, the formula for calculating Net Salary, = D3 + E3 - G3 is in the cell H3.
Note that the cells D3, E3 and G3 are outlined with the same colour as that of the
reference in the formula. The two different types of references are relative and absolute.
They behave differently when copied or filled to other cells.

3.13.1 Relative cell references

Most of the references in a spreadsheet are relative. Relative cell references are cell
references that adjust and change when copied or used with AutoFill feature. In relative
referencing, the cell addresses get adjusted automatically with reference to the current
cell during copying of the formula.

Fig. 3.25 : Relative cell references

86
 3. Data Processing with Electronic Spreadsheet

In relative references, cell references will move to be in the same positions relative to
the new cell. Consider the Figure 3.24. When the Net Salary in cell H3 is copied to cell
H4, the references in the formula changes as = D4 + E4 - G4 as in Figure 3.25. This is
because D3, E3 and G3 are relative references and they move to the same relative
positions in the next row namely, D4, E4 and G4. Relative references are convenient
when the same calculation is to be repeated across multiple rows or columns.

3.13.2 Absolute cell references

Sometimes you do not want references to change when you copy a formula to a different
cell. In such cases you can go for absolute referencing. Absolute references remain
constant, no matter where they are copied. To make a reference absolute, put a Dollar
($) sign before both the row and column parts of the reference. To make an absolute
reference to cell A3, use $A$3 in the formula.

Fig. 3.26 : Absolute cell references

In our Salary Bill example, we calculated DA as 40% of the Basic Pay. Percentage of
DA of employees varies periodically. Each time a change occurs, we need to change
the formula of DA and drag and copy it to other cells. To avoid this, we can store the
percentage of DA in cell D2 as in Figure 3.26. All the cells in the DA column have to
refer to the cell D2 irrespective of the position of the cells to calculate the DA. This can
be done by making the cell D2 as absolute ($D$2) in the formula. Now the formula for
calculating DA is = D4 * $D$2 / 100 as shown in Figure 3.26.

Fig. 3.27 : Salary Bill of ABC Ltd.

87
 Now drag the formula in the cell E3 to the cells below. Note that the cell reference $D$2
remains the same in all the copied cells. Now the Salary Bill appears as in Figure 3.27.
When the percentage of DA changes, the cell D2 needs to be updated and the calculated
DA of all employees changes automatically.

3.14 Page formatting and printing a worksheet

After creating a worksheet, we may require its hard copy. Before printing a worksheet
we need to format the worksheet. Various print formatting features allow to select the
paper size, set margins, print range, etc. The Print Preview option in the File menu
displays how the page appears in the printout. We will discuss the different print
formatting features of a spreadsheet.

3.14.1 Print ranges

Print ranges allow to print only a specific part of the data or selected rows or columns
on pages. To define a print range or modify an existing print range, select the range of
cells to be printed and then choose Format à Print Ranges à Define. The Print
Preview will display only the defined range. A defined print range can be removed by
using the option Format à Print Range à Remove. This removes all the defined print
ranges on the sheet.
If a sheet is printed on multiple pages, we can setup certain rows or columns to repeat
on each printed page. Consider the Salary Bill of ABC Ltd. as shown in Figure 3.27. If
this worksheet consisted of salary details of many employees, it has to be printed in
many pages. It would be better if the first three rows are repeated on each page. This
can be done using the option Format à Print Range à Edit. To select the rows or
columns to repeat, use the Shrink button against each option in the Edit Print Ranges
dialog box that appears. Select the rows or columns to repeat using the cursor and then
press the button again. Figure 3.28 displays the Edit Print Ranges dialog box.

Shrink Button

Fig. 3.28 : Edit Print Ranges dialog box

88
 3. Data Processing with Electronic Spreadsheet

3.14.2 Headers and footers

Headers are text appearing on the top of every page in a document. Footers are text
appearing at the bottom of each page. The text can be page numbers, name of the
document, date/time of creation of the document, author name, etc. They are useful
when the document is printed. Headers and footers can be given to a spreadsheet using
the Headers & Footers… option of the Edit menu (Edit à Headers & Footers…). A
Header/Footer dialog box appears as in Figure 3.29. The headers and footers can be
chosen from the list of predefined items like, page number, author, etc. or customised
according to users requirements.

Fig 3.29 : Header/Footer dialog box

3.14.3 Page breaks
If the contents of a worksheet are lengthy, the spreadsheet software automatically inserts
page breaks depending on the paper size while printing. Page breaks can be inserted
manually in a worksheet to ensure proper page organisation. A row page break inserts
a break above the active cell and a column page break inserts a page break to the left
of the active cell. Row page break is available at Insert à Manual Break à Row
Break and column page break is available at Insert à Manual Break à Column
Break.
To remove a manual page break, select the cell below the row break or the cell to the
right of the column break. Now choose Edit à Delete Manual Break à Row Break
or Edit à Delete Manual Break à Column Break.

89
 3.14.4 Page style setting

The paper size / format, page

orientation and margins can be set
using this option. The paper sizes
can be A4, Legal, Letter, etc. or
customised according to users
need. The page orientation can be
portrait or landscape. The margins
can be adjusted manually. Page
styles can be set using the Format
à Page… menu option. Figure
3.30 displays the Page Style
Fig. 3.30 : Page Style dialog box dialog box.

3.14.5 Printing a spreadsheet

The Print option of File menu can be used to print a spreadsheet. We can select the
printer in which the spreadsheet is to be printed, the range to be printed, the number of
copies, the pages to be printed,
etc. using the General tab of the
Print dialog box as shown in Figure
3.31. The Page Layout tab of
Print dialog box allows to select
the number of pages to be printed
on each sheet and the order in
which the pages are to be printed.
A preview of the page is also
Fig. 3.31 : Print dialog box available in this dialog box.

3.14.6 Export as PDF

Calc can export documents to PDF (Portable Document Format), which allows the file
to be viewed on any platform. PDF is a popular format for transferring files to others.
Note that once a sheet is converted to PDF format, it is not easily editable. A worksheet
can be exported to the PDF format using the menu option File à Export as PDF… In
the PDF Options dialog box shown in Figure 3.32, the range of pages to be converted
to PDF, the quality of the images, etc. can be specified.

90
 3. Data Processing with Electronic Spreadsheet

Fig. 3.32 : PDF Options dialog box

Check yourself

1. What is a cell reference?

2. What do you mean by header and footer in a spreadsheet?
3. What is a print range?
4. How can you insert a manual page break?
5. What is the advantage of exporting a worksheet to PDF format?

Let us sum up
We have now discussed the various operations that can be performed with the help
of spreadsheet package. The different components of the spreadsheet window and
its uses have been familiarised. It is an excellent tool for storing huge volume of data
(text, numbers, date and time, formula). The data entered in a cell can be formatted,
formulae can be inserted and many calculations can be done easily. The data in the
cells can be formatted using different font styles, sizes, colours, borders, etc. The
appearance of the different types of data, the width and height of columns and rows
can be set. The cells in the worksheet can be merged using the merge feature. A

91
 range can be selected, copied or moved to other locations. Cells, rows, columns or
worksheets can be inserted or deleted based on requirements. A range of cells can
be filled with values using the Fill Series option in the spreadsheet. Columns or rows
can be made immovable (freezed). Different types of cell references while copying
formulae, are also discussed in this chapter. Data in a worksheet can be printed after
applying the different print formatting features. Spreadsheet can be exported to the
PDF format, to use it on other platforms.

Learning outcomes
After the completion of this chapter the learner will be able to
• identify the features available in electronic worksheets.
• identify the need for spreadsheet package in numeric data processing.
• store data in a spreadsheet and analyse.
• format the contents of a spreadsheet.
• apply formula for calculations and create series.
• save the file permanently and retrieve it later.
• insert / delete / hide / freeze rows and columns.
• identify the use of relative and absolute referencing.
• use printing facility to take printouts of worksheets.
• familiarise with exporting worksheet to the PDF format.

Lab activities

1. Given a manual worksheet containing the details of students in a class with Reg.No,
Name, Age and Marks for 6 subjects. Create an electronic worksheet to calcu-
late the total mark and percentage (Max.Mark for each subject is taken as 100).
Use formula to calculate the total mark and percentage of marks for the first
student. Then copy the formula to the succeeding rows to complete the marklist.
Reg.No Name Age M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 Total Percent
t age
5460 Rajeev 16 60 55 48 75 65 50

5461 Binoy 17 80 90 62 70 60 45

5462 Rahul 17 78 82 60 55 45 30

5463 Parvathi 16 70 85 40 50 55 40

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 3. Data Processing with Electronic Spreadsheet

2. Create the following worksheet and perform the operations as directed.

Find out the values for the blank cells using appropriate formula
1. Total sales of each salesman
2. Commission for each salesman ( 10% of sales amount)
3. Total sales of each quarter
4. Total sales of the company in all three quarters
5. Total commission paid by the company.
Salesman Qtr1 Qtr2 Qtr3 Total Sale Commission
Code
S1001 4000 3500 5000
S1002 5000 4000 3000
S1003 4000 2000 2500
Total

3. Create a multiplication table using a spreadsheet as given below:

Hint: Use formula to fill the Answer column, use fill handle to fill first, second, third
and fourth columns

Number 1 Multiply Number 2 Equal to Answer

1 * 5 = 5
2 * 5 = 10
.. .. .. .. ..
12 * 5 = 60

Sample questions

Very short answer type

1. The symbol used for absolute cell reference is ______.
2. The file extension of Calc worksheet file is ______.
3. The default alignment of the text data entered in a cell is ______ .
4. The smallest range in a worksheet is ______.
5. The cell address of the very first cell in a worksheet is ______.
6. The range indicator symbol in Calc is ______.

93
 7. By default, ______ number of worksheets are present in a workbook.
8. The Save, Print commands are available in ______ menu of the worksheet win-
dow.

Short answer type

1. How do you define a range of cells in a worksheet?
2. Write any four application areas where electronic spreadsheet can be used. Rec-
ollect from your real-life experience.
3. How will you insert a column in a worksheet?
4. What are the methods of copying data from one place to another in a worksheet?
5. Suppose you need to hide the column F temporarily. How will you do that?
6. What is meant by 'freezing' rows or columns? What is its advantage?
7. Rahul wants to combine the cells from B5 to B10. How can he do it?

Long answer type

1. Explain the main components of a worksheet window.
2. Explain the different types of cell referencing.
3. Explain the different printing features available in a spreadsheet.

94
 We discussed the basic concepts of a spreadsheet
in the previous chapter. We saw how data is entered
in cells and how a cell is referred. We also learned
Key concepts
how to add a formula to a cell so that simple
• Functions
calculations can be done. This chapter introduces
various built-in functions available in a spreadsheet.
o Mathematical - SUM,
These functions make calculations simpler and
ROUND, ROUNDUP,
comparisons possible. Sorting and filtering are the
ROUNDDOWN,
two powerful features of a spreadsheet that make
COUNTIF
it an ideal tool for data analysis. Charts can also be
o Statistical - AVERAGE, used in the spreadsheet to provide information in a
MIN, MAX, COUNT graphical form.
o Logical - IF, AND, OR,
NOT
4.1 Functions
o Text - UPPER, LOWER, In this section we will learn different built-in functions
LEN available in a spreadsheet. For this, let us plan to
prepare the marklist of the first mid-term
o Nested functions
examination. The columns in the mark list are Roll
• Data manipulation
Number, Name, scores of six subjects including
o Sorting English, Second Language, Sociology, Journalism,
o Filtering Communicative English and Computer Application.
• Charts - Column, Bar, There are columns for Total, Percentage and Result
Line, Pie also.
In the last chapter we learned how to prepare a
work sheet. For preparing the mark list, create a
table with column headings as RollNo, Name,
English, Lang, Sociology, Journalism, Comm. Eng,
Comp. Appln., and Total as shown in Figure 4.1
 Fig. 4.1 : Marklist showing scores in each subject

To find the total marks, place the cursor in the cell I3, where you want to display the
total marks of the first student as shown in Figure 4.1. Click the AutoSum button
in the Formula Bar. Now you can see =SUM(C3:H3) in the cell I3. Here, C3:H3 is the
range of cells used to calculate the SUM (refer Figure 4.2).

Fig. 4.2 : Calculation of Total using AutoSum feature

Press Enter key if the range shown is correct. This will calculate and display the total
marks of the first student in the cell I3 as shown in Figure 4.3.

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 4. Data Analysis using Spreadsheet

Fig. 4.3 : Total marks calculated for the first student

How can you calculate the total marks of all other students? It is very simple. The total
marks for all students can be calculated and displayed using the following steps.
1. Select cell I3.
2. Move the mouse pointer to the bottom-right corner of the cell. See that the mouse
pointer changes to thin + symbol.
3. Click and drag downwards to copy the formula in all cells. The total marks are
now displayed in all the cells.
Actually SUM is a built-in function used in spreadsheets. Now we will discuss about
functions and its usage in detail.
Spreadsheet provides many built-in functions that help to do a variety of tasks easily.
Usage of functions saves a lot of time and effort. The real power of spreadsheet lies in
the availability of large number of built-in functions for various purposes. Each function
has a name. They perform some specific operations and the result is displayed in the
cell. A function makes use of values or cell references, just like a simple formula. The
numbers or cells used for calculations are placed in brackets after the name of the
function. Functions are considered as pre-defined formula in spreadsheets.

In order to use a function, click the button in the toolbar after selecting the
appropriate cell. A Function Wizard dialog box will be displayed as in Figure 4.4.

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 Fig. 4.4 : Function Wizard dialog box

The built-in functions in spreadsheet are mainly categorised as Mathematical functions,

Statistical functions, Logical functions and Text functions.

4.1.1 Mathematical functions

The function SUM calculates the total of numbers given as number1, number2, number3,
…. as shown in the Function Wizard (refer Figure 4.4). This method is used when the
total is to be found for values stored in non adjacent cells. But in the case of values in
adjacent cells we can select a range of cells as discussed below.
The range of cells that is to be used by the function can be selected by the button
present in Function Wizard dialog box. You can type the range of cells directly as
C3:H3 within the brackets that follow the function name as =SUM(C3:H3). This statement
calculates the sum of the values in the cells ranging from C3 to H3.
Let us now try to compute the percentage of marks and display it in the column next to
the total marks in the mark sheet.

Eventhough SUM function is available under the category Mathematical

functions found in the Function Wizard, almost all spreadsheet
software also provides an AutoSum( ) button in the formula bar.
This is because SUM is the most commonly used function in spreadsheet.

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 4. Data Analysis using Spreadsheet

In the last chapter we learned to insert formula in a cell. The total marks scored by the
first student is displayed in the cell I3 as indicated in Figure 4.3. You know that the
formula for calculating the percentage of marks is

Marks Scored
P= ×100
Maximum Marks

If the maximum mark for each subject is 50 the formula to be inserted in the cell J3 is
= I3 /300 *100

Press Enter key, the percentage of marks obtained by the first student is displayed in
the cell J3. Copy the formula to the cells below to find the percentage of marks for all
the students as shown in Figure 4.5.
You can see that the percentage of the student ‘Arun K’ is displayed as 81.3333333 in
Figure 4.5. Do you think that it will be better if the percentage is rounded to the nearby
integer? Or with exactly one or two decimal places? Here the function ROUND helps us
do this. Go to the cell K3 and click the insert function button. In the Function Wizard,
select Mathematical from the Category drop down box. Double click on the ROUND
function.

Fig. 4.5 : Marklist with percentage

Figure 4.6 displays the structure of ROUND function as given in the Function Wizard.
ROUND function rounds a number to the specified number of decimal places. ROUND
function requires two values, the number to be rounded and a count. number can be
a cell address which contains the number to be rounded (here it is the percentage of
total marks) . count is the number of digits to be displayed after decimal point. In this

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 Fig. 4.6 : ROUND function

example, we need to round the percentage of total marks to the nearest integer value.
For this we fix count as 0. The result is shown in Figure 4.7.
Let us try to use the ROUND function for displaying the percentage of total marks in the
rounded format at column K where the formula to calculate the percentage is entered.
This can be done by using the formula for percentage as the first argument in the ROUND
function as given below.
= ROUND ( I3 / 300 x 100, 0 )

Fig. 4.7 : Result of ROUND function

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 4. Data Analysis using Spreadsheet

Now, if we compare the actual percentage of total marks obtained for each student and
their rounded percentage of total marks, ‘Arun K’ will lose 0.33333333 percentage
when it is rounded. Students ‘Alex Paul’, ‘Asha P’ and ‘Joby’ will also lose the same
percentage due to rounding of actual percentage to the nearest integer using the ROUND
function. That means 0.5 and above rounds to the next higher number and others to the
next smaller number. Suppose you want to round the value to the next higher integer
always. You can use the ROUNDUP function as shown in Figure 4.8.

Fig. 4.8 : ROUNDUP function

The arguments needed for the ROUNDUP function are the same as ROUND function but
the only difference is that ROUNDUP function rounds to the next higher number. For
example 81.33333333 will be rounded to 82 in our mark list. The result of ROUNDUP
function is shown in Figure 4.9.

Fig. 4.9 : Result of ROUNDUP function

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 Similarly you can find another function named ROUNDDOWN in the function wizard.
You can try this function and observe the difference in output.
COUNTIF function counts the number of occurences of values in a list that matches a
criteria. Now let us consider that we need to find the number of students who have
scored more than 80 percentage or more marks in the class. The function
=COUNTIF ( K3:K12, “>=80” )
gives the number of students who have scored 80 percent or more. The first argument
specifies the range of values and the second argument specifies the criteria. Note that
the criteria should be specified in double quotation marks. Refer Figure 4.10.

Fig. 4.10 : COUNTIF function

Table 4.1 summarises the mathematical functions with their syntax and description.

Function Syntax Description

SUM ( ) SUM(Number1, Calculates the total of a set of numbers or
Number2, adds all numbers in the range of cells.
Number3, …) Number1, Number2, ..., Number30 are upto
30 arguments whose sum is to be calculated.
A range of cells can be entered by cell
reference as SUM(StartCell:EndCell).
ROUND ( ) ROUND(Number, Rounds the given number to a specified
Count) number of decimal places. Count is the
number of decimal places to which the value is
to be rounded.

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 4. Data Analysis using Spreadsheet

Function Syntax Description

ROUNDUP ( ) ROUNDUP Rounds the given number up to a specified
(Number, Count) number of decimal places. Count is the
number of decimal places to which the value is
to be rounded.
ROUND ROUNDDOWN Rounds the given number down to a specified
DOWN ( ) (Number, Count) number of decimal places. Count is the
number of decimal places to which the value is
to be rounded.
COUNTIF ( ) COUNTIF Counts the number of values in the range that
(Range, Criteria) meets the specified criteria.
Table 4.1 : Mathematical functions

• Prepare a table containing the name and age of all students in

your class using a spreadsheet. Find the number of students
who have age greater that 17 and age less than 15 using
Let us do
functions.

• Prepare a table containing the name and height of all students

in your class using a spreadsheet. Find the average height of
students in the class and then round the average height correct
to 2 decimal places using functions.

Check yourself

1. What is a function?
2. Name the function used to calculate the total of a set of cells.
3. The syntax of ROUND function is _______.
4. Differentiate between ROUNDUP and ROUNDDOWN functions.
5. Write the function to display the number 67.8675 as 67.86.
6. What does COUNTIF function do?

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 4.1.2 Statistical functions
Statistical functions operate on a set of data and give summarised results. Spreadsheet
provides a number of statistical functions. A few of them are discussed in this section.
Consider the example of preparing the marklist that we discussed in the previous
section. Let us try to find the average of each subject and display it at the bottom row
of the mark entries. Subjectwise average is calculated for a particular subject by adding
marks of all students and dividing it by the number of students. But in a spreadsheet,
instead of performing this calculation you can directly use the statistical function
AVERAGE. The Function Wizard for the function AVERAGE is shown in Figure 4.11.

Fig. 4.11 : AVERAGE function

AVERAGE function calculates the average of a set of numbers. You can give number1,
number2, number3, etc. Instead of specifying each number, average can also be
calculated for the numbers in a range of cells as shown in Figure 4.12.
Here the function AVERAGE calculates the average value of the numbers stored in the
cells from C3 to C12.
Suppose you want to display the maximum mark and minimum mark in each subject
and also the number of students who appeared for the class test in each subject in the
marklist. Here you can make use of the functions MAX, MIN and COUNT.
The function MAX returns the maximum value from a set of numbers. You can specify
individual numbers number1, number2, number3, …or a range of values in this function.

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 4. Data Analysis using Spreadsheet

Fig. 4.12 : AVERAGE function for range of values

The MIN function returns the minimum value within a set of numbers. The function
syntax is same as MAX.

Fig. 4.13 : COUNT function

COUNT function counts how many values are there in the list of arguments. It can also
count number of values within the specified range as shown in Figure 4.13.
The subject average, subject top score, subject minimum and the number of students
appeared for each subject obtained with the help of various statistical functions are
shown in Figure 4.14. The syntax of different statistical functions are summarised in
Table 4.2.

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 Fig. 4.14 : Results of statistical function

Function Syntax Description

AVERAGE Calculates the average of a given set of
(Number1, numbers. Number1, Number2, ... must be
AVERAGE ( )
Number2, numerical values. It can also calculate the
Number3, … ) average of numbers in a range of cells. It is
given as AVERAGE(StartCell:EndCell).
MAX (Number1, Gives the maximum value in a list of numbers.
Number2, It can also return the maximum value in a range
MAX ( )
Number3, …) of cells.
Gives the minimum value in a list of numbers. It
MIN (Number1,
can also return the minimum value in a range of
MIN ( ) Number2,
cells.
Number3, … )
COUNT (Value1, Counts the number of values in the list of
COUNT ( ) Value2, Value3, …) arguments. Value1, Value2, Value3, … are
values. It can also count the number of values
in a range.
Table 4.2 : Statistical functions

Check yourself

1. Which function is used to find the highest value in a range of cells?

2. The function used to find the lowest value from a set of numbers is _______.
3. Name the function to find number of values in a range of cells.
4. Write the function to display the average of 30, 50, 40, 48.
5. How do you display the number of students with value 'A' in the range D3: D13?

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 4. Data Analysis using Spreadsheet

4.1.3 Logical functions

Logical functions are used for checking a test condition. Consider a situation where you
need to display a result 'Pass' or 'Fail' for each student, depending on the mark or
percentage of marks scored. For this, a particular condition is to be tested. Let us
consider that a student has passed if he/she gets a total mark of 40% or more. So the
condition will be based on the percentage of total score.
The logical function IF is used to test a condition. If the condition is true, then one action
is taken; if the condition is false, then another action is taken. Figure 4.15 shows the
structure of IF function in the Function Wizard.

Fig. 4.15 : IF function

The structure of an IF function is:
=IF (Test, Then_value, Otherwise_value)

IF function has three parts - Test, Then_value and Otherwise_value as indicated in

Function Wizard ( Figure 4.15). We can specify a condition that is to be evaluated in
Test. Here the condition can be evaluated as True or False. If the condition is True,
Then_value is displayed and if the condition is False Otherwise_value is displayed as
the result.
In this example, the percentage of the first student is in the cell K3. Inorder to find
whether a student is 'Pass' or 'Fail' in the cell L3, we need to specify the condition
K3 >= 40 in Test. If the condition is True, then we print 'Pass' as the result. It is given in
the Then_value. If K3 is less than 40, the result should be displayed as 'Fail'. It is

107
 specified in Otherwise_value. On clicking the OK button the result will be displayed in
the cell L3. Copy the function to the other cells of the column. Now our mark list looks
as shown in Figure 4.16.

Fig. 4.16 : Marklist with result

Through the above example, we decided whether a student is considered as ‘Pass’ or
‘Fail’ based on the percentage of the total mark. Usually a student is decided ‘passed’
if he/she scores pass marks in all the subjects. In this case, instead of checking the total
percentage, we have to check the marks of each subject. Here the function AND comes
to our help. The AND function allows to check many conditions. It will return True, if all
the conditions are evaluated to be True; otherwise it will return False. Here a student
who scores 20 or more in all subjects is considered 'Pass'. The structure of AND function
is shown in Figure 4.17.

Fig. 4.17 : AND function

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 4. Data Analysis using Spreadsheet

Using AND function we can test up to 30 conditions. The maximum number of conditions
that can be tested may change depending on the version of the spreadsheet package
used. Each condition can return either True or False. In our example the AND function
can be specified as
=AND ( C3>=20, D3>=20, E3>=20, F3>=20, G3>=20, H3>=20 )

The result will be True if the scores of all subjects are greater or equal to 20. If the score
of any subject is less than 20, the function will return False. We can say that a student
has passed if AND function returns True and failed if the AND function returns False.
The OR function is another logical function. The result of OR function will be True, if any
of the conditions is True and will be False if all the conditions are False. In our example,
a student fails if he scores less than 20 marks for any of the subjects. So the result of a
student can be determined using the OR function as
=OR ( C3<20, D3<20, E3<20, F3<20, G3<20, H3<20 )

Here the result will be true if the score of any of the subject is less than 20. That is if OR
function returns True, we can say the student is failed, and if it is False the student is
passed.
The NOT function is used in situations where we need to get the reverse of logical test.
That is, if the condition is evaluated to true, NOT function returns False, otherwise it
returns True.
The logical functions in spreadsheet give either True or False as result. The syntax of the
different logical functions are given in Table 4.3.
Function Syntax Description
IF ( ) IF (Test, Then_value, If the condition is True, Then_value is
Otherwise_value) returned; else Otherwise_value is returned.
AND ( ) AND (Logical value1, Returns True if all the conditions are True;
Logical value2, …..) otherwise returns False.
OR (Logical value1, Returns True if any of the condition is True;
OR ( )
Logical value2, …..) returns False if all the conditions are False.
NOT(Logical value) Reverses the value of its argument. That is,
NOT ( )
if test condition is evaluates to True, then
NOT returns False and if the test returns
False, NOT returns True.
Table 4.3 : Logical functions

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 Check yourself

1. The function used to test a condition is_______.

2. Multiple test conditions can be combined with _______functions.
3. Which function is used while combining more than one test conditions and
the result will be true if any of the condition is true?
4. Name the category of functions which returns either TRUE or FALSE as
result.

4.1.4 Text functions

There are many text or
character manipulation
functions in a spreadsheet. The
important text manipulation
funtions are explained below.

UPPER
It converts a text to the upper
case (capital letters). Only the
lower case (small letters) letters Fig. 4.18 : UPPER function
in the text are converted to the
upper case. Other characters in the text remain in the same form. Here we can give a
text as the argument. The argument can be a cell address also. The structure of UPPER
function in the Function Wizard
is shown in Figure 4.18.

LOWER
The LOWER function converts
a text to the lower case. Here
only the upper case letters in the
given text are converted to the
lower case.
Fig. 4.19 : LEN function

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 4. Data Analysis using Spreadsheet

LEN
It is used to calculate the
number of characters in
a text.
Figure 4.20 displays the
output of the above text
functions.
In our example, the
Fig. 4.20 : Text function examples
name and e-mail address
of a person is given in cells B1 and B2 respectively. The UPPER function is used to
convert name to uppercase letters and the LOWER function is used to convert email
address lower case letters. The number of characters in the name is also displayed
using LEN function. Note that space is also considered as a character.
The structure and description of commonly used text handling functions are shown in
Table 4.4
Function Syntax Description
UPPER ( ) UPPER(Text) Converts the given text into uppercase
LOWER ( ) LOWER(Text) Converts the given text into lowercase
LEN ( ) LEN(Text) Calculates the length of the text
Table 4.4 : Text handling functions

Check yourself

1. Which function converts an input text into capital letters?

2. Name the function that converts an input text into small letters.
3. The function used to find the number of characters in a cell is _______.

4.1.5 Nested functions

Spreadsheet allows you to include one function inside another function. This is often
required to perform many calculations in a single formula and to produce the desired
output. Placing a function inside another function is called nesting of functions.
Consider Figure 4.14, which shows the results of statistical functions. The subject
averages are 31.7, 39.8, 34.4, 35.2, 31.2 and 35.111. It would be better if we round

111
 these values. Here subject average is calculated using the AVERAGE function. As you
have already learned, the ROUND function is used to round a number to the specified
number of decimal places. We can use the AVERAGE function inside the ROUND function.
The function can be written as
= ROUND ( AVERAGE ( C3:C27 ) ,0 )
Now the results will be 32, 40, 34, 35, 31 and 35.
In the case of nested function, the inner function is evaluated first and the outer function
operates on the result of the inner function.
Now let us assign grades to each subject. For this let us insert one column each after
every mark column. We have already discussed how columns can be inserted in the
previous chapter. Grades can be calculated based on the marks scored in each subject
using the following criteria.
It is clear that grades cannot be calculated
Marks Grade by testing a single condition. The IF
function we learned earlier has three parts;
40 or more A
A Test , Then_value and
Below 40 and 30 or more B Otherwise_value. Consider the case of
Below 30 and 20 or more C the first subject (English). In the Test part,
you can specify C3 >= 40. Then_value will
Below 20 D
be 'A' because if the mark is above or
equals 40, the grade is 'A'. The Otherwise_value is not a grade. Here we need to test
another condition C3 >= 30. For this we require another IF function in the
Otherwise_value part. To include a function in another function click button displayed
to the left of each item in the Function Wizard. As shown in Figure 4.21 the function to
find grade can be written as
=IF ( C3>=40,"A",IF ( C3>=30,"B",IF ( C3>=20,"C","D" ) ) )
This can be explained as: if C3 >= 40, then the grade is 'A'. Otherwise, check if C3 >=
30. If this is true, then the grade is 'B'. Otherwise check if C3 >= 20. If true, then the
grade is 'C' otherwise grade is 'D' .

Fig. 4.21 : Nested IF functions

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 4. Data Analysis using Spreadsheet

In the example of the mark list that we discussed, a student is considered passed if he/
she has got 20 marks or more in all the subjects. Earlier, you have seen that the function
AND or OR can be used to test more than one condition. These functions will however
return True or False as result. Here you have to check whether the mark of each
subject is greater than or equal to 20. If we are using an AND function for checking the
marks of individual subjects, it will return True if all the test conditions are True otherwise
returns False. So if an AND function is used in the Test part of the IF function, we can
test multiple conditions. The result 'Pass' can be specified in the Then_value and 'Fail'
will be specified in the Otherwise_value. As we have already learned, the text given in
the Then_value will be displayed, if the Test is evaluated to True and the text in the
Otherwise_value will be displayed if the Test is evaluated to False. So this will give the
desired result.
How will you include an AND
function in the IF function? In
the test section of the IF
function, click on the button
and select AND function. Now
you can set multiple conditions.
The function in the formula bar
will be displayed as Fig. 4.22 : Nesting using IF and AND functions

=IF ( AND ( C3>=20, E3>=20, G3>=20, I3>=20, K3>=20, M3>=20 ) ,"Pass", "Fail")
This nested function, will give you the result as 'Pass' if all the conditions mentioned
inside AND function are evaluated to true. The same thing can be done using OR function.
Figure 4.22 refers to the nesting of IF and AND functions.
From the above discussion it is clear that you can include one function inside another.
This feature makes a spreadsheet a powerful tool for data processing. The final mark
list is displayed as in Figure 4.23.

Fig. 4.23 : Complete Marklist of Humaities class

113
 • Calculate the grades of other subjects in the example of
marklist preparation.
Let us do
• Find whether a student is ‘Pass’ or ‘Fail’ by using OR function
inside IF.

4.2 Data manipulation

A spreadsheet is often used to store a large volume of data. It can hold thousands of
records. Usually a column in a sheet contains the same type of data except the column
heading. The data under the column heading 'Mark' will store only numbers that represent
marks scored by students. The data under the column heading 'Date of birth' will be
dates and so on. The data presented in this structure is referred to as a data table. The
mark list is a data table because each column in the mark list contains same type of
data. It is not practical to scroll through the entire worksheet each time to find a particular
record. Sorting and filtering are two powerful features available in spreadsheet that can
be applied in these situations. Sorting allows us to organise the data in specific order
where as filtering finds out records with a specific condition.

4.2.1 Sorting
Consider the marklist in Figure 4.23.In order to prepare a rank list, the student with
highest total comes in the first row, the second highest total in the second row and so
on. It is not easy to find the student record with highest total by scrolling through the
sheet, cutting the row and pasting it as the first row. Then find the student with the next
highest mark and make it the second row, and so on.
Sorting allows us to arrange the data in a table either in ascending or descending order
of one or more columns. To get the rank list, sort the mark list in the descending order
(highest values comes first) of total. The following steps are used for sorting
1. Select the entire table
2. Click Data à Sort from the menu bar. This will display a Sort dialog box as in
Figure 4.24.
3. Select the column from the Sort by drop down list. (Select the column as column
O, the column of Total marks).

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 4. Data Analysis using Spreadsheet

4. Now choose either Ascending or Descending option. (Here we choose Descend-

ing because the data must be sorted in the descending order of total marks).

5. Click OK.

Fig. 4.24 : Sort dialog box

The ranklist is shown in Figure 4.25.

Fig. 4.25 : Rank List

Fig. 4.25 : Ranklist

There are two sort buttons in the Toolbar. Button (A to Z) for sorting data in ascending
order and button (Z to A) for sorting data in descending order. When these buttons
are clicked, the data will be sorted only by the first column in the selection. These
buttons can be used if the data is to be sorted based on a single column.
To consider the data in a range of cells as a table, the following
points are to be noted.

• Do not leave a blank row between column heading and the data, as
the blank row and blank column indicates the end of the table.

• The column headings given at the top of each column must be in a

single cell and make it unique (preferably) within a worksheet.

115
 When Sort is clicked from Data menu or using sort buttons, the cells
above, below, to the right and to the left of the current cell will be
selected until it encounters a blank row or column. A spreadsheet treats
the topmost row in the table as the column heading. So they can be
used to specify the sort column instead of column label.

In the Ranklist example, you have sorted the data based on a single column, named
'Total'. If the total of two students is the same, who will get the priority? Here you can
use the option Then by in the Sort dialog box. That is, if there are more than one rows
with the same data in the column specified for sorting, Then by is used to specify which
column is to be considered next for sorting.

Fig. 4.26 : Sort window with multiple sort columns

This can be better explained by
taking your Class Register as
an example. Consider that the
Class Register is being
prepared. Before giving Roll
Number, all the students have
to be ordered in the following
way. Students who have
chosen Malayalam as the
Second Language comes first,
and then those who have chosen
Hindi. In each language, boys
come first, then girls. At last the
Fig. 4.27 : Sorted Class Register
names of the boys and girls in

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 4. Data Analysis using Spreadsheet

each Second Language section are sorted separately in the alphabetical order. The
Sort dialog box is shown in the Figure 4.26. In this dialog box, give Sort by as ‘Sec.
Language’, the first Then by as ‘Gender’ and the second Then by as ‘Name’. Now
click OK button and observe what happens.
The sorted list is given in Figure 4.27. Now the Roll Numbers can be given.
4.2.2 Filtering
Filtering allows us to display only data that meets some criteria. Filtering temporarily
hides the data in a spreadsheet that does not meet the condition. In our Marklist
example we have scores of each student in each subject, grades, total marks and the
result. Now let us prepare a list of students who have passed using the filtering feature
in spreadsheet. There are two types of filtering Autofilter and Standard Filter.
a. Autofilter
Autofilter displays a dropdown list containing all the values in each column and allows
to filter the rows based on values in the list. The steps for filtering using Autofilter are
given below

Fig. 4.28 : Drop down list in the Autofilter

1. Select the entire table.
2. Click on the Data menu.
3. Select Autofilter from the Filter option.
A drop down arrow appears in each column. Click on the arrow in the column for
which we want to specify the condition. In the case of 'Result' column, the screen will
appear as in Figure 4.28.
The drop down list in the 'Result' column displays 'Fail' and 'Pass'. We will select 'Pass'
because we need to get the list of passed students. The result of using Autofilter option
is shown in Figure 4.29.
Observe the result carefully. Row numbers are not in order. This indicates that some
rows were filtered out. This is because they do not satisfy the specified filter condition.
We have specified 'Pass' as the filter criteria.

117
 Fig. 4.29 : List of passed students using Autofilter.
Autofilter allows
selection of records When you apply an additional Autofilter on another
that display column of a filtered data range, the other combo
identical values in boxes list only the filtered data.
the specified
column. Here the filter condition is tested for equality. That means it will display the
records that contain the specified value in the column in which Autofilter is applied. It
hides the rows from the result that do not satisfy the criteria.
In addition to filter data based on the values in the column, Autofilter permits to filter
top 10 rows. The top 10 filter works only with numbers. It will display top 10 rows
without sorting.
To display all records again, select the All entry in the Autofilter combo box. To cancel
data filter and display all data, reselect choose Data à Filter à AutoFilter again.
b. Standard filter
Standard Filter is used when the data is to be filtered based on a range of values in
particular data fields (column). It can also be used when multiple conditions are to be
used for filtering. These multiple conditions can be combined with either a logical AND
or a logical OR operator.
Suppose you need the list of students whose percentages are above 75 and who got 'A
grade' in English.
This cannot be done by the Autofilter, as there are two conditions and one of the
conditions does not depend on equality. Standard Filter can be used in this situation.
The first condition is Percentage above 75. The second condition is grade of English
should be 'A'. Both the conditions should be satisfied. Connect the conditions with AND
operator. The Standard Filter window is shown in Figure 4.30.

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 4. Data Analysis using Spreadsheet

Fig. 4.30 : Specifying conditions in Standard Filter

The result of applying Standard Filter is shown in Figure 4.31.

Fig. 4.31 : Result of Standard Filter

To remove a filter, click inside the area where the filter was applied, then choose
Data → Filter → Remove Filter.

Check yourself

1. Arranging data based on ascending or descending order of one or more column

is known as _______.
2. 'Sort' option is available in ________ menu.
3. How can we display the data in a table that meets a specified condition?
4. More than one conditions can be specified in ________ filter.

• Create a table containing the salary details (Employee No,

Name, Designation, Salary) of employees in a company. Sort
Let us do the details of employees in the ascending order of their name.
• Display the details of employees whose Salary is above 10,000
and Designation is 'Accountant'.

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 4.3 Charts
It is much easier to understand data when it is presented graphically. Charts are graphical
representation of numeric data. Charts make it easier for users to compare and understand
statistical data. They can be used for data analysis. Charts can present data entered
into the worksheet in a visual format using a variety of graph types.
Charts are constructed with the numeric data entered in the worksheet. The data can
be individual numbers in a worksheet or a data series within a column or a row. This
section explains how you can create simple charts from the data.
The following are sales details of ABC Ltd. during the four quarters of a year. Carry out
the following steps to create a chart.
1. Select the data range.
2. Select Chart from the Insert menu or click on the chart icon on the Tool bar. This
will display Chart Wizard.
3. Choose a Chart Type. There are many types of charts in spreadsheet like
Column, Bar, Line, Pie, etc. Select Column type.

4. Click on the Data Range. The selected range will be displayed. Ensure it is
correct. If needed, make the necessary changes.

Fig. 4.32 : Chart Wizard dialog box

5. Click Chart Elements and give titles for graph, X axis and Y axis. Here Chart
Title is given as 'Sales Report', titles for X-axis is 'Quarters' and Y-axis is ‘Amount’.
6. Click Finish.

4.3.1 Chart elements

A chart has many elements. Some of these elements are displayed by default, others
can be added as needed. Here are some standard chart elements.

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 4. Data Analysis using Spreadsheet

1. Chart Area : It includes the

entire chart and all its ele-
ments.
2. Chart Title : A chart title is
the descriptive text for a
chart.
3. X-Axis Title : A title given
to the X-axis data range.
4. Y-Axis Title : A title given Fig. 4.33 : Column chart
to the Y-axis data range.
5. X-Axis Category : These are the categories of the data which have been plotted.
These are taken from the first column or first row of your data range.
6. Y-Axis Value : This is the data range marked to plot the data series.

7. Data Labels : The values of the data series plotted.

8. Legends : A legend is a box that specifies the colour, symbol or pattern assigned
to the data series.

4.3.2 Chart types

Spreadsheet provides various types of charts to help you to display data in different
ways as per the need of the viewers. The type of the chart is determined by the type of
the data you are using and presenting. You can create a new chart or can change the
existing chart type.
a. Column charts
This type of chart is commonly used to compare values across categories. They are
best for charts that have relatively small number of data. They represent data in vertical
columns. It is easy to understand and is the default chart type. They give very effective
results to analyse the data of the same category on a defined scale.
b. Bar charts
Bar charts are used to show comparisons between individual items. To make a bar
chart the data should be arranged in the form of rows and columns on a worksheet.
The composition of column or bar can be stacked in more than one colour to represent
the contribution of each portion of the category to the total for that category.

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 c. Line charts
Data represented in columns or rows in a worksheet can be plotted with the help of line
chart. Line charts can be used to display continuous data over time with respect to a
common scale. Thus, Line charts are the best for viewing data trends at equal intervals
of time. The horizontal axis (x-axis) is used to represent the category data and all the
value data is distributed uniformly along vertical axis (y-axis). It is ideal for representing
large data that show trends or changes over time where you want to focus on continuity.
d. Pie charts
Pie chart is used to display how much each part contributes to a total value. It is very
useful in a situation where one has to show the relative proportions. It offers greater
visual clarity. In case of pie chart only one data series is used. If more than one data
series are selected, spreadsheet uses the first series.
When we create a pie chart, the spreadsheet totals the data points in the series and then
divides the values of each data point into the series total to determine how large each
data point's pie slice should be. It is effective where there is small number of data
points. Generally, there can be maximum of five or six data points or slices in a pie
chart. If the points are more in number then it becomes very difficult to interpret the
chart. Besides, it is very important to note that the values to be used in the pie chart

Fig. 4.34(a) : Column chart Fig. 4.34(b) : Bar chart

Fig. 4.34(c) : LIne chart Fig. 4.34(d) : Pie chart

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 4. Data Analysis using Spreadsheet

must be all positive. If there are some negative values, in that case the negative values
will be automatically converted in to positive values. Figure 4.34 displays different
types of charts.
Now let us consider the sales details of ABC Ltd. displayed in Figure 4.35. Here the
data of sales done by three salesmen in the four quarters of the year is given.
Let us draw a column graph
with these data. We have three
series of data corresponding to
each salesman. The range is
selected as A3 to D7. Then
follow the steps used to create
a chart mentioned earlier. On
clicking the Finish button the
Fig. 4.35 : Quarterly report of different salesmen
chart will be displayed as in
Figure 4.36.
Compare this chart with chart
in Figure 4.33. In the previous
chart there is one column
corresponding to each
quarter. Now there are three
columns corresponding to
each salesman. How do you
identify the column of a
particular salesman? Here the
colour legend comes to help. Fig. 4.36 : Bar chart

The legend is shown in the right side of the chart. It tells which is the colour used to
represent each salesman.
Try the same data with other types of charts. This data is not suitable for Pie chart as
this contains three series for each quarter. Pie chart can deal only with one series of
data.

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 Chart Wizard contains more options than we discussed. They are beyond our scope.
Still you can experiment with options available in Chart Type, Data Range, Data Series
and Chart elements.

Check yourself

1. The graphical representation of numeric data is known as _________.

2. The type of chart that supports only one data series is
a) Column b) Bar c) Line d) Pie
3. Which chart is used to show the upward or downward trends in value
over time?

• Prepare a column chart that shows the comparative study of

each subject in the mark list.
Let us do • Tabulate the data of survey related to the source of drinking
water in your locality and draw a pie chart.

Let us sum up
In this chapter we have familiarised ourselves with the spreadsheet. A large amount
of data can be entered in multiple sheets of a workbook. We can perform different
calculations by entering expressions or formula in a cell to perform calculations. In
the first section of this chapter we saw that there are many built-in functions available
in a spreadsheet that make calculations even simpler and comparisons possible.
These functions are categorized into different groups. We have discussed only a few
functions in the spreadsheet. A discussion on all the functions available in a spreadsheet
is beyond the scope of this book. Sorting and filtering are powerful features of the
spreadsheet that makes it an ideal tool for data analysis. In this chapter we also
learnt charts. There are different types of charts in a spreadsheet. Charts can be
used to provide information in a pictorial form. They make it easy to understand
facts.

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 4. Data Analysis using Spreadsheet

Learning outcomes
After the completion of this chapter the learner will be able to
• identify the use of different mathematical functions - SUM, ROUND,
ROUNDUP, ROUNDDOWN and COUNTIF.
• identify the use of different statistical functions - AVERAGE, MIN, MAX
and COUNT.
• identify the use of different logical functions - IF, AND, OR and NOT.
• identify the use of different text functions UPPER, LOWER and LEN.
• sort data in a spreadsheet.
• identify the use of Filtering.
• compare different types of charts.

Lab activities

1. Prepare the salary bill of employees of an organisation with following information

using a spreadsheet: Employee Code, Name of Employee, Designation, Basic
Pay, DA, GrossPay, PF, Net Pay. DA is calculated as 55% of the Basic Pay.
GrossPay = Basic Pay + DA. NetPay = GrossPay - PF. The amounts should be
rounded to the nearest rupee. (Use functions whereever possible.)
2. Prepare a table containing the sales of 10 salesmen. The table consists of Serial
No, Name, District, Actual Sales Amount, Expected Sales Amount, Difference in
Sales and Bonus. Bonus is calculated as if Actual Sales Amount exceeds Ex-
pected Sales Amount, then Bonus is 5%, otherwise Bonus is 3% of Actual Sales
Amount.
a. Sort this table with highest to lowest Bonus. If Bonus is same, sort with highest
to lowest Actual Sales Amount.
b. Filter the salesman in such a way that only those salesmen who have Bonus
more than 10000 and have a positive Difference in Sales are displayed.
Sample questions
Very short answer type
1. What is a function?
2. _________ function is used to calculate the total of a set of cells.

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 3. The syntax of ROUND function is _________ .
4. Name the function that is used to find highest value in a range of cells.
5. Which function is used to find number of values in a range of cells?
6. Which charts are considered suitable for viewing data trends at equal intervals of
time?

Short answer type

1. Differentiate between ROUNDUP and ROUNDDOWN functions
2. How does a function differ from a formula?
3. Explain different mathematical functions.
4. How do you display the number of students with value 'A' in the range D3: D13?
5. Write the function to display the number 67.8675 as 67.86.
6. Explain logical functions.
7. What do you mean by nesting of functions?
8. What is sorting?
9. How do you sort a table of data based on a column?
10. Explain different types of filtering.
11. "Standard filtering offers more flexibility". Explain.

Long answer type

1. Explain the elements of a chart.
2. Write the steps to create a chart.

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 5. Presentation Software

You were familiarized with the presentation software

Key concepts in the previous classes. We use the presentation
software for making a presentation with the help of
• Starting presentation
software graphs, pictures, sounds, videos, etc. A presentation
• Creating a presentation program helps both the speaker and the viewer. The
• Adding new slides presenter can easily convey ideas, and the viewers
• Formatting a slide
o Text formatting - can grasp the ideas better than in mere speech. Thus
Character, Paragraph if we are able to present our ideas graphically with
o Bullets and numbering
sound and visual effects, it will be more effective
o Setting the background -
Slide, Object and productive. This chapter introduces slide
• Adding images to the slide preparation and slide layout facilities available in the
• Slide masters
presentation software. We will also discuss various
• Duplicating and deleting
slides formatting features like adding text, images, tables,
• Inserting a table in a slide background, fonts, animations, sound, videos, etc.
• Inserting a sound file
in the presentation software.
• Inserting a video clip in a
slide Open Office Impress and Microsoft PowerPoint are
• Inserting hyperlinks
• Adding action objects the two popular software available for preparing a
• Drawing figures in the slide presentation. Most of the tools available in these
• Views of slides software are similar.
o Normal
o Outline
o Notes
5.1 Starting presentation software
o Handout
Presentation software is used to demonstrate a
o Slide Sorter
• Using slide animation concept or subject in front of others with the help of
effects pictures, audio and video. A presentation is
• Slide transitions
composed of several slides. Presentation software
• More presentation settings
• Printing a presentation consists of an editor to create attractive slides that

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 contain graphics and a facility for slide show. Presentation tool facilitates the creation of
presentations on any particular topic like uses of Internet, global warming, social
networking, etc.
Let us prepare a presentation to give awareness about the importance of saving our
environment from various threats. Before we start, we should have a clear idea about
the content and the structure of the presentation. The first slide in the presentation
usually contains the title of the presentation and details of the presenter. The second
slide gives an introduction to the topic. More details about the subject are included in
the succeeding slides. The contents in these slides can be presented with the help of
bulleted lists, images, tables, audio and video. Instead of presenting the matter in
paragraphs, it would be better if they are presented in the form of a bulleted list. After
the contents are presented, it will be better to conclude them in the presentation.
In this chapter, we use Open Office Impress as a tool for creating the presentation.
Note that there may be changes in the features available depending on the software and
its version. When we open Impress, a dialog box showing the Presentation Wizard as
in Figure 5.1 appears on the screen.

Fig. 5.1 : Presentation Wizard dialog box

The three options in this dialog box are Empty presentation, From template and Open
existing presentation.

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 5. Presentation Software

The Empty presentation option is selected by default and then the Create button at the
bottom of the wizard is clicked. The window as in Figure. 5.2 is displayed.

Fig. 5.2 : IDE of presentation software

Let us discuss the different components of this window. On the top of this window
there is a Title Bar with the name of the presentation on it. Below this, a Menu Bar
containing menus like File, Edit, View, Insert, Format, Tools, Slide Show, etc. are
shown. The different Tool Bars like Standard, Presentation, Drawing, etc. are displayed
below it. The Toolbar consists of icons for frequently used commands. On the right
side of the window we can see the Tasks pane. Different slide layouts, master pages,
table designs, custom animation, slide transitions, etc. are available in this Tasks pane.
On the left side there is the Slides pane. It shows the different slides used in the
presentation. The Status Bar is shown at the bottom of the window. At the centre of
this window is the working area on which we can insert text, picture, sound, etc. This
window together with all these components is called the Integrated Development
Environment (IDE) of the presentation.

5.2 Creating a presentation

Let us start creating a simple presentation with Open Office Impress. This section
describes the procedure for this. Suppose you open Impress and opted Empty
presentation, the first slide of our presentation appears.

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 Designing the first slide
Let us give our presentation the title 'Save our Planet - Earth'. By default, the design of
the first slide consists of provisions to add a title and a text. Click on the provision given
for the title and enter heading of our presentation. Similarly, the name and class of the
presenter can also be entered in the box below. After entering the title the slide appears
as in Figure 5.3.

Fig. 5.3 : First slide

Saving a presentation
Now, we can save this file in a folder. For this, click the Save icon in the
Standard toolbar or press the shortcut keys Ctrl + S. While saving the file for the first
time, the Save As dialog box appears as in Figure 5.4. In this dialog box choose the
folder and specify a file name. Click the Save button. Now the file is saved.

Fig. 5.4 : Saving the presentation

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 5. Presentation Software

Opening a presentation
To open an existing presentation, choose File à Open or
Ctrl + O. An Open dialog box appears. Select the file that
we want to open and click Open.
5.3 Adding new slides
While designing presentation, we may need to add more
slides. Let us now add a slide that introduces the topic. Use
the menu item Insert à Slide to add a slide. Here, we choose
the Title Only layout from the predefined layouts in the Tasks
pane (refer Figure 5.5).
Entering text in a slide
In this slide we introduce the topic. Here, we will have a
Fig. 5.5 : Predefined
heading and a narration about the topic. There are two ways
layouts
to add text in a slide. Text can be typed directly in the text
element in a slide or using the Text tool in the Drawing toolbar.
By directly typing the text in the slide
Here, text can be added directly to the title object and the body object. For entering a
text, click on the object as described in Section 5.2. Enter the title as 'Our Earth'.
By using a Text tool
1. Click on the Text icon on the Drawing toolbar.
2. Click and drag to draw a box for the text on the slide.
3. Type the contents in the text box and click outside the textbox to deselect it.

Fig. 5.6 : Entering text in slide

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 Check yourself

1. Name any two popular presentation software.

2. The text tool is available in the _______ toolbar.
3. Give the names of different components of presentation software IDE.
4. Write the shortcut key to open a file.

5.4 Formatting a slide

Formatting a slide is a way in which its contents are arranged and presented. Let us
discuss the methods available in presentation software for making the slides more
attractive. The appearance of slides can be enhanced by formatting the text or by
setting the background of the slide.

5.4.1 Text formatting

Appropriate text formatting can give a presentation a consistent look and feel. Applying
effects to the text in a slide is called text formatting. Text formatting can be classified as
character formatting, paragraph formatting and list formatting.

a. Character formatting
Setting the font face, size, colour
and other effects to the characters
in the slide is called character
formatting. Character formatting
options are available in Format à
Character menu or clicking the
character button in the Text
Formatting toolbar. A Character
dialog box is displayed as shown
in Figure 5.7.
The Font tab of Character dialog Fig 5.7 : Character dialog box
box can be used to select the
desired font face, style (Regular, Bold, Italic and Bold Italic) and the size of the font.
Font Effects tab is used to specify a font colour, gives effects like embossed, engraved,
outlined, shadow, etc. It can also be used to specify the style and colour of underline,

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 5. Presentation Software

overline and strikethrough. The Position tab provides facility to make a text superscript
or subscript. In addition, it allows to set the spacing between the characters.

b. Paragraph formatting
These formatting features apply to a paragraph of text. Indentations, spacing, alignment
and tab setting can be done using this feature. Select Format à Paragraph menu item
or click the paragraph button on the Text Formatting toolbar to view the Paragraph
dialog box as in Figure 5.8.
Indentation of the text, spacing before and after the paragraph and spacing between

Fig. 5.8 : Paragraph dialog box

lines of a paragraph can be set using Indents & Spacing tab of the Paragraph dialog
box. Alignment of a paragraph can be selected from Alignment tab. Tab stops can be
set using Tabs.
After applying the character and paragraph formatting, the presentation appears as in
Figure 5.9.

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 Fig. 5.9 : After applying character and paragraph formatting
5.4.2 Bullets and numbering
Bullets and numbering allow to present a list of items in the slide attractively. Bullets
and Numbering can be accessed using the menu item Formatting à Bullets or using
Bullets and Numbering icon in the Formatting toolbar.
In our presentation about the earth, let us add a new slide about the issues that affect
our environment. For this, we add a new slide and select a layout that contains bullets.
Type the points in the bulleted list. To change the format of the bullets, select the list of
items and then click the Bullets and Numbering icon. The Bullets and Numbering
dialog box as in Figure 5.10 appears.
The Bullets and Numbering dialog box
contains five tabs namely, Bullets,
Numbering type, Graphics, Position and
Customize for formatting the lists. The
Bullets tab is used to set the style of the
bullet. To use a more attractive graphical
bullet, choose a suitable bullet from the
Graphics tab. Numbering type tab
provides option to select the different
numbering styles available. Position tab
allows to set indent, width of numbering
and alignment of the different levels of Fig. 5.10 : Bullets and Numbering dialog
box

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 5. Presentation Software

bullets and numbering.

The style and
appearance of the levels
of bullets and numbering
can be modified
according to our
requirements using the
Customize tab of
Bullets and Numbering
dialog box. Now the
Fig. 5.11 : Slide with bullets new slide appears as
shown in Figure 5.11.

5.4.3 Setting the background

We can set different background styles to slides, to make the presentation more beautiful.
The background styles can be set for a slide or an object in the slide.

a. Setting slide background

The background of a slide can be given a
colour, gradient, hatching pattern or bitmap.
This can be done using the menu option
Format à Page and then select the
Background tab from the Page Setup dialog
box as in Figure 5.12.
Setting background colour
A uniform colour can be set as the
background of a slide using the Color option Fig 5.12 : Background tab of Page
in the Fill dropdown box. Choose the desired Setup dialog box
colour from the list of colours displayed
below and then click OK button as in Figure 5.13(a). This will display a confirmation
dialog box as in Figure 5.13(b). This prompts a message to the user stating whether the
background setting is to be applied for all the slides in the presentation or to the current
slide.
After setting the background colour our presentation appears as shown in Figure 5.14

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 Fig 5.13(b) : Confirmation dialog box
Fig 5.13(a) : Choosing a colour for
background

Fig 5.14 : After applying background colour

Applying gradient fill

A gradient fill provides a smooth transition from one colour to another. A gradient fill
can be applied to the background of a slide using the Gradient option in the Fill dropdown
box as shown in the Figure 5.12. Then select a gradient style from the list as in Figure
5.15. When the OK button is clicked, the confirmation dialog box is displayed as in
Figure 5.13(b).

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 5. Presentation Software

Fig 5.15 : Choosing a gradient for background

Setting hatching pattern
Fine lines are used in graphic arts to show shading. The process of decorating a slide
using such lines is known as hatching. To apply a hatching pattern to the slide, select
Hatching item from the Fill list as in Figure 5.12.

Setting a bitmap as the background

A bitmap image can be used to fill the background of a slide. Choose the Bitmap
option in the Fill dropdown box as in Figure 5.12.

b. Setting background of an object

We can set the background of an object
or an area in a slide with a uniform colour,
a gradient, a hatching pattern or an image.
This can be done using the Format à Area
menu item. An Area dialog box as in Figure
5.16 is displayed.
To set a background colour of a selected
object, choose the Area tab. Select an
appropriate colour for the object and click
OK button.
Fig 5.16 : Choosing colour for an Area

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 In the same way, a gradient,
hatching pattern or a bitmap
image can be set as the
background of an object.
The Shadow tab is used to
set shadow to an object.
The percentage of
transparency of an object
can be set using the
Transparency tab. Figure Fig. 5.17 : Slide after applying gradient
5.17 shows the slide after
applying gradient to the title object.

5.5 Adding images to a slide

Images can convey a message
effectively to the audience. The effect
of our presentation can be enhanced
by inserting suitable images to it. In our
presentation about earth, let us add a
new slide that displays images of the
various types of pollutions that affect
our environment.
Fig. 5.18 : Image insertion
After adding a new
slide, select a layout that
has a title and facility to
add 4 images. In each
of the 4 content boxes
in the slide, we can add
images by clicking Insert
Picture and browse to
add images. Our new
slide is displayed as
shown in Figure 5.18.
Another method of
inserting images to a Fig. 5.19 : After image insertion

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 5. Presentation Software

slide is by selecting Insert à Picture from File menu option. Let us give a background
image to our first slide using the above method. In the Insert Picture dialog box that
appears, browse and select an image. The selected image will be added to the slide.
Note that this image will hide other objects in the slide. To send it to the back of other
objects, right click on the image and choose Arrange à Send to Back. Image and
other objects in the slide can be resized and re-positioned by clicking and dragging.
The new appearance of the first slide is as in Figure 5.19.

5.6 Slide masters

A slide master controls the basic formatting of all the slides in a presentation. A slide
master has a defined set of characteristics for background colour, graphics (logos,
decorative lines, etc.) and placement and formatting of text. A slide master is also called
a template.

5.6.1 Applying slide master

Slide masters are available in the Master Page section of the Tasks pane. Select a
suitable slide master from the available list. This will change all the slides in the presentation
according to the formatting defined in the slide master. After applying the template, our
presentation appears as in Figure 5.20.

Fig. 5.20 : After applying Slide Master

5.6.2 Loading additional slide master

Sometimes in a presentation we may need to mix multiple slide masters. For example,
we may need an entirely different layout for the first slide of the presentation. The Slide
Design dialog box makes this possible. It is available at Format à Slide Design menu
option. Figure 5.21 displays the Slide Design dialog box. In this dialog box use the

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 Load button to select an appropriate
template. Click OK button to apply the
template to current slide (Figure 5.22).
Templates can also be selected at the
time of creating a new presentation.
The Presentation Wizard shown in
Figure 5.1 allows you to create a
presentation from a list of existing
templates.
Fig. 5.21 : Slide Design dialog box

Fig. 5.22 : Slides with multiple templates

Check yourself

1. What do you mean by gradient?

2. Name the different text formatting options in presentation software.
3. How do you add new slides to your presentation?
4. How can you insert an image in a slide?
5. Which of the following controls the basic formatting of all the slides in a
presentation?
a) Gradient b) Hatching Pattern c) Slide Master d) Bitmap fill

• Make five different slides based on any topic that you have
studied this year and give suitable background colour, text
etc.
Let us do

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 5. Presentation Software

5.7 Duplicating and deleting slides

Duplicating a slide means making a copy of the same slide. To duplicate a slide, right
click on the slide which is to be duplicated in the Slides pane. From the popup menu
choose Duplicate Slide. A copy of the selected slide is inserted as the next slide.
To delete a slide, right click on the slide in the Slides pane and select Delete Slide from
the popup menu. The selected slide will be removed from the presentation.

5.8 Inserting a table in a slide

Tables are powerful tools to convey structured information quickly. Hence table is an
important tool in presentations. In our presentation about earth, let us insert a table to
list the important days related to environment.

Fig 5.23(a) : Insert Table Fig 5.23(b) : Table toolbar

dialog box
A table can be easily inserted into a slide using Insert à Table menu item. From the
Insert Table dialog box, select the number of rows and columns (Figure 5.23(a)).

The table inserted on the slide can be resized and positioned by dragging it. When a
table is selected, a Table toolbar is displayed (Figure 5.23(b)). This toolbar contains
tools for merging, splitting, giving colours, borders, alignments, etc. to the cells of a
table. This toolbar also
consists of buttons for
inserting or deleting
rows and columns,
setting table properties,
etc. The Tasks pane
shows various
predefined styles of
tables from which we
can select a suitable
style. A Tasks pane can
Fig. 5.24 : A slide with table
also be used to create
a table. This can be done by clicking a suitable design from the Table Design tab in the
Tasks pane. The important days related to environment can be presented using a table
as in Figure 5.24.
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 5.9 Inserting a sound file
At times, it may be necessary to
play sound during the
presentation. In our presentation,
let us insert a poem 'Bhoomikkooru
Charamageetham' by Prof.
O.N.V. Kurup. This poem is
stored as bhoomi.wav. Let us
now create a new slide to insert
this poem. In this slide, first insert
an image of Prof. O.N.V. Kurup.
Now we can insert the sound file.
A dialog box as in Figure 5.25 is Fig. 5.25 : Open dialog box to select sound files
displayed when we select Movie
and Sound option of Insert menu. Click Open button after selecting the audio file. The
new slide is displayed as in Figure 5.26.
We can see that the sound file
is inserted in our slide in the
form of a sound icon. It is set
to begin automatically when
the slide comes on the screen.
If we do not want the sound
icon to appear on the screen,
you can drag it off the slide.
It will be still active but will
not be visible on the slide.
Fig. 5.26 : Slide with sound file
5.10 Inserting video clip in a slide
A video clip can be inserted into a
slide in the same way as we insert
a sound file. Select the movie file
from the Open dialog box that
appears, when we choose Insert à
Movie and Sounds menu. Let us
include a video on pipe compost in
our presentation. The new slide
with the video clip is shown in the Fig. 5.27 : Slide with video clip on pipe compost
Figure 5.27.

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 5. Presentation Software

Remember that whenever we need to move our presentation to other computers, both
the presentation and the folder with the movies and sound files must be copied together.
Otherwise, the presentation software will not play the audio or video. This is because
the presentation software loses its link to the specified file in the new computer.

5.11 Inserting hyperlinks

A hyperlink can be inserted into a slide. When we click on the hyperlink, it leads the
viewer to some other documents or slides. To insert a hyperlink, or to customise the
appearance of a hyperlink, select Insert à Hyperlinks from the menu. The Hyperlink
dialog box shown below (Figure 5.28) opens.

Fig. 5.28 : Dialog box for creating or editing hypertext

On the left hand side, select one of the four types of hyperlinks:
• Internet: Used to hyperlink to a web page in the Internet, normally starting with
http://.
• Mail & News: Create or edit hyperlink for email or news address.
• Document: The hyperlink points to a document, sections of a document or to
another slide in the presentation.
• New document: The hyperlink creates a new document of the selected type.
The right part of the dialog box changes according to the choice made for the hyperlink
type. A full description of all the choices and their interactions is beyond the scope of
this chapter.

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 5.12 Adding action objects
In the presentation we can add actions, such as going to another slide, play audio or
video, etc. to an object in a slide. The object can be a shape like a text box or an image.
When the user clicks on it or points to that object, the action will be applied.
5.12.1 Adding a button to move to the first slide
1. Select a slide to insert a button.
2. Choose the Rectangle tool from the Drawing toolbar ( ) and drag it on the
slide to a suitable place such as the lower-right corner of the slide.
3. Right-click on the rectangle and select Interaction from the popup menu (Figure
5.29). The option Interaction is also available in the Slide Show menu. An
Interaction dialog box appears as in Figure 5.30.

Fig. 5.29 : Adding action button

4. Select Goto first slide from the dropdown box for Action at mouse click and
click OK.
5.12.2 Applying interaction method to play audio and video
If we want to play an audio file or a video file
during our presentation, we can use an
interaction button. The button can be created
as explained in the previous section. For this
select the object which is to act as the
interaction button. Then choose the menu
Fig. 5.30 : Interaction dialog box

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 5. Presentation Software

item Slide Show à Interaction. In the Interaction dialog box that appears (refer
Figure 5.30), select Go to document item for Action at mouse click setting as in
Figure 5.30. Then browse the sound or movie file that we want to play. Remember that
all the file types that are listed in the dialog box are not supported by the presentation
software.

5.13 Drawing figures in the slide

Presentation allows us to draw figures in a slide. There are many drawing tools available
in Drawing toolbar which is generally displayed below the slides in normal view. Different
shapes, lines, curves, etc. can be used to draw figures in our slide. In our last slide we
will draw a happy earth using symbol shape in the Drawing toolbar. It is shown in
Figure 5.31.

Fig. 5.31 : Slide with a drawing

5.14 Views of the slides
The presentation has five different workspace views from which we can choose. Each
view is designed to perform certain tasks easier. The different views are:
• Normal view (Slide view)
• Outline view
• Notes view Fig. 5.32 : Slide view pane
• Handout view
• Slide Sorter view
The different views can be selected from View pane shown in Figure 5.32.

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 5.14.1 Normal view
It is the main view for creating individual slides. It is used to design and format various
objects in the slide. The whole slide is visible on the screen when normal view is used.
This is the default view in a presentation.

5.14.2 Outline view

Outline view contains all the slides of the presentation in their numbered sequence. It
shows titles, bulleted lists and numbered lists for each slide in outline format. Use this
view to edit titles and text, rearrange the order of items in a list, etc. Outline view
(Figure 5.33) shows only the text in the slides. No graphs or tables can appear in this
view.

Fig. 5.33 : Outline view

Fig. 5.34 :Notes view

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 5. Presentation Software

5.14.3 Notes view

Notes view allows us to add notes to each slide. In Notes view each slide is displayed
as a combination of a preview of the slide and a text box to add notes below it. This
view enables the presenter to make notes regarding each slide. Notes can be shown on
the printout but they will not be shown on the screen during the presentation. Figure
5.34 shows the Notes view of our third slide.
5.14.4 Handout view
Handout view is for setting up the layout of a printed handout. Click the Handout tab in
the workspace, and then choose Layouts in the tasks pane. We can then choose to
print 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 or 9 slides per page. The thumbnails of slides will appear in the chosen
format. They can be re-arranged by dragging. We can add headers and footers to the
handout. Figure 5.35 shows the handout view.

Fig. 5.35 : Handout view with layout

5.14.5 Slide Sorter view

Slide Sorter view shows a thumbnail of each slide in the order they are to be displayed
at the time of the slide show. This view is used to rearrange the order of slides or add
transitions between selected slides. Slide Sorter view can be used to work with a single
slide or group of slides. The number of slides displayed in a row can be changed using
the slides per row box in the Slide view toolbar. Using Slide Sorter view we can add
new slide, delete or rename a slide. Also we can change the layout of the slide. All these
options are available in the popup menu appeared in response to a right click on the
thumbnail of the slide.

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 a. Changing the order of slides in a presentation using Slide Sorter view
To move a slide in a presentation using the Slide Sorter view,
1) Click on the slide. A thick border is shown around the slide.
2) Drag and drop it to the required position.
Suppose our aim is to move the fifth slide 'Days to Remember' to the last position.
Click on the slide, drag and drop it to the last position. After sorting, the Slide Sorter
view appears as in Figure 5.36.

Fig. 5.36 : Slide Sorter view

b. Selecting and moving groups of slides
To select a group of slides, click on the first slide then hold the Ctrl key pressed and
then click other slides. Then drag it to the needed position.

5.15 Using slide animation effects

Animations can make a presentation more lively and memorable. Animations are applied
to individual elements on a slide like title, text, image or individual bullet point in a list.
Animation effects need to be applied from Normal view so that we can select individual
objects on a single slide.

Applying an animation effect

In Normal view, choose the desired slide. Select the text or object to animate. When an
object is selected a coloured handle appears around the object. Then choose Custom
Animation from the Task pane as in Figure 5.37.

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 5. Presentation Software

Fig. 5.37 : Custom

Animation pane Fig. 5.38 : Custom Animation dialog box

Click the Add button. The Custom Animation dialog box appears as in Figure 5.38.
Choose an effect from one of the pages of this dialog, and choose the speed or duration
of that effect. In our presentation 'Save Earth', select the title and click the Add button
from the Custom Animation pane. From the Entrance tab of the dialog box, select Fly
In and click OK.

There are five tabs in the Custom Animation pane as shown in Figure 5.38. Each tab
contains many effects. You can experiment with different effects.

5.16 Slide transitions

Slide transitions are defined as special effects that play when we display a slide during
a slide show. Roll down from top or Fly in from left are some slide transitions. They
add dynamic styles to a slide show, smoothing the transition between slides. We play
sound or specify the speed of transition in the Modify transition section of the Slide
Transition pane.

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 We can add transitions, in Slide Sorter view or in Normal
view. To see the effect of a selection, we need to be in Normal
view and select the Automatic preview checkbox on the Slide
Transition page of the Tasks pane as in Figure 5.39.

We can apply a single type of transition to all slides in the

presentation or apply a different transition to each slide. Some
of the slide transition settings are given below:

5.16.1 Automatic slide transition

We can set up a slide show to run automatically, either
unattended or while you speak. To set the default time for
slides to be displayed before changing to the next slide, go to
the Slide Transition pane, choose Automatically after in the Fig. 5.39 : Slide
Advance slide section, set a time and click the Apply to All Transition pane
Slides button as in Figure 5.39.

5.16.2 Rehearse timings

While giving a talk using a presentation, the time required for presenting each slide may
differ. The timing for each slide can be determined only after taking a rehearsal.
Presentation software provides a facility to set different timings for different slides. This
option is available at Slide Show àRehearse Timings in the Menu bar. On selecting
this, the slide show begins in full-screen mode, and a timer appears in the lower left-
hand corner of the screen. When we want to advance to the next slide, click the timer.
Continue this process for all slides in the presentation. It records the display time for
each slide. Save the presentation. When we show the slides next time, the time for
displaying of slides will be changed to match what we have set when rehearsing.

5.17 More presentation settings

During presentation there may be a situation where we need to repeat the entire
presentation or play background music throughout the presentation. Let us discuss
these features below:

5.17.1 Auto-repeat presentation

Before an audience or in a seminar, we may have to make a presentation regarding the
events. Such a slide show should auto-repeat until the event starts. For this, open the

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 5. Presentation Software

menu Slide Show à Slide Show

Settings as shown in Figure 5.40. Select
Auto from Type option in this dialog box.

5.17.2 Background sound for a

presentation
We can use the Slide Transition pane
to set a sound or a song to be played
throughout the presentation.
Select the slide in which the sound is to
be inserted. In the Modify transition Fig 5.40 : Slide Show settings dialog box
section of the Slide Transition pane
(refer Figure 5.39), choose Other Sound … from the Sound dropdown box. Select
Loop until next sound checkbox if we want the sound to restart once it is finished. Do
not select the Apply to all slides button as it will re-start the music at every slide
change.

5.18 Printing a presentation

Keeping a printed copy of the presentation will be helpful to the presenter during a
presentation as a reference. A hard copy of the presentation may be given to the audience
for future reference. Presentation software provides many options for printing a
presentation such as a single slide per page, multiple slides on one page, slide with
notes, outline or handout. The slides can be printed in their original colour, grayscale or

Fig. 5.41 : Print dialog box

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 in black and white. For printing a presentation, choose File à Print to display the
Print dialog box (refer Figure 5.41).
Choose the required settings from the options and click the Print button. A preview of
the page to be printed is also available in this dialog box.

Check yourself

1. To remove a transition effect select ________ item in the list on the slide
transition page in the Tasks pane.
2. Define the term slide transition.
3. Give any three items present in the slide transition pane.
4. What do you mean by action button in a slide?
5. Write the steps to insert a transition effect to slide of a presentation you
have created.

• Suppose you get a movie file that shows working of a laser

printer. Insert this movie file on the slide and play it by clicking
the picture of that printer.
Let us do

Let us sum up
An effective presentation helps to convey ideas to the audience better than a mere
speech. Presentation software enables presenting the topic with the help of pictures,
sounds, videos and animations. Slides can be prepared and its content can be
formatted by inserting text boxes, setting the background colour and patterns. The
various built-in templates called master pages can be used to make the presentation
attractive. Formatting can be done to a particular area in the slide or to the entire
slide. The different styles of bullets and numbering available can be used if required.
Facilities to insert images or draw pictures on the slides are available in presentation
software.
Presentation software provides different slide views that support the presenter. Tables
inserted in a slide can be formatted using different built-in formats available or can
be customised. Movies and sound can be inserted in the slides. Different built-in
transition effects can be set to slides. Animations given to the objects in the slide
make a presentation attractive. We can create hyperlinks in a slide that provides
links to documents or websites. Various printing options are available to print the
slides, notes, handouts, etc.

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 5. Presentation Software

Learning outcomes
After the completion of this chapter the learner will be able to
• identify the use of presentation software and its features.
• create slides by entering text and formatting it.
• insert various objects like images, tables, audio, video, etc.
• make the slides attractive using transitions and animation.
• identify the different slide views and its use.
• familiarise with various printing options.

Lab activities

1. Create a presentation on the ‘Importance of growing vegetables’. Give proper

formatting to background and text of slides. Insert pictures, tables, etc. that en-
courages growing vegetables. Presentation should consist of atleast 8 slides.
2. Design a presentation on ‘Blood donation’. Give a suitable template for your
presentation. Links to different websites should also be given in the slide. Presen-
tation should consist of atleast 8 slides.
3. Design a presentation on the topic 'Input and Output Devices'. Complete the
presentation by inserting pictures of these devices in the slides and set timings for
transitions according to their content.
Sample questions
Very short answer type
1. What are the two different ways of inserting a text into a slide are?
2. How can you insert an image into a presentation?
3. Name the view that helps to change the order of slides.
4. What is a hatching pattern?

Short answer type

1. What are the different types of numbering possible in presentations?
2. What do you mean by hatching? Write the steps to insert a hatching pattern to
slides?

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 3. Discuss the different ways of inserting a sound file to a slide.
4. How can you play background music in presentation?
5. Explain how tables can be inserted into slides.
6. What do you mean by rehearse timings in slide transition?
7. Give the steps to insert action buttons in a slide. Explain its use.
8. What do you mean by hyperlink? How do you insert hyperlinks in a slide?

Long answer type

1. Explain the different slide views.
2. Explain the IDE of a presentation software.

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 6. Getting Started with GIMP

All of us would like to use beautiful images in

documents, posters and presentations we prepare. For
Key concepts this we search the Internet and download appropriate
images. But at times the images we download may
• Image editing
not be exactly as the one we have in our minds. The
• GIMP as an image
possibility of easily editing or changing an image can
editor
make a large difference to a document or presentation
• Canvas creation
we prepare. We may want to change the background
• Saving images
of an image, add an image to another one or rotate a
• Layers in GIMP
part of an image, to make it suitable for our needs.
• Creating a simple GIMP
Image editing software helps us to create attractive
Project
images that suit any situation, be it the background
• Selection tools -
image of a presentation or a poster, a background
Rectangle Select, Ellipse
Select, Free Select, picture of a stage or a huge advertisement board.
Foreground Select, Fuzzy
Select, By Color Select, 6.1 Image editing
Intelligent Scissors Image editing is the editing or manipulating of an image
• Adding text to images or a graphic. Image editing can be done using image
• Exporting images editing software. Tasks that can be done with image
• Transform tools editing software include resizing, cropping, coloring,
o Align combining and altering digital images to suit the
o Move imagination of its creator. Images taken with a digital
o Crop camera or those which are scanned from a printed
o Rotate photograph can be used for this purpose.
o Scale Image editors can also be used to remove scratches,
o Shear wrinkles, dirt and imperfections from images. They can
o Flip be used to sharpen or blur images. Lines and other

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 shapes can be drawn with brushes of different color, size, shape and pressure. Digital
images also can be rotated clockwise or anti-clockwise or flipped horizontally or
vertically. Text in different font styles can be inserted into images and conversions can
easily be done from one image format to another. Graphic artists, photographers and
web designers are among the people who regularly work with image editing software.
Image editors can be broadly grouped into raster graphics editors, vector graphics
editors and 3D modelers.
Raster images are stored in a computer in the form of a grid of picture elements or
pixels. These pixels contain information regarding the color and brightness of the image.
Pixels can be changed in groups or each one separately, by sophisticated algorithms
within the image editors. These types of editors are primarily referred to as bitmap
graphics editors, which are often used to alter photographs and other raster graphics.
Raster images are resolution dependent. Therefore when you scale a raster image (change
the size), you are actually shrinking or stretching the pixels themselves, resulting in
significant loss of clarity and the image gets blurred. GIMP, Photoshop and gThumb
Image Viewer are raster graphics editors for viewing and editing images.
Vector images are created mathematically using formulas of geometry. Each element is
created and manipulated mathematically. Vector images are based on vectors (paths)
which lead through locations called control points. Vector objects are made up of basic
geometric shapes such as points, lines and curves. They can be modified more easily
because they contain descriptions of the shapes. The relationship of the shapes is
expressed as a mathematical equation which allows the image to be scaled up or down
in size without losing quality. Vector images can be rasterised to any particular size.
Vector graphics software, such as Adobe Illustrator, Corel DRAW and Inkscape are
used to create and modify vector images like company logos, desktop icons, etc.
Table 6.1 presents a comparison between raster and vector images.

Raster Vector
• Raster image is made up of pixels. • Vector image is created mathematically
using formulas.
• Quality of raster images decreases as • Vector images can be scaled to any size
they are scaled. without losing quality of image.
• Raster images are capable of displaying • Vector images do not permit colour
any colour. editing to the extent as possible with
raster images.

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 6. Getting Started with GIMP

• Raster images are often large files. • Vector images are relatively smaller in
size.
• Raster images are used in web and • Vector images are converted to raster
print. images before they are used for web
and printing.

Table 6.1 : Raster-Vector comparison table

3D modelers (3D computer graphics software) allow users to create and alter 3
dimensional models using the 3D mesh. Users can add, subtract, stretch and change
the 3D mesh according to their wish. Models can be viewed from a variety of angles
simultaneously. It can be zoomed in and out. 3D modelers are used in a wide variety of
industries. The medical industry uses them to create detailed models of organs. In movies
they are used to create and manipulate characters and objects. 3D modeling software
is used to create objects for video games. 3D Studio MAX is a comprehensive and
versatile 3D application used in film, television, video games and architecture. Animation
Master is a modeling and animation software that is easy to use. K-3D is a GNU based
modeling, animation and rendering software available on GNU/Linux.
Figure 6.1 displays a snapshot of different image editing software.

GIMP: Raster graphics editor Inkscape: Vector graphics editor K3D: 3D Modeler
Fig. 6.1 : Image editors

6.2 GIMP
The GIMP is the acronym for GNU Image Manipulation Program. The GIMP is an
application suitable for tasks such as retouching of photographs, composing and authoring
images. Its capabilities as an image manipulation program make it a worthy competitor
to other similar programs such as Adobe Photoshop or Corel PHOTO-PAINT. The

157
 first edition of GIMP was developed by Peter Matis and Spenser Kimpel in California
University in 1996. It is now available in different versions for Linux, Mac and Windows
operating systems. Most Linux distributions include GIMP as a standard application.
The following is a short overview of some of the features and capabilities offered by the
GIMP.
• Full suite of painting tools including brushes, pencil, airbrush, cloning, etc.
• Multiple undo/redo.
• Selection tools including rectangle, ellipse, free, fuzzy, bezier and intelligent.
• Transformation tools including rotate, scale, shear and flip.
• Supports multiple layer facility.
• Supports file formats like GIF, JPEG, PNG, TIFF, and BMP.
• Advanced scripting capabilities.

Making a simple GIMP project

Let us see how we can use GIMP to design a poster on 'Anti-Smoking Campaign'
using different photographs, logos and texts. To create a poster, you need to perform
the following operations in GIMP.

6.3 Canvas creation

The canvas is the container part of the GIMP to hold and manipulate pictures. To
create a new canvas for the poster, click on New in File menu as shown in Figure 6.2.
It displays a Create a New Image dialog box as shown in Figure 6.3. Give a suitable

Fig.6.2 : Main menu of GIMP

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 6. Getting Started with GIMP

image/canvas size say, 600 pixels as the width and 800 pixels as the height of the image.
The image size can also be selected in different units like millimeters, centimeters, inches,
etc. We can also select a preset image size from the template.

Fig. 6.3 : Create a New Image dialog box

Color settings for a canvas

The background colour of the poster can be set using the background and foreground
option in the colour palette. When a new canvas is created, by default, the colour in the
palette becomes the background colour of the canvas. To change the background
color of the poster, perform
the following steps.
• Click on the back-
ground colour icon in the
ToolBox. Here, by
default, foreground
is black and back-
ground is white.
• Select a suitable color
for the canvas from the
color area of the colour Fig. 6.4: Color palette

159
 palette as shown in Figure 6.4
and click the OK button.
• Select Bucket Fill tool from
the Toolbox.
• Click on the canvas to fill the
background colour (Figure
6.5).
When you use a Gradient tool
(which you have learned in the
previous classes), you need to use
more than one colour in the canvas.
In such situations, the foreground
which is available in the colour
palette can also be made use of,
along with the background colour.
Fig. 6.5 : Canvas with background colour
6.4 Saving images
When the canvas is ready, the GIMP project has to be saved. To save, select Save
option from the File menu. Choose a location in your computer to save the project
using the Save dialog box that appears. Give a proper file name, say 'Poster', and press
Save button. The project will be saved in your computer with the extension .xcf. XCF
(Experimental Compact Facility) is the native format of GIMP project files.

To reset all user settings in GIMP, use the menu item Edit -> Preferences.
From the Preferences dialog box that appears, Choose Window
Management. Click Reset Saved Window Positions to Default Values.
Now click OK and then restart GIMP.

6.5 Layers in GIMP

For preparing the poster on 'Anti-Smoking Campaign', we require pictures related to
anti-smoking. We can collect pictures from Internet, resource CD's, etc. and store
them in the folder 'Images'. The pictures should be in GIMP supported formats like
jpg, tif, png, bmp, etc.

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 6. Getting Started with GIMP

Our poster is to be designed using the pictures we have collected. These pictures have
to be opened in GIMP and then aligned to our canvas on different layers. Only then the
different images can be manipulated separately.
A layer can be compared to a transparency on which images are applied and stacked
on or below other images. In an image editing software, a layer is the term used to
describe the different levels at which you can place an object or an image. Each layer
can have different images and effects. Using image editing software you can stack,
merge or define layers while creating a digital image. Layers allow you to go back and
make changes within a layer. Consider the following two images (Figure 6.6).

Fig. 6.6 : Pictures collected

Assume that, in the second image, the lungs are drawn in a transparent sheet. When the
second sheet is placed on top of the first one, the image will look as shown in Figure
6.7. In GIMP, we treat the second image as a layer.

Fig. 6.7 : Combined image Fig. 6.8 : Layers dialog

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 We can create any number of layers for an image and different images can be drawn
into these layers. When the images are placed in different layers, they can easily be
modified, without affecting the images on other layers. Layers are controlled through
Layers dialog (Figure 6.8).

If the Layers dialog is not visible on the screen, you can use the menu item Windows à
Dockable dialogs à Layers. You can also use the shortcut key Ctrl+L to make the
Layers dialog visible on the screen.

There are a number of icons at the bottom of the Layers dialog. These icons are used
for various operations on layers. The use of each icon in the layers dialog is given as
follows.
1. Create new layer.
2. Move layer up.
3. Move layer down.
4. Create duplicate copy of a layer.
5. Anchor the floating layer.
6. Delete a layer.
Now let us see how layers can be used in the editing of an image. For this first of all,
consider our canvas (poster.xcf) as shown in Figure 6.9.

Fig. 6.9 : Background image

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 6. Getting Started with GIMP

You can see the Layers dialog on the right side (Figure 6.9). Now we can create a new
layer in this canvas. For this, click the leftmost icon (Create new layer) on the bottom of
the layers dialog or using the Layer menu. Then you will get a dialog box as shown in
Figure 6.10. We can change the Layer name as 'Human' as shown in the figure and
click the OK button. Make sure that in the Layer Fill Type options Transparency is
selected. Now the Layers dialog will look as shown in Figure 6.11. The Layers dialog
displays two layers, the Background layer at the bottom and the 'Human' layer on top.

Fig.6.10 : New Layer dialog box Fig.6.11 : Layers dialog

6.6 Creating a simple GIMP

project
Now, to this new layer you can copy the
image of the human which you have already
downloaded. For this, the picture of the
human has to be opened at first (body.png).
Let us see how this image can be opened in
GIMP.
Click Open in the File menu and select the
image file from the folder 'Images' in your
computer. Now picture appears as shown in
Figure 6.12.
Fig.6.12 : Opened picture

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 We need to add the whole image (body.png) to our canvas. For this click the menu item
Edit à Copy to copy the image. Then activate the canvas by clicking on it. We need to
copy the image to the 'Human' layer in our canvas. Ensure that the 'Human' layer in
the Layers dialog is selected. Then use the menu item Edit à Paste. The image of the
body is copied in to the canvas as shown in Figure 6.13.

Fig.6.13 : Image copied to the canvas

How does the image appear now?
You can see that the 'Human' image
is larger than its background. The
'Human' layer can be resized to
match the background. This can be
done using the Scale tool available
in the Toolbox. The Scale tool helps
us to resize an image. To scale the
active layer of the canvas, select
Tools à Transform Tools à Scale
or Scale tool from Toolbox. When
you click on the image a Scale dialog
box (Figure. 6.14) is opened. This
can be used to change the width and
Fig.6.14 : Scale dialog box and picture
height of the image. The image can
also be resized by using the handles that appear on the corners and borders of the
image. After resizing, click the Scale button to complete the process.

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 6. Getting Started with GIMP

While scaling the image, you might have noticed that the image gets distorted due to
improper resizing. This problem can be avoided by keeping the aspect ratio. The aspect
ratio will constrain the scaling that the height/width ratio of the layer will be kept constant.
The Linking Chain icon in the Scale dialog box should be clicked for keeping the
aspect ratio. (See Figure 6.15)

Fig.6.15 : Scale dialog box

Now, let us have a look at the Layers dialog. (See Figure 6.16). You can see that the
pasted image is shown in the Layers dialog as a floating selection. In order to paste this
layer on the 'Human' layer, click the Anchor the Floating Layer icon which is at the
bottom of the Layers dialog.

Click this icon to anchor the floating

layer to the bottom layer

Fig.6.16 : Before Fig. 6.17 : After

anchoring anchoring
A floating selection (sometimes called a ‘floating layer’) is a type of temporary layer
which is similar in function to a normal layer. Before you work on any other layers in the
image, a floating selection must be anchored. Anchoring is attaching a floating layer to a
normal (non-floating) layer, which was active previously (See Figure 6.17).

165
 To reposition the scaled image in the 'Human' layer, use the Move tool. This tool is
available in the Tools à Transform Tools à Move menu. You can also use Move tool
in the Toolbox. To move the image, click on the image and drag. Note that all
manipulations in GIMP is done on the active layer. Therefore, before editing, we should
make sure that the image to be manipulated is in the active layer of the Layers dialog.
Also, note that while using move tool the Move the active layer option of the Tool
Toggle is selected. (See Figure 6.18). Now the canvas appears as shown below (Figure
6.19).

Fig. 6.18 : Tool Toggle in Tool Box Fig. 6.19 : Picture after moving

We can complete the poster by adding more images

or its specific parts. To add a specific portion of an
image, there are various selection tools available in
GIMP. Now let us open the image 'Lungs.jpg' as
shown in Figure 6.20.
For our poster we need only the image of lungs
without its white background. How will you select
the lungs without its white background? You can use
the Fuzzy Select tool for this purpose. Select white
background using the Fuzzy Select tool and then,
by inverting the selection, only the image of lungs
can be copied.
Fig. 6.20 : Lungs picture
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 6. Getting Started with GIMP

The Fuzzy Select tool is used to select similar

colours on the current layer. After selecting
the tool, set the appropriate Threshold (here
we use 66) in the tool options of fuzzy tool.
Threshold determines how many similar
colours should be selected on the borders of
a selection.
Then click on the white background of the
image, lungs. All the areas similar to white
color in the clicked region will be selected.
Now we can inverse this selection to select
the image of the lungs. For this, select the menu
item Select à Invert. On clicking this, the
image of the lungs will be selected as shown
in the Figure 6.21.
Fig. 6.21 : Lungs image after selection
Now paste the image of lungs which you have
copied to a new layer in our canvas in the same way as you copied the 'Human' image.
Scale and move the image if necessary, to place it in the appropriate location on the
canvas as in Figure 6.22.

Fig.6.22 : Lungs pasted in the canvas

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 Similarly, open the 'Icons.jpg' image (Figure 6.23) and use appropriate selection tools
to select the 'No Smoking' image and place it in the suitable location on the canvas as
shown in Figure 6.24.

Fig.6.23 : Icons picture

Fig.6.24 : Icon pasted in the canvas

You can improve the layout of our poster by including more images that you have saved
in your folder. For this you may use more selection tools. Let us familiarise more selection
tools.

Check yourself

1. GIMP stands for ________.

2. What do you mean by image editing?
3. The default extension of a GIMP image is _________.
4. What are different types of image editors?
5. What is scaling in GIMP?

6.7 Selection tools

GIMP offers a good range of selection tools
that allow you to make quick, simple and more
advanced selections. Selection tools are
designed to select regions from the active layer
so that we can work on them without affecting
the unselected areas. The different selection
tools available in GIMP are Rectangle Select,
Fig. 6.25 : Selection Tools menu

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 6. Getting Started with GIMP

Ellipse Select, Free Select, Foreground Select, Fuzzy Select, By Color Select and
Intelligent Scissors (Figure 6.25). The different selection tools are described below.

a. Rectangle Select
The Rectangle Select tool is designed to select rectangular regions of the active layer.
It is one of the most basic selection tools with which a portion of a picture in rectangle
shape can be selected. Rectangle selection tool can be accessed using the menu, Tools
à Selection Tools à Rectangle Select option or from the Toolbox using icon.
b. Ellipse Select
The Ellipse Select tool is designed to select circular or elliptical regions from an image.
To make a selection, use the menu item, Tools à Selection Tools à Ellipse Select.
This can also be done using the icon in the Toolbox. When this tool is selected,
the mouse pointer turns into a circle icon as it is brought over an image. Now click and
drag it to get an elliptical (or a circular) selection area within a rectangular box.
c. Free Select (Lasso Tool)
The Free Select tool or Lasso Tool allows you to create a selection by drawing it free-
hand with the mouse pointer, holding down the left mouse button. When you release the
mouse button, the selection is closed by connecting the current pointer location to the
start location with a straight line. Free Select is available at Tools à Selection Tools
à Free Select and also in the Toolbox .

d. Foreground Select
Foreground Select is used for finer selection of pixels in an image.
Foreground Select is available at Tools à Selection Tools à
Foreground Select or using Toolbox . Initially Foreground Select
works just like the Free Select tool discussed before. A portion of an Fig. 6.26 :
image can be selected in a similar way as in the case of Free Select Area selection
tool. When the mouse is released, the area other than the selected
area gets covered with a blue mask (Figure 6.26).
Now the mouse pointer turns to a paint brush icon. Use this paint
brush to draw a continuous line on the selected area in such a way
that the line passes over the colours to be selected (Figure 6.27).
Fig.6.27 :
Colour selection

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 The colour or thickness of the line is not important. When you release the mouse button
all the non-selected areas are covered with a blue mask (Figure 6.28). Press Enter
key to get the desired selection (Figure 6.29).

Fig.6.28 : Non-selected Fig.6.29 : Final

areas in blue mask selection
e. Fuzzy Select (Magic Wand)
The Fuzzy Select (Magic Wand) tool is designed to select areas of the active layer or
image based on color similarity. This tool is popularly used for selecting objects of the
same colour with sharp edges. We have already seen how this tool is used for selecting
the white spaces in the 'Lungs.jpg' image.

If you are using Lasso or Fuzzy Select tools, you must use the Shift
key to select a second circle or selection.
To remove all selections from the canvas, use Select à None from
the menu or press Shift+Ctrl+A.

f. By Color Select
By Color Select option is similar to Fuzzy Select. The difference is that with the Fuzzy
Select tool only contiguous areas based on colour similarity can be selected whereas
with By Color Select, all the regions in an image where there are similar colours can be
selected. The similar areas need not be contiguous for By Colour selection. By Color
Select can be accessed at Tools à Selection Tools à By Color Select or from the
Toolbox .

It is much easier in Gimp to move the actual selection marquee once

you have made it. For this, make a selection, then click the Move tool.
Make sure that the Move option is set to Selection in the panel and
you can now drag the selection into a new position. This works for
circles, rectangles as well as selections made using Free Select tool.
To merge all layers, right click on any of the layers in the Layers dialog and choose
Flatten Image.

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 6. Getting Started with GIMP

g. Intelligent Scissors
Intelligent Scissors has some features common to Lasso tool and Path tool and it also
possesses some features that are its own. It is useful when you are trying to select a
region defined by strong color-changes at the edges. To use Intelligent Scissors, you
click to create a set of 'control nodes', also referred to as anchors or control points, at
the edges of the region you are trying to select. This produces a selection area in the
form of a continuous curve, passing through these control nodes. The Intelligent Scissors
is available at Tools à Selection Tools à Intelligent Scissors or in the Toolbox .

6.8 Adding text to images in GIMP

Let us consider the poster which you
prepared before. You need to insert
a slogan against smoking in the
poster. You can use the Text tool for
this purpose. The Text tool is used
to add text to an image in GIMP.
The text is inserted as a new layer in
the canvas. Let us see how this tool
can be used.

Fig. 6.30 : GIMP Text Editor

Text tool is available at Tools à Text and is also

available in the Toolbox icon. Select the Text tool
and click on the canvas. A GIMP Text Editor appears.
You can set the font type, size, colour and alignment
of the text in the tool options of the Text tool (Figure
6.30).
Type the slogan 'Say NO to Tobacco' in the GIMP
Text Editor and press the Close button. This slogan
Fig. 6.31 : Text layer in then appears in a new layer in our canvas. See the
Layers dialog Layers dialog (Figure 6.31).

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 Now, if necessary, scale and move the slogan to a suitable place on the canvas by using
appropriate tools.
To edit an entered text, select the Text tool
from the Toolbox. Make sure that the text
layer is the active layer. Click on the text to
select the contents and click again to open
the GIMP Text Editor for editing the
content. In cases where the text is modified Fig. 6.32 : Poster - final form
using other tools, GIMP asks for a confirmation to edit the contents in a Confirm Text
Editing dialog box (Figure 6.32). Use the Edit button to continue editing.

Our poster for the anti-smoking campaign is now ready (Figure 6.33). You can modify
the poster to by adding more slogans or phrases.

Fig.6.33 : Poster - final form

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 6. Getting Started with GIMP

6.9 Exporting images in GIMP

The poster that we have created has to be pasted on a notice board or published in a
website. For this the poster has to be converted to a common format that supports
image viewers, printing and publishing software. The export facility in GIMP provides
options to export the image from a GIMP project to various other image file formats.
GIMP is considered as one of the best image conversion software. Let us see how
GIMP converts our poster to other image formats such as jpg, png, bmp, etc.
To convert the GIMP project file ('Poster.xcf') to another format use the Save As
option from the File menu. In the dialog that opens, click the Select File Type to open
the list of file types and then scroll down and click on appropriate format you need
before clicking the Save button. In some versions, images can be converted to other
formats using the File à Export to option.

Check yourself

1. Name the tool used to select circular areas in an image.

2. What is the use of the selection tool?
3. A GIMP image can be exported to png format using _____ option.
4. What is the difference between Fuzzy Select and By Color Select?

Design a collage for the youth festival in your school.

Let us do

6.10 Transform tools

Transform tools are mainly used to alter the appearance of an image or a particular
element of an image. Transform tools change the size, position and angle of the image.
The different transform tools available are Align, Move, Crop, Rotate, Scale, Shear
and Flip. Let us discuss the different transform tools available in GIMP in detail here.

6.10.1 Align
The Align tool is useful to align the image layers with various image objects. GIMP's
align and distribute tools allow you to arrange objects. Arrangement of objects can be

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 done in two ways - align relative to an object or selection, distribute according to an
offset value.
Aligning will line up the contents of two or more layers based on either the edges or
center of its content. The alignment will be done relative to the target item specified.
The different align options are Top Edges, Middle, Bottom Edges, Centers, Left Edges
and Right Edges.
The distribute tools allow us to take the contents of multiple layers and space them out
equally based on offset values specified. Distribution is also done relative to the target
item specified. The different distribute options available are distribute Top Edges, Vertical
Centers, Bottom Edges, Left Edges, Horizontal Centers and Right Edges.

Let us now see how the Align tool works with the help of an example. This tool can be
used to align different layers. Select Align tool in the Toolbox or from Tools àTransform
Tools à Align. Let us begin with a new image. Select a new canvas with size 300 X
500 pixels as shown in Figure 6.34. Copy an image of a flower to this canvas as a new
layer. By default, the size of a layer will be the same as the size of the canvas. When you
select a layer, a yellow dotted line appears around the layer showing the layer boundary.
If you want you can change the size of the layer. You can make the size of this layer
same as the size of the flower. For this, after selecting the layer, click the menu item
Layer à Autocrop Layer. Now the size of the new layer is changed to fit the size of the
image in that layer. You can see a yellow border line around the flower. This shows the
layer boundary. See Figure 6.35.

Fig.6.34 : Layer showing image of a flower

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 6. Getting Started with GIMP

Yellow dotted line, showing

the new layer boundary

Fig. 6.35 : New layer boundary 6.36 : Layers dialog

The Layers dialog now shows the two layers. See Figure 6.36. Make three duplicate
copies of this layer and move the image in each layer as shown in Figure 6.37. For
creating duplicate layers, right click on the layer to be duplicated in the Layers dialog
and select Duplicate Layer or use the menu Layer à Duplicate Layer.

Fig. 6.37 : Copies of flower Fig. 6.38 : Selecting flowers

Now, let us align all these pictures. For this, select the Align tool from the
Toolbox. Then click the topmost flower. Holding down the Shift key, select the flowers
one by one from top to bottom. After selecting, the image will be as shown in Figure
6.38. Note the four small squares at the corners of each of the image. This shows that
the image is selected for alignment. To deselect an image, click the image, while keeping
the Shift key pressed.

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 The lower portion of the Toolbox will be as shown in the Figure 6.39. Now click the
Relative to drop down list. You will have the options as shown in the Figure 6.40. Here
you can choose from the different alignment options. You can choose the First Item
from this list of options. After that, click the button , which is just below the Relative
To drop down list.

Fig.6.39 : Tool Options Fig. 6.40 : Align options

When you click the button, the left edges of

all the images will be aligned to the left edges of
the first selected image as shown in Figure 6.41.
You can try other options and observe the
changes. Now let us see how to distribute these
images evenly. For this you must know the height
of each flower. Here the flower is of 90 pixels
high. So, in the Offset box, enter the value 100
as shown in Figure 6.42. Then click the
button. When you click this button, the top edge
of the second image will be moved 100 pixels
away from the top edge of the first image. The
top edge of the third image will be moved 100
pixels away from the top edge of the second
image and so on. The image after the distribution
will be as shown in Figure 6.43. Fig. 6.41 : Images aligned to the
first flower

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 6. Getting Started with GIMP

Fig. 6.42 : Setting Offset

Fig. 6.43 : Aligned images

In the Figure 6.43 you can see that all the

images are evenly distributed. Now let us
set 35 as the offset value and press the
button. The images will be distributed as
shown in the Figure 6.44. When you press
the button, right edge of each image is
moved 35 pixels away from the right edge
of the previous image.
You can set different values as the offset
and try clicking the different buttons below
the Distribute options in the Toolbox and
observe the changes in the image.
Let us now try to align the picture in another
way. Consider the image with flowers in
different layers as shown in Figure 6.45.

Fig. 6.44 : Images moved to right

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 Select the background layer by clicking it in the
Layers dialog. Now select the Rectangle Select
tool from the Toolbox. Make a small selection in
the background as shown in Figure 6.46. Now
let us align the entire flowers to the selection. For
this click the Align tool in the Toolbox. Select the
flowers one by one from top to bottom by clicking
them. Make sure that the shift key is down while
clicking each flower. Then click the Relative To
drop down list and select Selection from the list
of options. Then click the button. All the
images will be aligned to the left edge of the
selected area as shown in Figure 6.47.
Fig. 6.45 : Flower image

Fig. 6.46 : Selection using Fig. 6.47 : Images aligned to

Rectangle Select tool the right
Thus you can align the image or layers to any location on the image.

6.10.2 Move
The Move tool is used to move layers or selections. While moving a layer or text, make
sure that the Move the Active Layer option of Move tool is selected. We have moved
layers and text when we designed the 'Anti-smoking Campaign' poster.

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 6. Getting Started with GIMP

6.10.3 Crop
The Crop tool is used for cropping or clipping an image. It works on all the visible and
invisible layers of the image. To crop an image, select the Crop tool from Toolbox or
from Tools à Transform Tools à Crop. See the image Figure 6.48 . Suppose you
need to keep only the first parrot in the figure and discard the rest. For this, select the
Crop tool from the Toolbox. Draw a rectangle around the first parrot as shown in the
Figure 6.49.

Fig. 6.48 : Image to be cropped

Fig. 6.49 : Selected Fig.: 6.50 : Increased Fig.: 6.51 : Cropped

parrot selection area image

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 From the figure, you can see that the rectangle does not cover the parrot properly. This
will not be a problem. You can easily change the dimensions of the selected area by
dragging any one corner of the selected region. When you move the mouse pointer to
different regions of the selection, you can see that the cursor changes to different shapes.
This shows that you can change the selection by dragging it. Drag the top right corner of
the selection so that the selection completely covers the parrot, as shown in Figure
6.50.
Once you are satisfied with the selection, double click the selected region or press the
Enter key. You will get the cropped image as shown in Figure 6.51. You can see that
the size of the canvas is now changed to the size of the cropped image. Note that, since
cropping makes changes to the original image, it is always better to take a duplicate
copy of the image (Image à Duplicate).

6.10.4 Rotate
Rotate tool is used to rotate an entire layer or only a selected portion of an image. You
can rotate an image using Rotate tool in the Toolbox or using Tools à Transform
Tools à Rotate.

First of all, let us see how to rotate a complete layer. Look at the following image
(Figure 6.52). The image has two layers. The first layer is the 'Background' layer with
the green colour and the second layer is the 'Bud' layer with a transparent background.
When you hide the ‘Background’ layer, you will see the image as shown in Figure 6.53.

Fig.6.52 : Image to be rotated Fig 6.53 : Background hidden

The check pattern in the background shows that it is transparent. Almost all image
editing software use this pattern to represent transparency. Now, make the two layers
visible as in Figure 6.52. Then select the New layer by clicking it in the Layers dialog.
Then select the Rotate tool from the Toolbox. Click on the image. Then you will get a

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 6. Getting Started with GIMP

Rotate dialog box as shown in Figure 6.54. You can drag the image clockwise or anti-
clock wise to rotate the image. The Rotate dialog box will display the angle of rotation.
You can drag the slider just below the box to set the angle, or you can directly enter the
angle of rotation in the box provided. Once you are satisfied with the angle, click the
Rotate button in the dialog box. You will get the image as shown in Figure 6.55.

Fig 6.54 : Rotate dialog box

Fig 6.55 : Image after rotation

Now let us see how to rotate only a selected portion of a layer or image. See the image
in Figure 6.56. Let us try to rotate only the head of the bird. Select the head portion of
the bird using the Ellipse Select tool as shown in Figure 6.57.

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 Fig.6.56 : Bird image Fig.6.57 : Selected Fig.6.58 (a) : Rotating
using Ellipse Select tool selection
Now select the Rotate tool from the Toolbox.
Then rotate the selected region slightly towards
the clockwise direction as shown in Figure
6.58 (a). Click the Rotate button in the Rotate
dialog box (Figure 6.58 (b)). You will get the
image as shown in Figure 6.59.
The rotated image is displayed as a new
floating layer. To fix this floating layer to its Fig. 6.58 (b) : Rotate dialog box
background, click the anchor icon in the Layers
dialog. This fixes the rotated image. Floating layer is created only when an image without
layers is rotated. Note that when a separate layer is rotated, as in the previous example,
a floating layer will not be created.
After rotating, you can see that the head does not properly join the body of the parrot
at the left and right sides. You can use the Clone tool and Bucket Fill tool which you
have learned in the high school classes to fill this area as shown in Figure 6.60. You can
also see a cut edge around the rotated region. This can be removed by using Smudge
tool and finally you will get the parrot as shown in Figure 6.61. Observe the difference
between the parrots in Figure 6.56 and that in 6.61

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 6. Getting Started with GIMP

Fig. 6.59 : After Fig. 6.60 : Use Bucket Fig. 6.61 : Use
rotation Fill Smudge tool
6.10.5 Scale
We have used the Scale tool for designing the poster for 'Anti-Smoking Campaign'.
The Scale tool is used to scale layers or selections on the image. We can specify the
Height and Width in the Scale dialog box for scaling. The image can also be resized
using the handles at the borders of the image. Press the Scale button to complete
scaling.
Aspect ratio is the ratio of height to width. If this ratio is altered, the image will get
distorted. The aspect ratio can be kept constant using the Linking Chain icon in the
Scale dialog box.

6.10.6 Shear
Shear tool is used to shift one part of an image, a layer or a selection to one direction
and the other part to the opposite direction. For instance, a horizontal shearing will shift
the upper part to the right and the lower part to the left. Shearing distorts the image
according to the horizontal and vertical co-ordinates specified.

Shear tool can be accessed from the Toolbox or from the Tools à Transform
Tools à Shear. Let us consider the image of a bird (Figure 6.62).

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 Fig.6.62 : Bird image

To change the angle of the bird's direction using the Shear tool, select the tool, click on
the image in the canvas and the Shear dialog box appears (Figure 6.63).

Fig.6.63 : Shear dialog box

In the dialog box, type appropriate

Shear magnitude for x and y co-
ordinates. Note that you cannot
shear both ways at the same time. If
you need to do so, use the shear tool
twice. The resultant image is shown
in Figure 6.64.

Fig 6.64 : After applying Shear

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 6. Getting Started with GIMP

6.10.7 Flip
The Flip tool provides the ability to flip layers or selections either horizontally or vertically.
You can use this tool to create reflections. Flip tool can be accessed using the in
Toolbox or through the Tools menu.

Consider the image given

below (Figure 6.65). You can
see a bird in the canvas. Note
that this canvas consists of two
layers, one for the background
and the other for the bird. Our
aim is to take a reflection of the
bird and keep it on the other
side, so that the image looks like
two birds sitting face to face.

Here first of all you have to

Fig. 6.65 : Bird image

duplicate the ‘Bird’ layer. For this, right

click on the layer in the Layers dialog and select
Duplicate Layer from the menu that appears.
Note that a new layer is created above the
bird layer in the Layers dialog. But the image
in the duplicate layer cannot be seen as this
duplicate is exactly above the original layer in
the canvas. Now select the Flip tool and click
on the image to create the reflection. Use the
Move tool to arrange the birds to a proper
position as shown in the Figure 6.66

Fig.6.66 : After applying Flip

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 Download the picture of a bus and manipulate it as climbing up
a hill.
Let us do

Check yourself

1. What is the use of the transform tool?

2. Name the tool that is used to distribute images in different layers in differ-
ent ways.
3. The tool used to shift one part of an image to one direction and the other
part to the opposite direction is _____.
4. What is the use of the crop tool?
5. Which among the following tools is used to create a mirror image?
a. Flip b. Crop c. Rotate d. Scale

Let us sum up
The effectiveness of a presentation, poster or any piece of graphic art can be enhanced
using a suitable image. An image received may not be what we exactly require. This
image can be edited using the different image editing software available. The different
types of image editors like raster, vector and 3D modelers can be used to manipulate
photographs, logos and characters in movies. GIMP is a popular GNU based raster
graphics editor.
GIMP can be used to create and manipulate images using layers. The background
colour of a canvas can be set and images can be copied on to it. The image created
can be saved and exported to other popular image formats. Texts can be inserted to
images in various fonts to make the graphic attractive. Parts of an image can be
selected in a variety of shapes using different types of selection tools available in
GIMP. The transform tools available in GIMP allow altering the appearance of an
entire image or a part of it.

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 6. Getting Started with GIMP

Learning outcomes
After the completion of this chapter the learner will be able to
• use GIMP software for simple image editing and image format converting.
• identify the role of layers in image editing software.
• identify various selection tools in GIMP to perform various operations.
• insert text in an image.
• use the various transform tools for manipulating images.
• use the saving and exporting options available in GIMP.

Lab activities

1. Design an identity card for your school with school logo and your photo. The
reverse of the identity card should provide the address details.
2. Design a name slip with your photo in it.
3. Design a badge for the guests of your school annual day.
4. Download the picture of a lion and using it create an image of two lions standing
face to face.
5. Download the picture of a KSRTC bus. Take 5 copies of the bus and arrange
them as if they are ready for their inaugural run. Resize the bus if required.
6. Download the pictures of a bus and a tiger. Select and copy the image of the tiger
and place it as a graphic painted on bus.
7. Download the picture of rose. Create a rectangular border of roses for a banner
to welcome plus one students.
Sample questions
Very short answer type
1. Classify the following software and give suitable headings.
CorelDRAW, GIMP, Photoshop, Inkscape, 3D Studio MAX
2. What do you mean by scaling? How can you avoid distortion of images while
scaling?

187
 3. How does Fuzzy Select work?
4. What do you mean by anchoring?

Short answer type

1. Compare raster and vector graphics.
2. Ravi is designing a logo for his company. Suggest an image editing software for
this purpose. Justify your suggestion.
3. List the features of GIMP image editor.
4. What is a layer in GIMP? Explain the advantages of using layers.
5. How will you delete the white background of a flower image?
6. What is Foreground Select in GIMP? How can this be done?

Long answer type

1. What are the functions of an image editing software? List and explain the different
categories of image editors with examples.
2. Explain any five selection tools available in GIMP.
3. Write short notes on any three transform tools in GIMP.

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 7. Advanced Tools for Image Editing

In the previous chapter you learned the use of some

Key concepts of the basic tools of GIMP. We have already
discussed the use of layers in creating an image,
• Paths tool
how to use various selection tools to select a portion
o Adding and removing
of an image, etc. In addition to these tools, GIMP
paths
provides a lot of very powerful tools, that make
o Selecting a portion of an
image image editing very easy. In this chapter, we will discuss
o Paths dialog box some of these tools.
o Aligning text to a path
7.1 Paths tool
• Managing colours in GIMP
o Selecting colours Paths tool is used to create straight lined and smooth
o Picking a colour curved vector shapes and paths. This tool is very
• Colour schemes much useful to create different types of patterns, to
o Subtractive colour select a portion of an image in different shapes from
o Additive colour an already existing picture, etc.
• Setting the brightness and
Let us see how to use the Paths tool. Select the
contrast
Paths tool from the Toolbox. The Paths tool is
• Colour balancing
• Filters
available in the menu Tools à Paths. When the
o Blur
Paths tool is selected, the mouse cursor changes into

o Sharpen a pointer (arrow) with a curve. Left click on the

o Distorts canvas to create the first point on the path. Move
o Light and Shadow the mouse to a new point and left click the mouse to
o Artistic create another point linked to the previous point.
• Creating animation When you move the mouse pointer to a new location
o Rippling to add new point, you can see that the mouse pointer
o Burn-In has a little + symbol next to the curve. This shows

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 7. Advanced Tools for Image Editing

line segment is called direction line. At the end of the direction line, you can see a
square symbol. This square symbol is called the handle of the direction line. You can
drag this handle to modify the shape of the curve. Each point on the path is also called
an anchor point.
Drag the two handles so that the figure will look as shown in Figure 7.2(a). Modify the
other edges also so as to get the image as shown in Figure 7.2(b). If you are satisfied
with the shape of the figure, you can make a selection along the drawn path. For this,
right click on the canvas. You will get a menu item as shown in Figure 7.3. Select the
menu item Select àFrom Path. On clicking the menu item, the path will be made as
a selection as shown in Figure 7.4.

Fig. 7.4 : Path selected

Fig. 7.3 : Select menu

This selection provides you with many options. You can select the Blend tool from the
Toolbox. Then choose a gradient colour scheme and fill the selected region by dragging
inside the region. You will get a coloured flower as shown in Figure 7.5.

Fig. 7.5 : Selection filled with

gradient Fig. 7.6 : Flowers in different layers

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 You can copy and paste the selected region to some other layers. Fill the selection with
different colours. If you want, you can change the size of the flower by Scaling tool.
Figure 7.6 is obtained by copying the given flower into different layers and then changing
the colour and size.

7.1.1 Adding and removing anchor points from a path

Consider a path with three anchor points as shown in Figure 7.7(a). To add one more
anchor point in this path, move the mouse pointer on a line segment and press the Ctrl
key down. Now you can see that the mouse pointer has a + symbol. This shows that
you can add a new anchor point at this location. Now keeping the Ctrl key down,
click on the line. You will get an anchor point at the clicked location as shown in Figure
7.7(b). Drag this anchor point as shown in Figure 7.7(c). You can see that the two line
segments on either side of this new point have a slight bend. This is due to the direction

Fig. 7.7(a)
Fig. 7.7(b)
Fig. 7.7(c)

Fig. 7.7(e)
Fig. 7.7(d)

lines on that point. If you want to remove this bend, you can delete the direction line.
To do this, move the mouse over the handle in the direction line. Press the Ctrl and
Shift keys together. Now you will see a minus (-) symbol on the mouse pointer. This
minus symbol shows that you can remove this handle on clicking it. Click the handle by
holding the Ctrl and Shift keys down. You can remove the two direction lines by doing
like this. You will get the path as shown in Figure 7.7(d).

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 7. Advanced Tools for Image Editing

How can you remove an anchor point? Simply move the mouse pointer on the anchor
point, press the Ctrl and Shift keys down and then click the anchor point. It will be
removed from there. Figure 7.7(e) is the path obtained after removing the topmost
anchor point from the path in Figure 7.7(d).

7.1.2 Selecting a portion of an image using Paths tool

Using Paths tool, you can select any part of an image in any shape. Consider an image
in Figure 7.8. Suppose you want to copy a portion of this image to a new canvas. Use
the Paths tool to draw the path along the boundary of the portion to be copied to the
new canvas. Figure 7.9 shows the image after drawing the path.

Fig. 7.8 : Flower image

Fig. 7.9 : Using Paths tool

Right click this path and select the menu item Select à From Path. The same thing
can be done by clicking the Selection from Path button in the Toolbox. The portion of
the image is selected as shown in Figure 7.10. Now you can press Ctrl+C to copy the
selected portion and paste this to a new canvas as shown in Figure 7.11. After pasting
the image to the new canvas, the size of the pasted image is scaled to make it as shown
in the Figure 7.11.

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 Fig. 7.11: Copied image
Fig. 7.10 : Selection from path

In the previous chapter, you learned the use of selection tools. But in some situations,
the Paths tool will help you to select a portion of an image more accurately than the
selection tools.

7.1.3 Paths dialog box

After drawing a path, if you select any other tool from the Toolbox, the path will
disappear from the screen. You may think that the path is gone for ever. But it remains
in the image in a hidden form. You can make the path visible or hide it easily using the
Paths dialog box.

Draw a path on the canvas as shown in Figure 7.12. Now click any of the selection
tools from the Toolbox. You will see that the path has disappeared from the canvas.
To view this path again, you can make use
of the Paths dialog box. To get this dialog
box, select the menu item Windows à
Dockable Dialogs à Paths. Then you
will get the dialog box as shown in Figure
7.13. This dialog box is very much similar Fig. 7.12
to Layers dialog box. Each path we draw
on the canvas has an entry in this dialog box. There is an eye icon at the left side of each
entry. Just like layers, you can click on this eye icon to make the path visible or invisible.
The Paths dialog box in the figure does not have the eye icon at the left side. It means
that the path is hidden. To make it visible, simply click at the leftmost side on this entry.
You will see the eye icon appearing there (Figure 7.14). At the same time, the path will
be made visible on the canvas.

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Fig. 7.14 : Selection in Paths

Fig. 7.13 : Paths dialog box
dialog box
Usually, when the path is made visible on the screen, you will see the path as shown in
Figure 7.15. The anchor points and direction lines are not visible. If you want to
modify this path again, select the Paths tool from the Toolbox and then click on this
path. You will get the anchor points on this path as shown in Figure 7.16. Once you get
these anchor points, you can easily modify the path by dragging the points or by dragging
the handles in the direction lines.

Fig. 7.15 Fig. 7.16

7.1.4 Aligning text to a path
You can align a text along a path.This is another advantage of using the Paths tool. To
begin with, let us select the Text tool from Toolbox and type a text on the canvas as
shown in Figure 7.17, Then draw a path on the canvas using Paths tool as shown in
Figure 7.18.

Fig. 7.17 : Text in canvas Fig. 7.18 : Text and path in canvas

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 Select the Text tool again from the Toolbox and click on the typed text. You will see
that the path has disappeared from the canvas. To make the path visible, open the
Paths dialog box and click at the left side of the path entry in it. Select the text typed by
clicking on it. Now the lower portion of the Toolbox has a button named Text along
Path as shown in Figure 7.19. Click
on this button. The same feature is
also available in the menu Layer à
Text along Path. You will see that
a copy of the text entered is aligned
onto this path as shown in Figure
7.20.

Fig. 7.19 : Toolbox

options
Fig. 7.20 : Text aligned to path

When you look at the Paths dialog box, you will see one new entry there (Figure 7.21).
This entry shows that the text aligned to the path forms a new path. You can see that the
text aligned is not filled with any colour. It is only an outline. GIMP treats this text
outline as a path. This new path is
displayed in the Paths dialog box as
a separate entry. Right click on this
new entry in it. From the popup
menu you can select the menu item
Path to Selection as shown in
Figure 7.22. On selecting this, you

Fig. 7.21 : Path dialog box Fig. 7.22 : Paths dialog box menu

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can see that the aligned text outline will be made a selected region in the canvas. Now
you can colour the selected area using Bucket Fill tool or Blend tool. If you use
Gradient Fill tool, you will be able to fill the selected region as shown in Figure 7.23.
Before applying the fill tool, select the ‘Background’ layer from the Layers dialog box.

Fig. 7.24 : Layers dialog

Fig. 7.23 : Adding colour to selected text

The canvas displays two copies of the text (Figure 7.23). You can remove the first
copy of the text by using Layers dialog. The Layers dialog will display the text that is
entered at the beginning as a separate layer as shown in Figure 7.24. You can hide this
layer by clicking on the eye icon in it. Then the layer is hidden and the image will be
as shown in Figure 7.25.
Now, the canvas displays two paths. To remove these paths, you can use the Paths
dialog box. Click on the eye icon against each path entry in it. After clicking the eye
icons, Paths dialog box will be as shown in Figure 7.26.

Fig. 7.26 : Paths dialog box

Fig. 7.25 : Select text only

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 After making the paths invisible, the canvas will be as shown in Figure 7.27. If you
want, you can resize this text so as to form the image in Figure7.28 using the Resize
tool.

Fig. 7.27 : Text after removing path Fig. 7.28 : Using Resize tool

In case the Tool Options in the Toolbox is not visible, double click on
any tool in the Toolbox. The Tool Options dialog box appears as a new
window.
Now, this Tool Options window has to be docked to the Toolbox window. For this,
move the mouse just below the Title bar of the Tool Options dialog box. See that the
mouse pointer turns to a pointed finger. Now drag the Tool Options window and
drop to the tool option area in the Toolbox window.

Check yourself

1. Which is the tool used to create straight lined or curved paths?

2. Each point in the path is called _______.
3. Each anchor point has _________ number of direction lines.
4. What will you do to add a new anchor point on a line segment?
5. To remove an anchor point or handle, click on it, while keeping the ______
and _____ keys down.
6. What can be used to make a path visible or invisible?

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7.2 Managing colours in GIMP

There are different ways to select and manage colours in GIMP. We will discuss some
of them in the following sections.

7.2.1 Selecting colours in GIMP

You have already used the colour palette for changing colours in GIMP.
Now we will discuss the various methods for selecting colours in GIMP.
The lower portion of the Toolbox displays two rectangles as shown in
Figure 7.29. The upper rectangle represents the foreground colour
and the lower rectangle represents the background colour. When you Fig. 7.29
click on the upper or lower rectangle to change the foreground or
background colour, you will get the dialog box as shown in Figure 7.30.

Select a colour by clicking

here

Select different shades of

the selected colour by
clicking here

Selected colour

Fig. 7.30 : Color dialog box - GIMP

The color dialog box can display the colours in five different ways. They are:
1. GIMP 2. CMYK
3. Water Color 4. Wheel
5. Palette
a. GIMP : Click the leftmost button on the top of the color dialog box to use the
GIMP style for selecting colour. Figure 7.30 shows the color dialog box after clicking
the leftmost button.
You can select a colour by clicking on the vertical color bar as shown in the figure. The
left side square region shows the various shades of the selected colour. Now, you can
click anywhere in this square region to select a proper shade of the selected colour. A
rectangle just below the square region shows the selected colour. Finally, click the OK
button to confirm the selection.

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 b. CMYK : Click the second button on the top of the color dialog box for using
the CMYK style. Figure 7.31 shows the color dialog box in CMYK style. This model
uses four colour components to represent a colour. They are Cyan, Magenta, Yellow
and Key(black). This style is widely used in printing purpose. The rectangular region
at the left side has four sliders representing the colours Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and
Black. You can drag the slider to increase or decrease a particular component of
colours.

Drag the sliders to

increase or decrease a
component of colours.

Fig. 7.31 : Color dialog box - CMYK

c. Water Color : This style can be used to mix one colour with another colour just
like an artist mixes different colours to form a new colour. To use this, click the third
button on the color palette. Then the color dialog box will be as shown in
Figure 7.32.

Click the left mouse

button here to add a
tint of green colour to
the already selected
colour

Fig. 7.32 : Color dialog box - Water Color

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Suppose you have selected one colour, for example yellow. If you want to mix a light
tint of another colour, for instant green with this yellow colour, click the left mouse
button at the green colour in the large square colour region. You can keep on clicking
the left mouse button to add the tint of green colour again and again. To remove the tint
of green colour from the selected colour, you can right click the mouse.
d. Wheel : To use this, click the fourth button in the color dialog box. Then the
color dialog box will be as shown in Figure 7.33. Here, all the colours will be displayed
in the form of a circular wheel. You can select a colour from this wheel by clicking it.
Then the triangle at the center shows various shades of the selected colour. You can
click inside this triangle to select a particular shade of the selected colour.

Click on this wheel to

select a colour.

Click inside this triangle

to select the different
shades of the selected
colour

Fig. 7.33 : Color dialog box - Wheel

e. Palette : Palette option offers a wide range of colours. GIMP has large number of
predefined colour palettes. You can view the colours available in the active palette by
clicking the fifth button in color dialog box. After clicking this button, the color
dialog box will be as shown in Figure 7.34.

Click on a colour to
select the colour
from the palette

Fig. 7.34 : Color dialog box - Palette

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 Figures 7.36 and 7.37 show the colours available in various
palette boxes after selecting them from the Palettes dialog box.
On clicking the Palette button, the color dialog box shows
the default colour palette. The GIMP has a large number of
colour palettes. To use the colour palettes, first of all you
should make the Palettes dialog box visible. For this, use
the menu item Windows à Dockable Dialogs à Palettes.
On clicking this menu item, you will get the Palettes dialog
box as shown in Figure 7.35. This Palettes dialog box shows
a number of palettes predefined in GIMP. When you click
on a palette in this Palettes dialog box, the colour dialog
box will display the various colours available in this palette. Fig. 7.35 : Palettes
You can easily select a colour from this palette, by clicking
dialog box
on the colour from the color dialog box.

Fig. 7.36 : Colours - Gold palette

Fig. 7.37 : Colours - Caramel palette

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7.2.2 Picking a colour from an image

You can pick a colour from an image or from any other place on the GIMP
screen. For this click the Color Picker tool on the color dialog box. You can see this
tool in Figure 7.38. The same picker tool is available in the main Toolbox also. When
you click this tool, the mouse pointer will be changed into the shape of a filler. You can
click on an image or anywhere on the GIMP screen to select the colour at that spot.

Fig. 7.38 : Color Picker tool

7.3 Colour schemes

There are two types of colour schemes: subtractive colour scheme and additive colour
scheme` When an artist paints a picture, he may mix a number of colours to make new
colours. Here he is using the subtractive colour method. When an artist uses a computer
to create a picture, he is using the additive colour method to create colours.

7.3.1 Subtractive colour

When you mix colours for painting or in the printing process, you are using the subtractive
colour method. In this method, the colour mixing begins with white and ends with
black. As one adds colour, the resultant colour gets darker and tends to blacken. Here
absence of any colour is represented by white and the presence of all the colours is
represented by black.
CMY method is the most popular subtractive colour method used in photography. It
uses Cyan, Magenta and Yellow colours to generate all other colours (Figure 7.39).

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 Fig. 7.39 : CMY Subtractive colour mixing

Magenta
Magenta

Cyan
Yellow
Cyan

Yellow
Fig. 7.40 : Colour representations of CMY colour space

CMYK is the subtractive colour method used in colour printing (Figure 7.40). Even
though the black colour can be made by mixing Cyan, Magenta and Yellow, to reduce
the cost of these colours, this method uses black colour also. The black colour is also
called the Key colour and hence the name CMYK.

7.3.2 Additive colour

This method is used in computer and television screens to display pictures. The colours
we see on the computer screen are created by using Red, Green and Blue(RGB) lights
in the additive colour method. In this method, mixing begins with black and ends with
white (Figure 7.41). As one adds colour, the resultant colour gets lighter and tends to
become white. In this method, the absence of colour is represented by black and presence
of all the colours is represented by white. Red, Green and Blue are the primary colours
in light. This method uses these three components (RGB) to generate any colour (Figure 7.42).

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G B

Fig. 7.41 : RGB colour mixing Fig. 7.42 : RGB colour space

The following table gives a comparison of subtractive and additive colour methods.

Subtractive Colour Method Additive Colour Method

Used in colour printing Used in computer and Television screens
Mixing begins with white and ends with Mixing begins with black and ends with
black white.
Use Cyan, Magenta and Yellow colour Use Red, Green and Blue components to
components to create colours create colours.
Absence of colours is white Absence of colour is black
Presence of all the colours is black Presence of all the colours is white

Table 7.1 : Colour scheme comparison

Check yourself

1. In the subtractive colour method, the mixing of colours begins with

________ and ends with _______ colours
2. In the additive colour method, the presence of all the colours is ________
colour.
3. In the subtractive colour method, the absence of all the colours is _______
colour.
4. CMY colour method is used in ________.
5. CMYK colour method is used in __________.

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 7.4 Setting the brightness and contrast of an image
When you take a photograph in insufficient light, the picture may appear too dark. The
darkness of the picture can be reduced by setting the brightness and contrast of the
picture. For setting brightness and contrast, you have to choose the menu item
Tools à Colour Tools à Brightness-Contrast. You can effectively use brightness and
contrast to give proper light to a dark photograph. Figures 7.43 and 7.44 show two
photographs before and after applying the brightness and contrast.

Fig. 7.43 : Before applying Fig. 7.44 : After applying

Brightness-Contrast Brightness-Contrast
Drag these sliders to increase or
decrease Brightness/Contrast
When you select the menu item
Tools à Color Tools à Brightness-
Contrast, you get a dialog box as
shown in figure 7.45. You can set
the brightness and contrast in this dia-
log box by dragging the sliders of
Brightness and Contrast. While mov-
ing, one can preview the changes in
the picture. When you are satisfied
Fig. 7.45: Brightness-Contrast dialog box
with the changes, click OK button.

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7.5 Colour balancing

The Colour Balance option allows us to correct an image by balancing the colors. To
change the colour balancing, use the menu item Colors à Color Balance. On clicking
this menu, you will get the Color Balance dialog box as shown in Figure 7.46.

Drag the Cyan, Magenta and

Yellow sliders to change the colour
balance.

Fig. 7.46 : Colour Balance dialog box

Fig. 7.47 : Before applying Fig. 7.48 : After applying

colour balance colour balance
On the Color Balance dialog box, select Shadows, Midtones or Highlights as the
Range to Adjust. Selecting Shadows affects darker pixels, Midtones affects medium
range of pixels and Highlights affects bright pixels. After selecting the range, you can
move the sliders Cyan, Magenta and Yellow to adjust the colour balance.

207
 Figures 7.47 and 7.48 show the same image
before and after applying colour balance as in
Figure 7.49. When you have placed the three
sliders in the appropriate positions for colour
balancing, you can save this setting. For this,
click the ‘+’ button which is at the right side of
the Color Balance dialog box. This will prompt
us to enter a name for the settings, as shown in Fig. 7.49 : Colour balance setting
Figure 7.50. You can give a suitable name and for above image

Fig. 7.50 : Saving colour balance Fig. 7.51 : Selecting saved colour balance
settings settings
click OK button. Later, if you want to apply the same colour balancing for any other
image, you can get this from the preset drop down list of the color balance dialog box.
See Figure 7.51.

7.6 Filters
Filter is a very powerful tool that can modify an image in different ways. You can add
various effects in an image using filters. Filters can be applied to a complete layer or
only to a selected region. If a portion of an image is selected before using the filters,
then filtering will be applied to the selected region only. Following are the important and
most commonly used filters available in GIMP.

7.6.1 Blur
These filters blur images in a variety of ways.
a. Gaussian Blur: When you use this filter, the image
will have an out of focus effect. It will blur the sharp
edges with the background. Use the menu item Filters
à Blur à Gaussian Blur for this. Fig. 7.52 : Before applying
Blur filter

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When you click this menu item, you will get a Gaussian Blur dialog box where you can
specify the Blur Radius. Fig. 7.52 and 7.53 shows the image before and after applying
Gaussian Blur respectively.

b. Simple Blur: This can be used to blur the image a little bit. It will simply soften the
image without prompting a dialog box. Use the menu item Filters à Blur à Blur for
this. The image in Figure 7.54 is obtained by applying simple blur to the image in Figure
7.52.

Fig. 7.53 : After Fig. 7.54 : After Fig. 7.55 : After applying
applying Gaussian Blur applying Simple Blur Motion Blur
c. Motion Blur: It blurs the image in a specific direction
at each point. You can create a sense of motion in the
image using this. Use the menu item Filters à Blur à
Motion Blur for this. When you click the menu item,
you will get a dialog box where you can specify the blur
type such as Linear, Radial or Zoom and also the Blur
Parameters such as Length and Angle. Figure 7.55
shows the image after applying Motion Blur.
d. Pixelize: It will blur the image into a set of large Fig. 7.56 : After applying
squares. Use the menu item Filters à Blur à Pixelize
Pixelize
for this. You can specify the size of the square in the
dialog box that comes in. Fig. 7.56 shows the image after
applying this filter.
e. Selective Gaussian Blur: In this method, only pixels
that are similar to each other are blurred. It is useful to
reduce grains in photos without blurring the sharp edges.
Use the menu item Filters à Blur à Selective Gaussian
Blur for this. Figure 7.57 shows the image after applying
Selective Gaussian Blur. You can see that the grains of
the background have been blurred without blurring the Fig. 7.57 : After applying
edges of the rose flower. Selective Gaussian Blur

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 7.6.2 Sharpen
This filter is used to sharpen the edges of an image. When you sharpen an image, you
will get a better clarity in the image. This is the reverse of blur filter. Use the menu item
Filters à Enhance à Sharpen for this. Figures 7.58 and 7.59 show the images
before and after applying this filter.

Fig. 7.58 : Before applying Sharpen

Fig. 7.59 : After applying Sharpen

7.6.3 Distorts
These filters transform the image in different ways. There are a number of options
available in this category. Following are the most commonly used Distorts filters. They
are available in the menu item Filters à Distorts.
a. Emboss: This filter stamps and carves the image, giving it an appearance of a relief
with bumps and hollows. The bright areas in the image are raised and the dark ones are
carved (refer Figure 7.61).
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Fig. 7.60 : Before applying Distorts Fig. 7.61 : After applying Emboss
filter
b. Mosaic: This filter cuts the image into many polygons
which are slightly raised and seperated by joints to create
the appearance of a mosaic (refer Figure 7.62).
c. Ripple: This filter displaces the pixels of the image to
create waves or ripples as on a reflection on disturbed
water. Figure 7.63 is the image obtained after applying
Ripple filter to the image in Figure 7.60. Fig. 7.62 : After applying
d. Shift: This filter shifts all pixels horizontally or vertically. Mosaic
Fig. 7.64 is the image obtained after applying the Shift filter to the image in Figure 7.60.

Fig. 7.63 : After applying Ripple Fig. 7.64 : After applying Shift
e. Waves: With this filter you can get an image similar to the concentric waves created
when a stone is thrown into water. Figure 7.65 is the image obtained after applying the
Waves filter to the image in Figure 7.60.

f. Wind: This filter will generate thin black and white lines in the image to create a
windy effect. Figure 7.66 is the image obtained after applying the Wind filter to the
image in the figure 7.60.

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 Fig. 7.65 : After applying Waves Fig. 7.66 : After applying Wind
7.6.4 Light and Shadow
These filters effectively use light and shadow to produce various effects in the image.
Followings are the most commonly used filters in this category. They are available in the
menu item Filters à Light and Shadow.
a. Lens Flare: This filter gives the effect of the presence of a sun in the image.The
images in Figures 7.67 and 7.68 show an image before and after applying the Lens
Flare filter.

Fig. 7.67 : Image before applying Fig. 7.68 : After applying Lens Flare
Light and Shadow filter
b. Lightning Effects: This filter simulates the effect when you light up an image with a
spot. Figure 7.69 shows the image after applying the Lightning Effects filter. You can
change the colour of lightning from the dialog box that comes in. The given image uses
white colour for giving the lightning effect.

Fig. 7.69 : After applying Lightning Effects Fig. 7.70 : After applying Supernova

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c. Supernova: This filter creates a big star reminding a supernova. Figure 7.70 shows
the image after applying the Supernova filter. You can change the supernova colour
from the dialog box that comes in. The given image has used yellow colour for giving
the supernova effect.
GIMP provides a number of other filters also in this category. You can try out these
filters and observe the changes in the image.
7.5.5 Artistic
These filters are used to create artistic effects in the image. Following are some of the
commonly used filters in this category. These filters are available in the menu item
Filters à Artistic.
a. Clothify: This filter adds a cloth like texture to the image.
b. Cubism: This filter modifies the given image in such a way that it is made up of
small cubes. You can set the size of the cube in the dialog box that appears.
c. Oilify: This filter modifies the image like an oil painting.
d. Soft Glow: This filter lights the image with a soft glow.
e. Weave: This filter modifies the image as if it were printed over woven ribbons
of paper.

Fig. 7.71 : Before applying Artistic filter Fig. 7.72 : After applying Clothify filter

Fig. 7.73 : After applying Cubism Fig. 7.74 : After applying Oilify

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 Fig. 7.75 : After applying Soft Glow Fig. 7.76 : After applying Weave
7.7 Creating simple animation using GIMP
There are so many specialised softwares for creating animations. GIMP can also be
used to create simple preset animations. We will discuss how to give animation effects
to an image using GIMP, in the following section.
Let us open an image as shown
in Figure 7.77. This image is
created using Logos in GIMP.
You have already studied the
creation of logos in lower
classes. You can create different
types of ogos using the menu
item File à Create à
Logos .
Different types of animations
can be created using GIMP. Let
us discuss two of them:
1. Rippling Fig. 7.77 : Image created using Logos
2. Burn-In
All these animations are available in the menu item Filters à Animations.
a. Giving Rippling animation
After opening the image as shown in
Figure 7.77, select the menu item Filters
à Animations à Rippling. On selecting
this, you will get a dialog box as shown in
Figure 7.78. You can set different
parameters for the animation from this
dialog box. Or you can simply leave the
default values and click the OK button. Fig. 7.78 : Rippling dialog

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Now GIMP will create a new image as shown in Figure 7.79.

Fig. 7.79 : After applying Rippling Fig. 7.80 : Playing Rippling animation
To play this animation, select the menu item Filters à Animation à PlayBack from
the new image. Then you will get a window as shown in Figure 7.80. To play the
animation click on the Play button on the top of this window as shown in Figure 7.80.
You will see a rippling animation in this window.
To save this animation, you have to
save this file as a gif file. Only gif file can
show the animation. Click on the menu
item File à Save As. Then you will get a
new window where you can specify name
of the file. You can give any name for the
file. But at the end of the name you can
type .gif as the extension for the file. After
giving the name, click the Save button .
Then you will get an Export dialog box as
shown in Figure 7.81. Fig. 7.81 : Export File dialog box
In the Export dialog box, select the Save As Animation, which is shown in Figure.
7.81. Then click the Export button. The new gif file is saved in your computer. This
file with the animation can be used for different purpose such as for creating presentations
or webpages.

b. Giving Burn-In animation

This animation requires an image with two layers. Create
one more layer with white colour. After creating the layer,
the Layers dialog will be as shown in figure 7.82. Now
select the menu item Filters à Animations à Burn-In. Then
you will get a dialog box. Click OK button from this dialog
Fig. 7.82 : Layers dialog

215
 box. Now GIMP will create a new image with the animation as shown in Figure 7.83.
When you play back this image, you will see that the image is slowly appearing in the
window as shown in Figure 7.84.You can export this animation as a gif file for future
use.

Fig. 7.83 : Image after applying Fig. 7.84 : Playing animation

Burn-in

Check yourself

1. To save an animation in GIMP, it must be saved in _______ format.

2. The filter that can be used to give more clarity to the edges of an image is
________.
3. Compare Gaussian blur and Selective Gaussian Blur.
4. The artistic filter that lights the image with a soft glow is ________.
5. How can we use a colour balance setting previously saved when an image
is edited?

Let us sum up
GIMP provides a number of powerful tools to enhance the appearance of an image.
The Paths tool can be used to draw a path on the canvas very easily. We can
create different types of patterns using the Paths tool. We can copy a portion of an
image in any shape using this tool. We can also align a text to a path. The colour
dialog box in GIMP can display the colours in five different ways such as GIMP,
CMYK, Water Colour, Wheel and Palette. A light picture can be made dark or a
dark picture can be make light by setting the brightness and contrast of the image.
We can give a different colour effect to an image by setting the Color Balance.
Subtractive and Additive colour schemes are the two widely used colour schemes.
Subtractive colour scheme is used in printing. Additive colour scheme is used in
television and computer screens. GIMP provides a large number of filters, that can
modify an image in different ways. Gimp can also be used to create simple animations.

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Learning outcomes
After the completion of this chapter the learner will be able to
• use paths tool to draw various patterns.
• use paths tool to copy any portion of an image in any shape.
• use paths tool to align text to a path.
• use the colour dialog box in different ways to select a colour.
• adjust the brightness and contrast of an image.
• adjust the colour scheme of an image.
• differentiate the use of subtractive and additive colour schemes.
• use filters in a variety of ways to modify an image.
• use filters to create animations.

Lab activities

1. Using Paths tool draw the following images.

a) b)

2. Open an image containing a human figure. Use the paths tool to select the human
figure and copy the figure in another image.
3. Using Paths tool, align a text as shown in the figure.

4. Open a landscape image in GIMP. Apply various Blur filters on this image. Save
the image as jpg file after applying each filter.
5. Open a landscape image in GIMP. Apply various Distort filters on this image.
Save the image as jpg file after applying each filter.
6. Open a landscape image in GIMP. Apply various Aftistic filters on this image.
Save the image as jpg file after applying each filter.
7. Open a landscape image in GIMP. Apply different Light and Shadow filters on this
image. Save the image as jpg file after applying each filter.
8. Create a logo with text “WELCOME”. Save this logo as a jpg file. Then open this
jpg file in GIMP. Create a rippling animation with this image and save the file in
‘gif’ format.
9. Open an image in Gimp. Change the colour scheme and save the new image with
a different name.

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 Sample questions
Very short answer type
1. Each point in the Paths tool is called ___________.
2. To create a closed path, click on the first point while holding the _______ key
down.
3. ________ dialog box is used to make a path visible or invisible.
4. Absence of colours in subtractive colour method gives _______ colour.
5. Presence of all colours in additive colour method gives _______ colour.
6. CMYK colour scheme is used in _________ purpose.
7. The letter ‘K’ in CMYK represents _______ colour.
8. ‘Cubism’ filter is available in _______ category of filters.
9. What is an anchor point?
10. What is a direction line?
11. How can you add a new point in a path?
12. How can you remove a point from the path?
13. What is the use of Paths dialog box?
14. How can you give brightness to a photograph appearing dark?
Short answer type
1. Explain the steps to align a text to a path.
2. Explain the steps to create an animation in GIMP.
3. Explain different colour schemes.
4. Explain any three Blur Filters.
5. Explain any three Artistic Filters.
6. Explain any three Distorts Filters.
7. Explain the use of Paths tool.
8. What is the use of colour balancing? How is it done?
Long answer type
1. Explain the various styles for displaying colours in colour dialog box in GIMP.
2. Explain various categories of filters available in GIMP.
3. How do you create animation in GIMP?

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 8. Computer Networks

Have you surfed the Internet to search your

examination result or to know whether you got
Key concepts admission to the Plus One course in a school of
• Computer network
your choice? Have you visited an ATM counter
o Need for network to draw money? Have you transferred songs,
o Some key terms
• Data communication images or movie clips from your computer to a
system cell phone or booked a train ticket using Internet?
• Communication medium
o Guided medium If your answer to any of these questions is ‘yes’,
o Unguided medium
o Wireless communication
you have accessed the services of a computer
technology network. In this chapter, we will learn more about
• Data communication
devices the working of networks and their advantages.
o Network Interface Card We will also discuss different media and devices,
o Hub
o Switch different types of networks and the rules to be
o Repeater
o Bridge
followed in data communication using these
o Router devices.
o Gateway
• Data terminal equipments 8.1 Computer network
o Modem
o Multiplexer/Demultiplexer
• Network topologies Computer network is a group of computers and
o Bus, Star, Ring, Mesh other computing hardware devices (such as
• Types of network
o PAN, LAN, MAN, WAN printers, scanners, modems, CD drives, etc.)
• Logical classification of connected to each other electronically through a
networks
o Peer-to-peer network communication medium. They can communicate
o Client - Server
• Network protocols with each other, exchange commands, share data,
o TCP/IP (HTTP, FTP, DNS) hardware and other resources. Computers on a
• Identification of computers
and users over a network network may be linked through cables, telephone
o MAC address lines, radio waves, satellites or infrared light beams.
o IP address
• Uniform Resource Locator

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 8.1.1 Need for network
Internet is a good example for a computer network. It is impossible to imagine a world
without e-mails, online newspapers, blogs, chat and other services offered through the
Internet. Apart from these, there are many other advantages in using networked
computers instead of stand-alone computers. Some of them are listed below.
• Resource sharing
• Price-performance ratio
• Communication
• Reliability
• Scalability
Resource sharing: The sharing of available hardware and software resources in a
computer network is called resource sharing. For example, the contents of a DVD
placed in a DVD drive of one computer can be read in another computer. Similarly,
other hardware resources like hard disk, printer, scanner, etc. and software resources
like application software, anti-virus tools, etc. can also be shared through computer
networks.
Price-performance ratio: One can easily share the resources available in one computer
with other computers. The cost of purchasing licensed software for each computer can
be reduced by purchasing network versions of such software. This will least affect the
performance of such resources and lead to considerable savings in cost.
Communication: Computer network helps user to communicate with any other user
of the network through its services like e-mail, chatting, video conferencing etc. For
example, one can send or receive messages within no time irrespective of the distance.
Reliability: It is possible to replicate or backup data/information in multiple computers
using the network. For example, the C++ files, photos or songs saved in one computer
can also be saved in other computers in the same network. These can be retrieved from
other computers in which they are saved in case of disasters (malfunctioning of computers,
accidental deletion of files, etc.)
Scalability: Computing capacity can be increased or decreased easily by adding or
removing computers to the network. In addition to this, the storage capacity of networks
can also be increased by including more storage devices to the network.

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 8. Computer Networks

8.1.2 Some key terms

Some of the key terms related to computer network are explained below:
Bandwidth : Bandwidth measures the amount of data that can be sent over a specific
connection in a given amount of time. Imagine you are in a highway or
a public road. The bigger the road, the more will be the number of
vehicles that can travel on it. Moreover, the traffic here is faster than
on a narrow road. On a narrow road, the traffic is likely to be
congested. We can say that the bandwidth of a bigger road is higher
than a narrow road.
Bandwidth describes the maximum data-transfer rate between
computers in a network. In digital systems, bandwidth is measured in
bits per second (bps). If the bandwidth is more, data travels faster
and hence large amounts of data can be transferred within a particular
time span across the network. For example, an Internet connection
via cable modem may provide 25 Mbps of bandwidth.
Noise : Noise is unwanted electrical or electromagnetic energy that lowers
the quality of data signals. It occurs from nearby radio transmitters,
motors or other cables. The transfer of all types of data including
texts, programs, images and audio over a network is adversely affected
by noise.
Node : Any device (computer, scanner, printer, etc.) which is directly connected
to a computer network is called a node. For example, computers
linked to the computer network in the school are nodes. When we
connect the Internet to our computer, our computer becomes a node
of the Internet.

Make a list of the hardware and software resources shared in your

school network.
Let us do

8.2 Data communication system

In a computer network, computing devices are connected in various ways, to
communicate and share resources. Data communication is the exchange of digital
data between any two devices through a medium of transmission. Figure 8.1 show the
representation of a general data communication system. The following five basic elements
are necessary for building any data communication system.

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 Fig. 8.1 : Data communication system

Message : It is the information to be communicated. Major forms of information

include text, picture, audio, video, etc.
Sender : The computer or device that is used for sending messages is called the
sender, source or transmitter.
Receiver : The computer or device that receives the messages is called the receiver.
Medium : It is the physical path through which a message travels from the sender
to the receiver. It refers to the way in which nodes are connected.
Protocol : The rules under which message transmission takes place between the
sender and the receiver is called a protocol.
8.3 Communication medium
Data communication is possible only if there is a medium through which data can travel
from one device to another. The medium for data transmission over a computer network
is called communication channel or communication medium. The communication
medium between computers in a network are of two types: guided and unguided. In
guided or wired medium, physical wires or cables are used and in unguided or wireless
medium radio waves, microwaves or infrared signals are used for data transmission.
8.3.1 Guided medium (Wired)
The coaxial cable, twisted pair cable (Ethernet cable) and optical fibre cable are the
different types of cables used to transfer data through computer networks.

a. Twisted pair cable (Ethernet cable)

This is the most widely used media in small computer networks. It consists of four
twisted pairs which are enclosed in an outer shield. These pairs are colour coded.
Twisted pair cables are of two types: (i) Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cables and (ii)
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cables.

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 8. Computer Networks

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) cable : As its name suggests, the individual pairs in
UTP cables are not shielded. Figure 8.2 shows the components of a UTP cable.

Fig. 8.2 : UTP cable

Characteristics of UTP cable
• Low cost cable available for setting up small networks.
• Thin and flexible cable.
• Ease of installation.
• Carries data upto a length of 100 m at a stretch.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable : It is the same cable as the UTP, but with each
pair shielded individually. An outer shield then covers all the pairs like in UTP.
Characteristics of STP cable
• Shielding in STP offers better immunity
against noise.
• It is more expensive than UTP cable.
• Compared to UTP cable, STP cable is
difficult to install.
An RJ-45 connecter is used to connect UTP/
Fig. 8.3 : STP cable, RJ-45 connecter
STP twisted pair cable to a computer. Figure
8.3 shows the STP cable and RJ-45 connector.

b. Coaxial cable
A coaxial cable consists of an inner conductor surrounded by a tubular insulating layer
which is further covered by a tubular conducting shield. It has an outer insulation to

223
 protect the cable too. Figure 8.4 shows the
construction of a coaxial cable.
Characteristics of coaxial cable
• Carries data to longer distances (185 m -
500 m) at a stretch.
• High bandwidth.
• Less electromagnetic interference due to the Fig. 8.4 : Coaxial Cable
outer shield.
• Thicker than twisted pair.
• Less flexible than twisted pair.
• Difficult to install than twisted pair cable.

c. Optical fibre cable

Optical fibres are long thin glass fibres through which data is transmitted as light signals.
Data travels as fast as light and can be transmitted to far off distances. Figure 8.5 shows
the major parts of an optical fibre cable.
Optical fibre has the following parts:
• Core - the thin glass rod at
the centre through which the
light travels. Fig. 8.5 : Optical Fibre
• Cladding - the outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the
light back into the core.
• Coating - the plastic coating that protects the cable from damage and moisture.
These optical fibres are arranged in bundles of hundreds and thousands and are protected
by the outer covering of the cable called jacket.
At the source end, the optical transmitter converts electrical signals into optical signals
(modulation) using semiconductor devices such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or laser
diodes. At the destination end, the optical receiver, consisting of a photo detector,
converts light back to electric signals (demodulation) using the photoelectric effect. The
speed of transmission and the distance of signals are higher for laser diodes than for
LEDs.

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 8. Computer Networks

Characteristics of optical fibre cable

• High bandwidth for voice, video and data applications
• Carries data over a very long distance at a stretch.
• Not susceptible to electromagnetic fields, as it uses light for data transmission.
• The most expensive and the most efficient communication media available for
computer networks.
• Installation and maintenance are difficult and complex.
8.3.2 Unguided medium (Wireless)
Electromagnetic waves are used for wireless communication on computer networks.
Frequencies of waves are measured in Hertz (Hz). Based on their frequencies,
electromagnetic waves are categorised into various types as shown in Figure 8.6. From
this category we can infer that only radio waves, microwaves and infrared rays are
used for wireless communication.

Fig. 8.6 : Electromagnetic Spectrum

a. Radio waves
Radio waves have a frequency range
of 3 KHz to 3 GHz. Radio waves can
be used for short and long distance
communication. These waves are easy
to generate and can penetrate through
the walls of a building easily. That is
why radio waves are widely used for
communication-both indoors and
outdoors. Cordless phones, AM and
FM radio broadcast and mobile
phones make use of radio wave
Fig. 8.7 : Radio wave transmission
transmission.

225
 Characteristics of radio wave transmission
• Waves are transmitted in all directions, therefore transmitting and receiving antennas
need not be aligned face to face.
• Relatively inexpensive than wired media.
• Can penetrate through most objects.
• Transmission can be affected by motors or other electrical equipment.
• Less secure mode of transmission.
• Permissions from authorities concerned are required for the use of radio wave
transmission.

Fig. 8.8 : Radio communication band

b. Micro waves
Micro waves have a frequency range of 300 MHz (0.3 GHz) to 300 GHz. Microwaves
travel in straight lines and cannot penetrate any solid object. Therefore, high towers are
built and microwave antennas are fixed on their top for long distance microwave
communication. As these waves travel in straight lines the antennas used for transmitting
and receiving messages have to be aligned with each other. The distance between two
microwave towers depends on many factors including frequency of the waves being
used and heights of the towers. Figure 8.9 shows the components of a microwave
transmission system.

Fig. 8.9 : Microwave transmission

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 8. Computer Networks

Characteristics of micro wave transmission

• Relatively inexpensive than wired media.
• Offers ease of communication over difficult terrain.
• The transmission is in straight lines. Therefore, the transmitting and receiving antennas
need to be properly aligned (line of sight transmission).
c. Infrared waves
Infrared waves have a frequency range of 300
GHz to 400 THz. These waves are used for
short range communication (approx. 5 m) in
a variety of wireless communications,
monitoring and control applications.
Home entertainment remote control devices,
cordless mouse and intrusion detectors are
some of the devices that utilise infrared
Fig. 8.10 : Infrared transmission
communication (refer Figure 8.10).
Characteristics of infrared wave transmission
• A line of sight transmission; hence information passed to one device is not leaked.
• Only two devices can communicate at a time.
• The waves cannot cross solid objects. (You may stand between the remote control
and your television set and check whether the remote control works.)
• The longer the distance the weaker the performance.
8.3.3 Wireless communication technologies using radio waves
a. Bluetooth
Bluetooth technology uses radio waves in the
frequency range of 2.402 GHz to 2.480 GHz.
This technology is used for short range
communication (approx. 10 m) in a variety of
devices for wireless communication. Cell
phones, laptops, mouse, keyboard, tablets, head
sets, cameras etc. are some of the devices that
utilise bluetooth communication (refer Figure
8.11).
Fig. 8.11 : Bluetooth transmission

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 Characteristics of bluetooth transmission
• Line of sight between communicating devices is not required.
• Bluetooth can connect upto eight devices simultaneously.
• Slow data transfer rate (upto 1 Mbps).
b. Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi network makes use of radio waves to transmit information across a network like
cell phones, televisions and radios. The radio waves used in Wi-Fi ranges from a
frequency of 2.4 GHz to 5 GHz. Communication across a wireless network is two-
way radio communication. The wireless adapter in a computer translates data into
radio signal and transmits it using an antenna. A wireless router receives the signal and
decodes it. Once decoded, the data will be sent to the Internet or network through a
wired Ethernet /wireless connection. Similarly, the data received from the Internet/
network will also pass through the router and coded into radio signals that will be
received by the wireless adapter in a computer as indicated in Figure 8.12. Nowadays,
this technology is widely used to share Internet connection with laptops or desktops.

Fig. 8.12 : Wi-Fi transmission

Characteristics of Wi-Fi transmission
• Line of sight between communicating devices is not required
• Data transmission speed is up to 54 Mbps
• Wi-Fi can connect more number of devices simultaneously
• Used for communication upto 375 ft (114 m)
c. Wi-MAX
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (Wi-MAX) combines the benefits
of broadband and wireless. Wi-MAX has a the frequency range of 2 GHz to 11 GHz.

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 8. Computer Networks

Wi-MAX can provide high-speed

wireless Internet access over very long
distances (a whole city). Wi-MAX
equipment exists in two basic forms -
base stations, installed by service
providers to deploy the technology in a
coverage area, and receivers, installed
by clients. Figure 8.13 shows the basic
components of a WiMAX transmission.
Characteristics of Wi-MAX
transmission Fig. 8.13 : Wi-Max transmission

• Hundreds of users can connect to a single station.

• Provides higher speed connection upto 70 Mbps over an area of 45 Kilometres.
• Line of sight between communicating devices is not required.
• Weather conditions like rain, storm etc. could interrupt the signal.
• Very high power consumption.
• High costs of installation and operation.
d. Satellite link
Long distance wireless communication systems use satellite links for transmitting signals.
Usually, a signal travels in a straight line and is not able to bend around the globe to
reach a destination far away. Signals can be sent to geostationary satellites in space and
then redirected to another satellite or directly
to a far away destination. A geostationary
satellite orbits the earth in the same direction
and amount of time it takes to revolve the
earth once is equal to the time taken for earth’s
one rotation. From the earth, therefore, the
satellite appears to be stationary, always
above the same area of the earth. These
satellites carry electronic devices called
transponders for receiving, amplifying, and re-
broadcasting signals to the earth.
Transmission of signals from the earth to a
satellite is called uplink and from a satellite Fig. 8.14 : Satellite link

229
 to the earth is called downlink. There are multiple micro wave frequency bands which
are used for satellites links. Frequency used for uplink varies from 1.6 GHz to 30.0
GHz and that for downlink varies from 1.5 GHz to 20.0 GHz. Downlink frequency is
always lower than the uplink frequency.
The satellite system is very expensive, but its coverage area is very large. Communication
satellites are normally owned by governments or by government approved organisations
of various countries.
Characteristics of transmission using satellite link
• Satellites cover a large area of the earth.
• This system is expensive.
• Requires legal permission and authorisation.

Check yourself

1. Name the basic elements needed for a data communication system.

2. Define resource sharing.
3. Name two classifications of communication channels between
computers in a network.
4. Name the connecter used to connect UTP/STP cable to a computer.
5. The cable media that use light to transmit data signals to very long
distances is _________.
6. AM and FM radio broadcast and mobile phones make use of
_________ medium for transmission.
7. A short range communication technology that does not require line of
sight between communicating devices is _________.
8. A communication system that is very expensive, but has a large
coverage area when compared to other wireless communication
systems is _________.

8.4 Data communication devices

A data communication device provides an interface between computer and the
communication channel. These devices are used to transmit, receive, amplify and route
data signals across a network through various communication media.
8.4.1 Network Interface Card (NIC)
Network Interface Card (NIC) is a device that enables a computer to connect to a
network and communicate. It provides hardware interface between a computer and a

230
 8. Computer Networks

network. It can be a separate circuit board that is installed in a computer or a circuit

already integrated with the motherboard. NIC can prepare, send, receive and control
data on the network. It breaks up data into manageable units, translates the protocols
of the computer to that of the communication medium and supplies address recognition
capabilities.

Fig. 8.15 (a) : NIC card Fig. 8.15 (b) : Wireless NIC card
Figure 8.15 (a, b) shows the NIC card and wireless NIC card. Some NIC cards have
wired connections (Ethernet), while others are wireless (Wi-Fi). Ethernet NICs include
jacks for network cables, while Wi-Fi NICs contain built-in transmitters / receivers
(transceivers) and an antenna. NICs can transfer data at a speed of 1 Gbps.

8.4.2 Hub
A hub is a device used in a wired network to connect computers/devices of the same
network. It is a small, simple, passive and inexpensive device (refer Figure 8.16).
Computers/devices are connected to ports of the hub using Ethernet cable. When NIC
of one computer sends data packets to hub, the hub transmits the packets to all other
computers connected to it. Each computer is responsible for determining its data packets.
The computer for which the data packets are intended accepts it. Other computers on
the network discards these data packets. The main
disadvantage of hub is that it increases the network
traffic and reduces the effective bandwidth, as it
transmits data packets to all devices connected to it.
Fig. 8.16 : Hub
8.4.3 Switch
A switch is an intelligent device that connects several computers to form a network. It
is a higher performance alternative to a hub. It looks exactly like a hub. Switches are
capable of determining the destination and redirect the data only to the intended node.
Switch performs this by storing the addresses of all the devices connected to it in a
table. When a data packet is send by one device, the switch reads the destination
address on the packet and transmits the packet to the destination device with the help
of the table. A switch performs better than a hub on busy networks, since it generates
less network traffic in delivering messages.

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 8.4.4 Repeater
A repeater is a device that regenerates incoming electrical, wireless
or optical signals through a communication medium (refer Figure
8.17). Data transmissions through wired or wireless medium can
travel only a limited distance as the quality of the signal degrades
due to noise. Repeater receives incoming data signals, amplifies
the signals to their original strength and retransmits them to the
Fig. 8.17 : Wireless
destination. repeater

8.4.5 Bridge
A bridge is a device used to segmentise a network. An existing network can be split into
different segments and can be interconnected using a bridge. This reduces the amount
of traffic on a network. When a data packet reaches the bridge, it inspects the incoming
packet’s address and finds out to which side of the bridge it is addressed (to nodes on
the same side or the other side). Only those packets addressed to the nodes on the
other side, will be allowed to pass the bridge. Others will be discarded. The packet that
passes the bridge will be broadcast to all nodes on the other side and is only accepted
by the intended destination node. Figure 8.18 shows the function of a bridge.

Fig. 8.18 : Bridge

8.4.6 Router
A router is a device that can interconnect two networks of the same type using the same
protocol. It can find the optimal path for data packets to travel and reduce the amount
of traffic on a network. Even though its operations are similar to a bridge, it is more
intelligent. The router can check the device address and the network address and can

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 8. Computer Networks

use algorithms to find the best path for packets to reach the destination. Figure 8.19
shows the role of a router.

Fig. 8.19 : Router

8.4.7 Gateway
A gateway is a device that can interconnect two different networks having different
protocols (refer Figure 8.20). It can translate one protocol to another protocol. It is a
network point that acts as an entrance to another network. Its operations are similar to
that of a router. It can check the device address and the network address and can use
algorithms to find the best path for packets to reach the destination. Further, while
interconnecting two networks with different
protocols, there must be some mutual
understanding between the networks. A
gateway is capable of understanding the
address structure used in different networks
and seamlessly translate the data packet
between these networks.
Fig. 8.20 : Gateway
8.5 Data terminal equipments
A data terminal equipment (DTE) is a device that controls data flowing to or from a
computer. It is connected to the transmission medium at the end of a telecommunication
link. Here we discuss the most commonly used DTEs - modem and multiplexer.
8.5.1 Modem
A modem is an electronic device used for communication between computers through
telephone lines (refer Figure 8.21). The name is formed from the first three letters of the
two words modulator and demodulator. It converts digital signals received from a
computer to analog signals for telephone lines. It also converts the analog signals received

233
 back from telephone lines to digital signals for the computer. The speed of the modem
determines how fast it can send and receive information through telephone lines. Speed
of modem is measured in bits per second (bps).
8.5.2 Multiplexer/Demultiplexer
Have you ever wondered how 200 or more TV channels are transmitted through a
single cable in a television network? It is called multiplexing. Similar is the case with
data transmission over networks. Multiplexing is sending multiple signals on a physical
medium at the same time in the form of a single, complex signal and then recovering the
separate signals at the receiving end. Multiplexing divides the physical medium into
logical segments called frequency channels. Multiplexer combines (multiplexes) the inputs
from different sources and sends them through different channels of a medium. The
combined data travels over the medium simultaneously. At the destination, a demultiplexer
separates (demultiplexes) the signal and sends them to destinations. Figure 8.22 shows
the function of a multiplexer and de-multiplexer.

Fig. 8.22 : Function of multiplexer and demultiplexer

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 8. Computer Networks

Make a list of networking devices and communication medium

necessary to create a small computer network having a maximum
of 10 nodes.
Let us do

Check yourself

1. Compare hub and switch.

2. What is the use of a repeater?
3. The devices used to interconnect two networks of same type is ______.
4. Differentiate between router and bridge.
5. A device that can interconnect two different networks having different
protocols is ______.
6. An electronic device used for communication between computers through
telephone lines is ______.

8.6 Network topologies

Imagine that we have ten computers and we need to interconnect them to form a
network. What are the ways by which we can interconnect them?
Using available media and based on certain conditions, there are different ways of
interconnecting the nodes. The way in which the nodes are physically interconnected to
form a network is called a Topology. Major topologies are bus, star, ring and mesh.

8.6.1 Bus topology

In bus topology (refer Figure 8.23) all the nodes are connected to a main cable called
bus. If a node has to send data to another node, it sends data to the bus. The signal
travels through the entire
length of the bus. All nodes
check the bus, and only the
node for which data is
addressed accepts it. A
small device called
terminator is attached at
each end of the bus. When Fig. 8.23 : Bus topology

235
 the signal reaches the end of the bus, the terminator absorbs the signal and removes it
from the bus. Now the bus is free to carry another signal. This prevents the reflection of
a signal back on the cable and hence eliminates the chances of signal interference. The
process of transmitting data from one node to all other nodes is called broadcasting.
Characteristics of bus topology
• Easy to install.
• Requires less cable length and hence it is cost effective.
• Failure of a node does not affect the network.
• Failure of cable (bus) or terminator leads to a break down of the entire network.
• Fault diagnosis is difficult.
• Only one node can transmit data at a time.
8.6.2 Star topology
In star topology each node is directly connected
to a hub/switch as shown in Figure 8.24. If any
node has to send some information to any other
node, it sends the signal to the hub/switch. This
signal is then broadcasted (in case of a hub) to
all the nodes but is accepted only by the intended
node. In the case of a switch, the signal is sent
only to the intended node.
Characteristics of star topology Fig. 8.24 : Star topology

• More efficient compared to bus topology.

• Easy to install.
• Easy to diagnose faults.
• Easy to expand depending on the specifications of central hub/switch.
• Failure of hub/switch leads to failure of entire network.
• Requires more cable length compared to bus topology.
8.6.3 Ring topology
In ring topology, all nodes are connected using a cable that loops in a ring or circle. A
ring topology is in the form of a circle that has no start and no end (refer Figure 8.25).
Terminators are not necessary in a ring topology. Data travels only in one direction in a
ring. While they are passed from one node to the next, each node regenerates the

236
 8. Computer Networks

signal. The node for which the signal is intended

reads the signal. After travelling through each node,
the signal reaches back to the sending node from
where it is removed.
Characteristics of ring topology
• No signal amplification is required as each
node amplifies the signal.
• Requires less cable length and hence is cost
effective.
Fig. 8.25 : Ring topology
• If one node fails, entire network will fail.
• Addition of nodes to the network is difficult.
8.6.4 Mesh topology
In mesh topology, every node is connected to other
nodes. So there will be more than one path between
two nodes as shown in Figure 8.26. If one path fails, the
data will take another path and reach the destination.
Characteristics of mesh topology
• Network will not fail even if one path between the
nodes fails.
Fig. 8.26 : Meshopology
• Expensive because of the extra cables needed.
• Very complex and difficult to manage.

Identify the network topology used in your school lab.

Let us do
8.7 Types of networks
A computer network may span any amount of geographical area. It can be on a table,
in a room, in a building, in a city, in a country, across continents or around the world. On
the basis of the area covered, computer networks are classified as:
• PAN - Personal Area Network
• LAN - Local Area Network
• MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
• WAN -Wide Area Network
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 8.7.1 Personal Area Network (PAN)
PAN is a network of communicating devices
(computer, mobile, tablet, printer, etc.) in the
proximity of an individual. It can cover an area
of a radius with few meters (refer Figure 8.27).
When we transfer songs from one cell phone
to another or from a PC to an MP3 player, a
PAN is set up between the two. PAN can be
Fig. 8.27 : Personal Area Network
set up using guided media (USB) or unguided
media (Bluetooth, infrared).

8.7.2 Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is a network of computing and communicating devices in a room, building, or
campus. It can cover an area of radius with a few meters to a few Kilometers. A
networked office building, school or home usually contains a single LAN, though
sometimes one building can contain a few small LANs (Like some schools have
independent LANs in each computer lab) as shown in Figure 8.28. Occasionally a
LAN can span a group of nearby buildings. In addition to operating in a limited space,
a LAN is owned, controlled and managed
by a single person or an organisation.
LAN can be set up using wired media
(UTP cables, coaxial cables, etc.) or
wireless media (infrared, radio waves,
etc.). If a LAN is setup using unguided
media, it is known as WLAN (Wireless
LAN). Fig. 8.28 : Local Area Network

8.7.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

MAN is a network of computing and communicating devices within a city. It can cover
an area of a few Kilometers to a few hundred Kilometers radius. MAN is usually
formed by interconnecting a number of LANs and individual computers. All types of
communication media (guided and unguided) are used to set up a MAN. MAN is

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 8. Computer Networks

typically owned and operated by a single entity such as a government body or a large
corporation (refer Figure 8.29).

Fig. 8.29 : Metropolitan Area Network

8.7.4 Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN is a network of computing and communicating devices crossing the limits of a
city, country or continent. It can cover an area of over hundreds of Kilometers in radius.
WAN usually contain a number of interconnected individual computers, LANs, MANs
and maybe other WANs. All
types of communication media
(guided and unguided) are used
to set up a WAN as shown in
Figure 8.30. The best known
example of a WAN is the
Internet. Internet is considered
as the largest WAN in the world.
A network of ATMs, banks,
government offices, international
organisations, offices, etc. spread
over a country, continent or
covering many continents are
Fig. 8.30 : Wide Area Network
examples of WAN.
Table 8.1 summerises the characteristics of PAN, LAN, MAN and WAN

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 Parameter PAN LAN MAN WAN
Area covered Small area A few meters to A city and its Entire country,
(Up to 10 m radius) a few Kilometers vicinity (Up to continent,
(Up to 10 Km radius) (100 Km radius) or globe
Transmission High speed High speed Moderate Low speed
speed speed
Networking cost Negligible Inexpensive Moderately Expensive
expensive
Table 8.1 : Characteristics summary of PAN, LAN, MAN, WAN
8.8 Logical classification of networks
This classification is based on the role of computers in the network and division falls
into two categories: peer-to-peer and client-server.

8.8.1 Peer-to-Peer
A peer-to-peer network has no dedicated servers. Here a number of computers are
connected together for the purpose of sharing information or devices. All the computers
are considered equal. Any computer can act as a client or as a server at any instance.
This network is ideal for small networks where there is no need for dedicated servers,
like home network or small business establishments or shops.

8.8.2 Client-Server
The client-server concept is the driving force behind most of the networks. It is similar
to going to a restaurant, reading the menu, calling the waiter (server) and then ordering
one’s preference from the menu. If the ordered item is available in the restaurant at that
time, it is 'served' to whom the order was placed (client), else the request is refused.
In a network, the client-server architecture consists of high-end computer (called server)
serving lower configuration machines called clients. A server provides clients with specific
services (responses) upon client’s request. The services include sharing of data, software
and hardware resources. Figure 8.31 shows the
general client-server architecture.
Client-server architecture is an example for centralised
software management. When software is loaded on
the server and shared among the clients, changes made
to the software in the server will reflect in the clients
also. So there is no need to spend time and energy
for installing updates and tracking files independently
on the clients. Fig. 8.31 : Client - Server

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 8. Computer Networks

Classifications for servers are

a) File server - A computer that stores and manages files for multiple users on a
network.
b) Web server - A computer dedicated to responding to requests for web pages.
c) Print server - Redirects print jobs from clients to specific printers.
d) Database server - Allows authorised clients to view, modify and/or delete data
in a common database.

Check yourself

1. In bus topology, when the signal reaches the end of the bus, ______absorbs
the signal and removes it from the bus.
2. In which topology is every node connected to other nodes?
3. Categorise and classify the different types of networks given below.
ATM network, Cable television network, Network within the school,
Network at home using bluetooth,Telephone network, Railway network.
4. What is PAN?

8.9 Identification of computers over a network

Imagine that you are in India and you wish to write a letter to your friend in America.
What would you do? You write a letter, put it in an envelop, write your friend’s address
on it and write your address on the back. When the letter is posted in a post office in
India, it is stamped with a unique seal and date. After going through a feasible route the
letter reaches the post office in America, where it is stamped again with a unique seal
and date. Then, the postman makes sure that it reaches the specified addressee. In a
network, data is sent in the form of packets in a similar way.
Once a network has been set up, the nodes can communicate among themselves. But
for proper communication, the nodes should be uniquely identifiable. If node X sends
some information to node Y on a network, then it is mandatory that nodes X and Y are
uniquely identifiable on the network. Let us see how this is achieved.

8.9.1 Media Access Control (MAC) address

A Media Access Control (MAC) address is a universally unique address (12 digit
hexadecimal number) assigned to each NIC (Network Interface Card) by its

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 manufacturer. This address is known as the MAC address. It means that a machine
with an NIC can be identified uniquely through the MAC address of its NIC. MAC
address of an NIC is permanent and never changes.
MAC addresses are 12-digit hexadecimal (or 48 bit Binary) numbers. By convention,
MAC addresses are usually written in one of the following two formats:
MM : MM : MM : SS : SS : SS or MM – MM – MM – SS – SS – SS
The first half (MM:MM:MM) of a MAC address contains the ID number of the adapter
manufacturer. The second half (SS:SS:SS) of a MAC address represents the serial
number assigned to the adapter (NIC) by its manufacturer. For example, in the following
MAC address,
00:A0:C9 : 14:C8:35
Fig: 8.32 : MAC Id
the prefix 00:A0:C9 indicates that the manufacturer is Intel Corporation. The last three
numbers 14:C8:35 are given by the manufacturer (Intel in this example) to this NIC.
8.9.2 Internet Protocol (IP) Address
An IP address is a unique 4 part numeric address assigned to each node on a network,
for their unique identification. IP address is assigned to each machine by the network
administrator or the Internet Service Provider. An IP address is a group of four bytes
(or 32 bits) each of which can be a number from 0 to 255.
To make it easier for us to remember, IP addresses are normally expressed in decimal
format as a “dotted decimal number” as indicated in Figure 8.33.
On a network, the IP address of a
machine is used to identify it. IP protocol
identifies a machine with its IP address
to route the packets.
There are two versions of IP addresses:
version 4 (IPv4) and version 6 (IPv6). Fig. 8.33 : IP Address
IPv4 uses 32 bits and IPv6 uses 128
bits for an IP address. Using IPv4 only 232 (approximately 4 billion) distinct devices can
be addressed.
As the number of devices which need to be networked (mobile phones, home appliances,
personal communication devices, etc.) is increasing at a very fast pace, IPv4 addresses
are being exhausted. To address this problem IPv6 was developed and it is now being
deployed. Using IPv6, 2128 (approximately 4 billion × 4 billion × 4 billion × 4 billion)
distinct devices can be addressed.

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 8. Computer Networks

Identify the IP and MAC Id of each networked machine in your

school and prepare a table as follows. (Use ipconfig /all at command
Let us do prompt).
Sl No Computer Name IP MAC
1.
2.
3.

8.10 Network protocols

A network protocol is the special set of rules to be followed in a network when devices
in the network exchange data with each other. Each protocol specifies its own rules for
formatting data, compressing data, error checking, identifying and making connections
and making sure that data packets reach its destination.
Several computer network protocols have been developed for specific purposes and
environments. Some commonly used protocols are TCP/IP, SPx/IPx etc.

TCP/IP
TCP/IP, Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, is a suite of communications
protocols used to interconnect network devices on the local networks and the Internet.
TCP/IP defines rules for how electronic devices (like computers) should be connected
to the Internet and how data should be transmitted between them.
When data is to be sent from one computer to another over Internet, it is first broken
into smaller packets by TCP and then sent. When these packets are received by the
receiving computer, TCP checks packets for errors. If errors are found, TCP submits
requests for retransmission; else packets are assembled into the original message
according to the rules specified in TCP protocol. Figure 8.34 shows the steps involved

Fig: 8.34 : How TCP/IP works

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 in the working of TCP/IP protocol. Delivery of each of these packets to the right
destinations is done by Internet protocol (IP). Even though different packets of the
same message may be routed differently, they will reach the same destination and get
reassembled there. HTTP, FTP and DNS are three sub protocols of TCP/IP protocol
suite.
HTTP
HTTP stands for Hypertext Transfer Protocol. It is a standard protocol for transferring
requests from client-side and to receive responses from the server-side. The HTTP
client (browser) sends a HTTP request to the HTTP server (web server) and server
responds with a HTTP response. This pair of request and response is called an HTTP
session (refer Figure 8.35).
The response from the server can be
static such as a file already stored on the
server, or dynamic, such as, the result of
executing a piece of code by the server
as per the request from the client. Fig. 8.35 : An HTTP session

The two important characteristics of HTTP are

l HTTP is transmission medium independent.
l HTTP is stateless (The server and client are aware of each other only during a
request or response. Afterwards, each forgets the other).
FTP
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a standard for exchanging of data and
program files across a network. FTP is the easiest way to transfer files between
computers via the Internet. It uses TCP and IP to perform uploading and downloading.
A FTP client program installed in the computer can help in the uploading (sending files
to another computer) and downloading (receiving files from another computer) of files.
FTP uses client-server architecture in servers with security features, username and
password protection for file transfer. An FTP client program (Filezilla, Cute FTP, etc)
installed in the computer can help in the easy uploading and downloading of files.
DNS
DNS stands for Domain Name System. DNS returns the IP address of the domain
name, that we type in our web browser’s address bar. (like mobile phone automatically
dialing the phone number when we select a name from contact list).
The DNS system has its own network. DNS implements a database to store domain
names and IP address information of all web sites on the Internet. DNS assumes that IP

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 8. Computer Networks

addresses do not change (statically assigned). If one DNS server does not know how
to translate a particular domain name, it asks another one, and so on, until the correct
IP address is returned.

Find and prepare notes on five protocols other than TCP/IP, HTTP,
FTP, DNS.
Let us do

8.11 Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. URL is a formatted text string used by web
browsers, email clients and other software to identify a network resource on the Internet.
Every resource on the Internet has a unique URL. Network resources are files that can
be plain web pages, other text documents, graphics, programs, etc.
URL consists of letters, numbers and punctuations. URL string can be divided into
three parts.
a) Network protocol (also called the scheme)
b) Domain name (Host name or address)
c) File name
For example, the URL http://www.dhsekerala.gov.in/index.html has three parts as shown
in Figure 8.36. The detailed description of these three parts are given below:

Fig. 8.36 : URL of DHSE web site

a. Protocol
The protocol enables the browser to know what protocol is used to access the
information specified in the domain.
b. Domain name
Domain name is the name assigned to a server through the Domain Name System
(DNS). Domain names are used in URLs to identify the particular web server. Domain
names provide Internet users with a short name that is easy to remember. Whenever
we have to communicate with a computer on Internet, we can do so by using its IP
address. But it is practically impossible for a person to remember the IP addresses of
all the computers, one may have to communicate with. Therefore, a system has been

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 developed which assigns names to computers (web servers) and maintains a database
of these names and their corresponding IP addresses. These names are called domain
names.Examples of some domain names are dhsekerala.gov.in, keralaresults.nic.in,
google.com, gmail.com, etc.
A domain name usually has more than one part: top level domain name or primary
domain name and sub-domain name(s). For example, in the domain name above, ‘in’ is
the primary domain name; ‘gov’ is the sub-domain of in and ‘dhsekerala’ is the sub-
domain of ‘gov’. There are only a limited number of top level domains and these are
divided into two categories: Generic Domain Names and Country-Specific Domain
Names. Examples of generic and country specific domain names are given in Table 8.2.
Generic Domain Names Country Specific Domain Names
·com Commercial business ·in India
·edu Educational institutions ·au Australia
·gov Government agencies ·ca Canada
·mil Military ·ch China
·net Network organizations .jp Japan
·org Organizations (nonprofit) .us United States of America
Table. 8.2 : Generic and country specific domain names
c. File name
It is the file to be opened. In the example given in Figure 8.35, 'index.html' is the file that
is to be accessed from the web server specified by the domain name.
Make a list of valid URL, containing two examples for each generic
domain name and country specific domain name. Also note down
the file name opened by default (for file look at the URL in address
Let us do bar after the site is opened).

Let us sum up
We learned about computer networks, the essential technology of the century, in this
chapter. Importance of network was discussed by highlighting the various advantages
it provides. We discussed the various communication media and their pros and cons.
The devices used at various situations while forming a network was also discussed.
Before discussing the types of network, we learned the different ways a network
could be formed by discussing various topologies. We then discussed protocol and
how TCP/IP send/receive data across the network. Methods to uniquely identify a
node in the network were introduced and finally we concluded discussing URL.

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 8. Computer Networks

Learning outcomes
After the completion of this chapter the learner will be able to
• identify and choose a communication medium.
• compare different types of network.
• explain the logical classification of networks.
• identify how data is send across networks.
• design small networks.
• explain how a node is identified in a network.
• identify the various parts of a URL.

Sample questions

Very short answer type

1. The transmission media which carry information in the form of light signals is called
__________.
a. Coaxial b. Twisted c. WiFi d. Optical Fiber
2. Different networks with different protocols are connected by a device called _____.
a. Router b. Bridge c. Switch d. Gateway
3. In which topology, the failure of any one computer will affect the network operation?
4. To transmit signals from multiple devices through a single communication channel
simultaneously, we use _____ device.
a. Modem b. Switch c. Router d. Multiplexer
5. Satellite links are generally used for
a. PANs b. LANs c. MANs d. All of the above
Short answer type
1. Define bandwidth.
2. Switch and Hub are two devices associated with networking. Differentiate them.
3. What is an IP address? Give an example of IP address.
4. What is TCP/IP? What is its importance?
5. What is Bluetooth?
6. Distinguish between router and gateway.
7. Explain the need for establishing computer networks.
8. What are the uses of computer networks?
9. What is the limitation of microwave transmission? How is it eliminated?
10. Briefly describe the characteristics of Wi-Fi.

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 11. An International School is planning to connect all computers, spread over distance
of 45 meters. Suggest an economical cable type having high-speed data transfer,
which can be used to connect these computers.
12. Suppose that you are the administrator of network lab in one Institution. Your
manager directed you to replace 10 Mbps switch by 10 Mbps Ethernet hub for
better service. Will you agree with this decision? Justify your answer.
13. You need to transfer a biodata file stored in your computer to your friend’s computer
that is 10 kms away using telephone network
a. Name the device used for this at both ends.
b. Explain how the file is send and received inside the device, once a connection
between two computers is established.
14. When is a repeater used in a computer network?
15. Compare infrared and Bluetooth transmission.
16. Identify and explain the device used for connecting a computer to a telephone
network.
17. Briefly explain LAN topologies.
18. Briefly describe TCP/IP protocol.
19. What is a MAC address? What is the difference between a MAC address and an
IP address?
Long answer type
1. How are computer networks classified, based on size?
2. Compare different LAN topologies.
3. Explain various types of guided communication channels.
4. Compare different unguided media.
5. Define the term protocol. Briefly describe any two communication protocols.
6. Briefly describe the various communication devices used in computer networks.
7. Which is/are communication channel(s) suitable in each of the following situations?
a. Setting up a LAN.
b. Transfer of data from a laptop to a mobile phone.
c. Transfer of data from one mobile phone to another.
d. Creating a remote control that can control multiple devices in a home.
e. Very fast communication between two offices in two different countries.
f. Communication in a hilly area.
g. Communication within a city and its vicinity where cost of cabling is too high.

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 9. Internet

In the previous chapter we saw that the Internet

is the largest computer network in the world.
Key concepts We use the Internet to check SSLC results, to
submit applications for higher secondary school
• History of the Internet admissions and check its status, to get
• Connecting the computer information about various types of scholarships
to the Internet
• Types of connectivity and to submit applications for receiving them,
o Dial up etc. Can you imagine life without the Internet
o Wired broadband today? It would be difficult for us to manage all
o Wireless broadband
o Internet access sharing the above tasks without it. Internet has definitely
methods made life easier for us. It has influenced our
• Services on Internet daily life to a great extent. Because of its wide
o www
o Search engines popularity and increase in use even the television
o E-mail sets with facilities for Internet connectivity have
o Social media
come up in markets.
• Cyber security
o Computer virus People generally use the Internet to search
o Worm
o Trojan horse information, access e-mails, make bill payments,
o Spams for online shopping, online banking, to connect
o Hacking
o Phishing
with people in social networking sites, etc. The
o Denial of service attack reach of Internet is very vast and it helps in
o Man-in-the-middle attack reducing cost and time. Issues like online
• Preventing network
attacks
intrusion to privacy, online fraud, cyber-attacks,
o Firewall, antivirus etc. are becoming common now. Apart from
scanners, cookies the Internet and its access methods, let us
• Guidelines for using
discuss the various services provided by the
computers over Internet
Internet like search engines, e-mail, social media
and about the threats and preventive measures
while using Internet in this chapter.

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 9.1 History of the Internet
The Internet started as a small network through a project by the United States Department
of Defence by the name ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network).
During 1970s this military network was connected to the computers of Universities and
companies that worked for the Department of Defence. In 1984 the military network
split from ARPANET to form MILNET to be used by the American military only.
ARPANET which used TCP/IP protocol for communication was thereafter used for
scientific research and information sharing. Later, several other networks merged with
ARPANET to form a large network. ARPANET is considered as the first wide area
network (WAN).Vinton Gray Cerf who was instrumental in the development of Internet
and TCP/IP protocol, is considered as the father of Internet.
Vinton Gray Cerf (1943 - ) popularly called Vint Cerf,
an American computer scientist, is widely known as
‘Father of the Internet’. He was instrumental in the
initial development of Internet along with his fellow
American computer scientist Bob Kahn. He worked for the United
States Department of Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA) and had a key role in the development of TCP/IP protocol. He was also
involved in the formation of ICANN.

In 1989, Tim Berners Lee, a researcher, proposed the idea of

World Wide Web (WWW). Tim Berners Lee and his team are
credited with inventing Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP ),
HTML and the technology for a web server and a web browser.
Using hyperlinks embedded in hypertext the web developers
were able to connect web pages. They could design attractive
webpages containing text, sound and graphics. This change
witnessed a massive expansion of the Internet in the 1990s.
Various types of computers loaded with diverse operating Fig. 9.1 : Tim Berners Lee
systems in different organisations at geographically distant (1955 - )
locations joined this network making it a global phenomenon.TCP/IP protocol is used
as the communication protocol for Internet. Any computer that joins Internet should
follow the TCP/IP protocol. In 1998, Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN) was established. ICANN does not control the Internet content;
rather it develops policies on the Internet’s Uniform Resource Locators (URL). Today,
Internet is the largest public network that connects billions of computers all over the
world and provides several services like searching, e-mail, file transfer, social networking,

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 9. Internet

etc. The Internet is an interconnected system of computer networks that serves the
users all over the world.
An intranet is considered as a private computer network similar to Internet that uses
TCP/IP protocol to share information, software or services within an organisation. An
intranet can host websites, provide e-mail service, file transfer and other services
available on Internet.
When an intranet is made accessible to some computers that are not part of a company’s
private network it is called an extranet. A network that allows vendors and business
partners to access a company resource can be considered as an example of extranet.
9.2 Connecting the computer to the Internet
As we know today, the Internet has become very popular and almost all organisations
and people around the world are joining it. Earlier, people used the Internet to search
for information and check e-mails only, but today it is used to book train tickets, recharge
mobile phones, Internet banking and a lot more. Therefore almost all of us require an
Internet connection in our computers or mobile devices.
The following are the hardware and software requirements for connecting a computer
to the Internet:
• A computer with Network Interface Card (wired/wireless) facility and an operat-
ing system that supports TCP/IP protocol
• Modem
• Telephone connection
• An Internet account given by an Internet Service Provider (ISP)
• Software like browser, client application for e-mail, chat, etc.
Nowadays desktop computers or laptops are not the only devices that we use to
connect to the Internet. People have also started using tablets, smart phones, etc. to
browse the Internet. Some of these devices come with built-in modems, whereas others
use a wireless dongle or wireless connection from a modem to access the Internet.
9.3 Types of connectivity
Today most websites use images and multimedia content to make webpages more
attractive. Several websites provide videos that can be downloaded or viewed on the
Internet. Instead of distributing software in CDs or other storage media, it is now
distributed online by various vendors. The latest trend shows that software like word
processors, spreadsheets, antivirus, etc. are used online on a rental basis instead of

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 installing it on each computer. In all these cases, a large volume of data is transferred
online. Therefore the speed or data transfer rate of the Internet is an important aspect.
Data transfer rate is the average number of bits transferred between devices in unit
time.
1 kbps = 1000 bits per second
1 Mbps = 1000 kbps
1 Gbps = 1000 Mbps
Difference between unit symbols b and B
b stands for bit
B stands for Byte
Difference between unit symbols k and K
k = 1000 = 103
K = 1024 = 210
Here ‘k’ is a decimal unit and ‘K’ is a binary unit of measurement. But for Mega,
Giga and Tera, both decimal and binary units use ‘M’, ‘G’ and ‘T’ as symbols
respectively. They are differentiated from the context in which they are
used.
Note that data transfer rate is measured in decimal units and memory is
measured in binary.

The main factor that decides Internet access speed is the type of connectivity we choose
to link to the Internet. Internet connectivity is classified based on the speed of the
connection and the technology used. They can be broadly classified as dial-up
connectivity, wired broadband connectivity and wireless broadband connectivity. The
data transfer rates of each type of connectivity may vary as techonology advances.
9.3.1 Dial-up connectivity
A dial-up connection uses the conventional telephone line and a dial-up modem to dial
and connect to the server at the Internet Service Provider (ISP). Figure 9.2 shows the
dial-up connectivity system. As the connection is made by dialing, it takes time to connect
to the server at the ISP. This connection commonly uses a 56 kbps modem that can
transmit data up to a maximum speed of 56 kbps. This slow connection is comparatively
less costly when compared to other types of connections. Another disadvantage is that
a dial-up connection requires exclusive use of the telephone line, i.e., while accessing
Internet, we cannot make or receive telephone calls (voice calls). Nowadays, broadband
connections that have a higher speed are replacing dial-up connections.

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 9. Internet

Computer

Internet Service
Provider
Telephone Modem
Modem lines
Fig. 9.2 : Dial-up connectivity
9.3.2 Wired broadband connectivity
The term broadband refers to a broad range of technologies
that helps us to connect to the Internet at a higher data rate
(speed). Wired broadband connections are ‘always on’
connections that do not need to be dialled and connected. Fig. 9.3 : Broadband modem
Broadband connections use a broadband modem (refer Figure 9.3) and allow us to
use the telephone even while using the Internet. Table 9.1 shows the comparison between
dial-up and wired broadband connections.
Dial-up connection Wired broadband connection
• Slow connection, speed upto 56 kbps • High speed connection,
speed usually higher than 256 kbps
• Requires dialing to connect to ISP • Always on connection
• Uses telephone line exclusively • Simultaneous use of voice and Internet
• Uses dial-up modem • Uses broadband modem
Table 9.1 : Comparison between dial-up and wired broadband connections
Popular broadband technologies are Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), Cable
Internet, Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), Leased Lines and Fiber to the Home (FTTH).
a. Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
ISDN is a broadband service capable of transporting voice and digital data. Most
ISDN lines offered by telephone companies give users two lines. The users can use one
line for voice and the other for data, or they can use both lines for data. ISDN lines are
capable of offering data transfer rates upto 2 Mbps.
b. Cable Internet
Cable Internet access provides Internet access using coaxial cables laid for television
signal transmission to our homes. The service provider uses a cable modem at our

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 home to connect our computer to cable network. Cable TV systems are designed to
carry large bandwidth and therefore cable Internet can provide speeds between 1
Mbps to 10 Mbps.
c. Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
DSL is another broadband service that provides connection to the Internet through
standard telephone lines. DSL allows the user to use copper telephone lines for both
Internet communication and for making voice calls simultaneously. It is composed of
several subcategories, the most common being Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
(ADSL). ADSL is a communication technology that allows faster flow of information
over a telephone line. The down stream speed of ADSL services typically ranges from
256 kbps to 24 Mbps. This connection requires an ADSL modem at our homes/offices.
ADSL is the most popular broadband service available in India.
d. Leased Line
Leased lines are dedicated lines used to provide Internet facility to ISPs, business, and
other large enterprises. An Internet leased line is a premium Internet connection that
provides speed in the range from 2 Mbps to 100 Mbps and is comparatively costly.
This is why leased lines are used only for connecting large campus of organisations like
educational institutions to Internet.
e. Fibre To The Home (FTTH)
Fibre to the Home (FTTH) uses optical fibers for data transmission. Optical fibres are
laid from the ISP to our homes. FTTH technology has been accepted worldwide to
implement high speed Internet to the home. Since optical fibres are known to have high
bandwidth and low error rates, they provide very high speed connectivity. A Network
Termination Unit (NTU) is installed in our homes, which is connected to our computer
through an FTTH modem.
9.3.3 Wireless broadband connectivity
Wireless broadband connectivity provides almost the
same speed as that of a wired broadband connection.
The popular wireless broadband accesses are Mobile
Broadband, Wi-MAX, Satellite Broadband and Wi-
Fi. Some of the wireless modems available for use to
connect to Internet are shown in Figure 9.4. Fig. 9.4 : Wireless broadband
modems
a. Mobile broadband
Mobile broadband is wireless Internet access using mobile phone, USB wireless modem,
tablet or other mobile devices. The modem is built into mobile phones, tablets, USB

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 9. Internet

dongles, etc. Mobile broadband offers the freedom to allow the user to access the
Internet from anywhere on the move. This technology uses the cellular network of
mobile phones for data transmission. The mobile technology for data transmission has
been changing from 2nd Generation (2G) through 3rd Generation (3G) to the current 4th
Generation (4G). The speed of data transmission increases with the progression of
generations of mobile technology.
b. Wi-MAX
In the previous chapter we learned that Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave
Access (Wi-MAX) is used as an alternative for wired broadband. Wi-MAX offers a
Metropolitan Area Network which can provide wireless Internet upto a distance of 50
Km. Connectivity is provided using devices like Wi-MAX handsets, USB dongles,
devices embedded in laptops, etc. that have a Wi-MAX modem integrated in it. This
technology provides a maximum connection speed of upto 70 Mbps.
c. Satellite broadband
Satellite broadband technology is a method by which Internet connectivity is provided
through a satellite. A Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) dish antenna and a
transceiver (transmitter and receiver) are required at the user’s location. A modem at
the user’s end links the user’s computer with the transceiver. Download speed is upto
1 Gbps for this technology. It is among the most expensive forms of broadband Internet
access. They are used by banks, stock exchanges, governments, etc. and also for
Internet access in remote areas.
9.3.4 Internet access sharing methods
An Internet connection can be shared among several computers using a LAN,
Wi-Fi network or Li-Fi network.
a. Using LAN
The Internet connected to a computer in a Local Area Network (LAN) can be shared
among other computers in the network. This can be done either using features available
in the operating system or using any proxy server software available in the market.
Sharing can also be done by connecting computers directly to the router using a cable.
b. Using Wi-Fi network
We have heard of Wi-Fi campuses in large educational institutions, coffee shops,
shopping malls, hotels, etc. We also know that some of the broadband modems at our
homes and schools offer Wi-Fi Internet access.Wi-Fi is a popular short distance data
transmission technology that is used for network access, mostly Internet. Wi-Fi locations

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 receive Internet connection through any one of the above
mentioned wired or wireless broadband access methods,
as discussed in the previous section.They provide us
Internet connectivity through a Wi-Fi router or a wireless
network access point. Such an access point, popularly
called hotspot, has a range of about 100 meters indoors
Fig. 9.5 : Wi-Fi network and a greater range outdoors. We access Internet in our
Wi-Fi enabled devices like laptops, tablets, mobile
phones, etc. through these hotspots. A drawback of Wi-Fi is that it is less secure than
wired connections.
c. Using Li-Fi network
Li-Fi (Light Fidelity) is a fast optical version of Wi-Fi, which uses visible light for data
transmission. The main component of this communication is a bright LED (Light Emitting
Diode) lamp that can transmit data and a photo diode that serves as the receiver. LEDs
can be switched on and off to generate a binary string of 1s and 0s. The flickering of this
LED is so fast that the human eye cannot detect it. A data rate of over 100 Mbps is
possible using this technique as light offers very high bandwidth. Another advantage is
that since Li-Fi uses light, it can be used in aircrafts and hospitals where radio waves
may cause interference. It can also be used underwater where Wi-Fi does not work. It
provides greater security as light cannot penetrate walls when compared to Wi-Fi. One
of the shortcomings of Li-Fi is that it works only in direct line-of-sight. In future this
technology can be further developed to use light bulbs as a source of Internet.

Check yourself

1. ARPANET stands for _____________.

2. Who proposed the idea of www?
3. The protocol for Internet communication is _____________.
4. What do you mean by an ‘always on’ connection?
5. A short distance wireless Internet access method is _____________.

Prepare a comparison chart on the different methods of Internet

connection.
Let us do

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 9. Internet

9.4 Services on Internet

The internet offers a variety of services. Services like WWW, e-mail, search engines,
social media, etc. are widely used throughout the globe. In this section we shall discuss
some of the services of Internet.
9.4.1 World Wide Web (WWW)
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed
via the Internet. It is a service on the Internet that uses Internet infrastructure. WWW is
a huge client-server system consisting of millions of clients and servers connected together.
Each server maintains a collection of documents and they can be accessed using a
reference called Uniform Resource Locator (URL). These documents may contain,
text, images, videos and other multimedia content. It may also contain hyperlinks to
documents on different servers. Selecting a hyperlink results in a request to fetch that
document/web page from the server and display it. The WWW works by establishing
hypertext links between documents anywhere on the network. Clients can access the
documents on the servers using software called browser. A browser is responsible for
properly displaying the documents.
a. Browser
A web browser is a software that we use to retrieve or present information and to
navigate through web pages in the World Wide Web. The document to be displayed is
identified using a URL. A URL consists of its DNS name and the file name to be
retrieved. It also specifies the protocol for transferring the document across the network.
A browser is capable of displaying text, images, hypertext links, videos, sounds, scripts
(program code inside a web page), etc. in a web document/page. Most of WWW
documents are created using Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) tags and are
called web pages. The web browser interprets these tags and displays a formatted
page. It allows us to navigate through web pages using the hyperlinks available in web
pages. Some common browsers are Google Chrome, Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox,
Opera, and Safari. Icons of some popular browsers are shown in Figure 9.6. Some of
these browsers have a mobile version that can be used in mobile operating systems.

Google Chrome Internet Explorer Mozilla Firefox Opera Safari

Fig. 9.6 : Icons of popular browsers

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 b. Web Browsing
All of us have visited web sites by entering the website address (URL) into web browsers
and then using the hyperlinks in it to move through the web pages. Traversing through
the web pages of World Wide Web is called web browsing. Major operations performed
while web browsing are shown in Figure 9.7.

ISP’s DNS server

Web server

Fig. 9.7 : Web browsing

Suppose you wish to visit the website ‘www.kerala.gov.in’. What will you do? You will
enter this URL in the address box of the web browser and press Enter key. The steps
a browser will follow to display a webpage may be summarised as follows.
1. The browser determines the URL (http://www.kerala.gov.in) entered.
2. The browser then sends a request to the DNS server of the user’s ISP to get the
IP address of the URL.
3. The ISP’s DNS server replies with the IP address.
4. The browser then makes a TCP connection to the web server at the IP address
(www.kerala.gov.in).
5. Then it sends a GET request for the required file (web page) to the web server.
6. The web server returns the web page.
7. The TCP connection is released.
8. The browser processes the contents of the webpage and displays it.

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 9. Internet

9.4.2 Search engines

There are millions of pages available on the Internet that contain information on a variety
of topics. But it is very difficult to search for a topic in this large collection of web pages.
Internet search engine websites are special programs that are designed to help people
to find information available in World Wide Web. Search engine programs search
documents available on World Wide Web for specified keywords and return a list of
the documents/web pages matching the keywords.
Let us discuss the technology behind
Internet
these websites. Search engine web sites
Finds new pages or
use programs called web crawlers or
changed
spiders or robots to search the web. crawls
information on a
Web crawlers search the web pages web page.
stored in the different web servers and Returns to create an

its
find possible keywords. The search vis index in the server
engine website stores these keywords
along with their URLs to form an index la u n c h
es
in the search engine’s web servers. Spider/
Crawler
When we use the search engine website
Search engine server
to search a particular topic (keyword),
it does not search the World Wide
Web. It only searches the index, which
the web crawler programs have created
in the search engine’s web server for
the topic/keyword. Search engines Fig. 9.8 : Working of a search engine

Fig. 9.9 : Search results of different search engines

259
 select a list of URLs where the particular topic is found from the index and displays it as
the result. Figure 9.8 shows the working of a search engine.
Some of the most popular web search engine sites are Google, Bing, Yahoo Search,
Ask, etc. Figure 9.9 shows the search results of different search engines.
9.4.3 E-mail
E-mail enables us to contact any person in the world in a matter of seconds. Billions of
e-mail messages are sent over the Internet every day. Electronic mail or e-mail is a
method of exchanging digital messages between computers over Internet.
E-mail has become an extremely popular communication tool. The e-mail will be
delivered almost instantly in the recipient’s mail box (Inbox). Apart from text matter, we
can send files, documents, pictures, etc. as attachment along with e-mail. The same e-
mail can be sent to any number of people simultaneously. Figure 9.10 shows a sample
e-mail message.

Fig. 9.10 : A sample e-mail message

Most of you will have an e-mail address. The structure of an e-mail address is:
user name@domain name. An example of an e-mail address is
[email protected]
An e-mail address consists of two parts separated by @ symbol. The first part
scertkerala is the username that identifies the addressee and the second part gmail.com
is the domain name of the e-mail server, i.e., the name of the e-mail service provider.
E-mails can be accessed using websites like gmail.com, hotmail.com, etc. that provide
web applications consisting of functions to send, receive, forward, reply and organise
emails . Such a facility is popular and is commonly referred to as web mail.

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 9. Internet

E-mails can also be accessed using e-mail client software that is installed in our computers.
Such software uses our e-mail address and password to retrieve e-mails from the e-
mail service provider’s server and store it in our computer. An e-mail client allows to
send, receive and organise e-mail. The messages sent when the computer is offline are
stored in the program and send later when computer is online. For receiving messages,
e-mail client applications usually use either the Post Office Protocol (POP) or the Internet
Message Access Protocol (IMAP). The popular e-mail client applications are Microsoft
Outlook and Mozilla Thunderbird.
a. Sections of an e-mail
A client software gives provisions to enter the following sections.
To (Recepient Address) – A box to provide the e-mail addresses of the primary recipients
to whom the e-mail has to be sent.
Cc (Carbon copy) – Write the e-mail addresses of the secondary recipients to whom
the message has to be sent.
Bcc (Blind carbon copy) – Write the e-mail addresses of the tertiary recipients who
receive the message. When the message is received the primary and secondary recipients
cannot see the email addresses of the tertiary recipients in the message. Depending on
e-mail service used, the tertiary recipients may only see their own e-mail address in
Bcc, or they may see the e-mail addresses of all recipients.
Subject – Provide a meaningful subject for your conversation here. This helps you to
identify a conversation with a particular person when you search your e-mails later.
Content – Type your message here. Today most of the e-mail service providers offer
features to create an attractive message by giving colours, changing font styles, size,
etc.
Attachment facility allows us to send files
like documents, pictures, etc. along with
an e-mail. The ‘Send’ button is used to
send the message to the recipients. ‘Reply’
button allows you to send a reply back
to the sender of the message received.
‘Forward’ button helps you to send a
message received by you to other people.
Figure 9.11 shows the major sections of
an e-mail.
Fig. 9.11 : Composing an e-mail

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 b. Working of e-mail
Have you ever wondered how e-mail is sent from your computer to a friend on the
other side of the world? When an e-mail is sent from your computer using web mail or
e-mail client software, it reaches the e-mail server of our e-mail service provider. From
there the message is routed from sender’s e-mail server all the way to the recipient’s e-
mail server. The recipient’s e-mail server then delivers the e-mail to the recipient’s mail
box (inbox), which stores the e-mail and waits for the user to read it. Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used for e-mail transmission across Internet. Figure 9.12
shows the working of e-mail.

1. Sender composes
message using e-
mail client/ web mail
2. Sender uploads SMTP
message to SMTP server
server

3. Message traverses
Internet (probably
passing through
several routers)
5. Recipient’s e-mail client/ web mail checks
mailbox for new messages and downloads
4. Message arrives at message
receiving server and is
placed in recipient’s 6. Recipient reads
mailbox file/folder message using e-mail
SMTP/POP3/ client/ web mail.
IMAP Server
Fig. 9.12 : Working of e-mail

c. Advantages of using e-mail

The benefits of using e-mail facility are listed below.
• Speed: An e-mail is delivered instantly to any location across the globe. We can
send the same e-mail to multiple users simultaneously.
• Easy to use: We can send and receive e-mails, organise our daily conversations
and save them easily on our computer.
• Provision of attachments: The attachment feature allows to send pictures, files,
documents, etc. along with e-mail.
• Environment friendly: E-mails do not use paper and save a lot of trees from
being cut down.
• Reply to an e-mail: When we need to reply to an e-mail, we can use the provi-
sion of attaching previous e-mails as reference. It helps to refresh the recipient
about the subject.

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 9. Internet

• Cost-effective: When compared to fax or conventional mail, e-mail is less

expensive.
• Available anywhere anytime: Messages can be read at user’s convenience.
Access to mail box is available anytime.
The e-mail service, though beneficial in our daily life, can be misused in different ways
as listed below.
• E-mails may carry viruses: Viruses send along with e-mail can harm our com-
puter system. Viruses can also illegally access our e-mail address book and spread
virus infected messages to all email addresses in it.
• Junk mails: Checking and deleting unwanted mails consume a lot of time.

Internet of Things (IoT)

Can you imagine a fridge which checks its egg tray and reminds you
to buy eggs in your mobile phone or orders the nearby grocery store
to supply eggs to your home; an air conditioner that can be switched
on or off using your mobile phone; or a car that automatically reminds you about
filling fuel as you approach a fuel pump? This is being made possible using Internet
of Things (IoT). IoT is the concept of connecting all devices like mobile phones,
fridges, cars, air conditioners, lamps, wearable devices, etc. to the Internet. Each
device is provided with a unique IP address which identifies it and allows it to
transfer data over Internet without human intervention. The huge increase in the
number of IP addresses due to the implementation of IPv6 supports the
introduction of this technology. The IoT can be used to monitor health of patients
and inform the doctor about an urgency, applied to things which help us reduce
wastage like power, water, etc. and improve the way we work and live.

9.4.4 Social media

All of us are familiar with wikipedia, the free encyclopedia in Internet. We have also
heard about people responding to social issues through facebook, twitter, etc. Also we
know that people use youtube to share videos and for promotion of products or business.
All of these are part of social media which is changing the way we communicate, entertain
and live. Social media refers to the use of mobile and web-based technologies through
which individuals and communities can create, share, discuss and modify content.
In social media, interactions among people happen in virtual communities and networks
over Internet. These digital technologies influence the formation and activities of civil
communities to a great extent.

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 a. Classification of social media
The various types of social media that exist on
the Internet are: Internet forums, social blogs,
microblogs, wikis, social networks, content
communities and a lot more. Figure 9.13
displays logos of popular social media websites.
Here we discuss the most popular
classifications of social media.
1. Internet forums
An Internet forum is an online discussion web
site where people can engage in conversations
in the form of posted messages. Each Internet
Fig. 9.13 : Logo of popular social
forum will have sub forums which may have media websites
several topics. Each discussion on a topic is
called a thread. People can login and start a thread or respond to discussion in a
thread. Some forums allow anonymous login also. Discussions can be about
programming, social/political issues, fashion, etc. These discussions help us to learn
and find solutions to problems. Ubuntu Forum – a community that provides help on
Ubuntu is a popular forum.
2. Social blogs
A blog (web log) is a discussion or informational website consisting of entries or posts
displayed in the reverse chronological order i.e., the most recent post appears first.
Some blogs provide comments on a particular subject; others function as personal
online diaries and some others as online brand advertising for a particular individual or
company. Initially blogs were created by a single user only. But now there are multi-
author blogs that are professionally edited. Blogger.com and Wordpress.com are popular
sites that offer blogging facility.
3. Microblogs
Microblogs allow users to exchange short sentences, individual images or video links.
People use microblogs to share what they observe in their surroundings – information
about events and opinions about topics from a wide range of fields. Microblogging
offers a communication mode that is spontaneous and can influence public opinion.
Twitter.com is a popular microblogging site.
4. Wikis
Wikis allow people to add content or edit existing information in a web page, to form a
community document. Wiki is a type of content management system. Editing done by

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users is very closely monitored by other editors and therefore incorrect information,
advertising, etc. are removed immediately. wikipedia.org – the free online encyclopedia is
the most popular wiki on web.

Wikipedia is a free online encyclopedia

to which anyone can add content and edit.
Wikipedia was formally launched on 15th
January 2001 by Jimmy Wales and Larry
Sanger using the concept and technology
of a wiki. Wikipedia consists of over 3 crore articles in
around 300 languages. The english edition alone includes around 44 lakh articles
and is one of the most visited websites on Internet. Articles on topics range from
very broad to highly specific. Each article consists of a number of links to Wikipedia
itself and other external resources. Since users are able to create and edit ar-
ticles, the quality of the content in the articles depends on the person who contrib-
utes and edits it. The Malayalam edition of Wikipedia is available at ml.wikipedia.org.

5. Social networks
Social networking sites allow people to build personal web pages and then connect
with friends to communicate and share content. We can share text, pictures, videos,
etc. and comment to the posts. A social networking site can be for general topics or for
a specific area like professional networking. Public opinion is greatly influenced by the
discussions and posts in these websites. Popular social networking sites are
facebook.com and linkedin.com.
6. Content communities
Content communities are websites that organise and share contents like photos, videos,
etc. Youtube.com is a popular video sharing site and flickr.com shares pictures.
Most of today’s social media websites offer more than one type of service, i.e., social
networking and microblogging; blogging and internet forum; etc. Studies have revealed
that social media is now recognised as a social influencer.
b. Advantages of social media
• Bring people together: Social networking allows people to find long-lost child-
hood friends and make new ones.
• Plan and organise events: These sites help users to organise and participate in
events.

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 • Business promotion: Social media offers opportunities for businesses to con-
nect with customers, implement marketing campaigns, manage reputation, etc.
• Social skills: These sites allow people to express their views over a particular
issue and become an agent for social change.
c. Limitations in use of social media
• Intrusion to privacy: The personal information of users can be used for illegal
activities. Information like the e-mail address, name, location and age can be used
to commit online crimes.
• Addiction: Addiction to these sites wastes our valuable time. It will negatively
affect our mental states and may lead to depression and tension. It can reduce the
productivity of workers in an organisation. Students may lose concentration and
this in turn may affect their studies.
• Spread rumours: Social media will spread the news very quickly. It can facilitate
or worsen a crisis by spreading negative information or misinformation at an in-
credible speed.
d. Social media interaction – Best practices
• Avoid unnecessary uploading of personal data like e-mail address, telephone num-
ber, address, pictures and videos.
• Setting time schedule for using these sites can save wastage of time.
• In social media websites like wikis and blogs, photo and video sharing are public.
What you contribute is available for all to see. Be aware of what you post online.
Avoid posting content you may regret later.
• Set your privacy levels in such a way that you know exactly who can see your
posts and who can share them.The three basic privacy levels in social media are
private, friends and public.

• Prepare a chart on the different social networking websites

and their uses.
• Create a blog of your class and update the activities like
Let us do
achievements in sports, arts, class tests, assignments, etc.
• Conduct a survey in your school to find the most popular
Internet browser. Also prepare a chart based on the collected
data.

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 9. Internet

Check yourself

1. Give an example for an e-mail address.

2. Which of the following is not a search engine?
(a) Google (b) Bing (c) Facebook (d) Ask
3. Name the protocol used for e-mail transmission across Internet.
4. What is a blog?
5. Name two services over Internet.
6. Each document on the web is referred using ________.

9.5 Cyber security

Today, we know that people use Internet to transfer personal and confidential information
or make payments, organisations like banks perform all their financial transactions using
their computer network, railways do business – selling tickets, information on running
trains, etc. using the railway’s computer network. Can you imagine the volume of financial
loss and other issues that may occur if these computer networks are not available, even
for a short time?
Security to computer networks is vital because important data can be lost and privacy
can be violated. Further, work or business can be interrupted for several hours or even
days if a network comes under attack. With the arrival of the Internet, security has
become a major concern as people started using Internet as a tool for communication
and doing business. Every organisation should monitor its network for possible intrusion
and other attacks. Here we discuss the common threats that affect a computer network.
9.5.1 Computer virus
A computer virus is a program that attaches itself to another program or file enabling it
to spread from one computer to another without our knowledge and interferes with the
normal operation of a computer. A virus might corrupt or delete data on our computer,
replicate itself and spread to other computers or even erase everything in the hard disk.
Almost all viruses are attached to executable files. A virus may exist on a computer, but
it cannot infect the computer unless this malicious program is run or opened. Viruses
spread when the file they are attached to, is transferred from one computer to another
using a portable storage media (USB drives, portable hard disks, etc.), file sharing, or
through e-mail attachments.Viruses have become a huge problem on the Internet and
have caused damage worth billions.

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 9.5.2 Worm
A computer worm is a stand alone malware (malicious software) program that replicates
itself in order to spread to other computers. Worms spread from computer to computer
on its own. Unlike a virus, it does not need to attach itself to a program to propagate. A
worm takes advantage of the data transport features of the computer system to travel
without help. Worms always slow data traffic on the network by consuming bandwidth,
whereas viruses almost always corrupt or modify files on a computer. The most
destructive effect that a worm can cause is through e-mails. A worm can send a copy of
itself to every address in an e-mail address book. Then, the worm sends itself to everyone
listed in each of the receiver’s address book and so on.

I LOVE YOU worm

This worm affected computers in 2000 by overwriting most of the

files. Users received this worm as an e-mail with a subject line
“ILOVEYOU” and with a file attachment LOVE-LETTER-FOR-
YOU.TXT.vbs. Those who clicked the attachment got their computers affected by
the worm and lost their files.

9.5.3 Trojan horse

A Trojan horse, will appear to be a useful software but will actually do damage once
installed or run on the computer. Users are typically tricked into loading and executing
it on their systems. When a Trojan is activated on a computer, they can cause serious
damage by deleting files and destroying information on the system. Some Trojans create
a backdoor on the computer. This gives malicious users access to confidential or personal
information in the computer through the network. Unlike viruses and worms, Trojans
do not reproduce by infecting files nor do they self-replicate.

Ie0199.exe Trojan

E-mail users received a message that offered a free upgrade to

Internet Explorer that contained an executable file Ie0199.exe as
attachment. This e-mail instructed the user to download and install
this program for the upgrade. The users who followed these instructions got their
files infected.

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 9. Internet

Trojan War

In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was

waged against the city of Troy by the Greeks
after Prince Paris of Troy stole away the
Greek Queen Helen. The Greeks fought a battle with the
city of Troy for ten long years. The Greek soldiers got fed
up and wanted to return to their homes. Then, Athena, the
Goddess of war gave the Greeks an idea to end the war.
According to the plan, they built a big hollow wooden horse. The hollow horse was
filled with soldiers and they left it as a gift for the Trojans. All other soldiers
pretended to abandon their camp. Trojans thought that they had won the war. They
pulled the huge horse to their city. They started celebrations of their victory. In
the night when everyone was asleep, the Greek soldiers opened the horse and came
out. They killed the sleeping soldiers of Troy and rescued Queen Helen.

9.5.4 Spams
Spams or junk mails are unsolicited e-mails sent
indiscriminately to persons to promote a product or
service. Spammers collect e-mail addresses from
chat rooms, websites, customer lists, newsgroups,
etc. Clicking on links in spams may send users to
websites that host certain viruses. Today most e-
mail service providers provide e-mail filters that can Fig. 9.14 : Collection of spams in the
successfully separate genuine email from spams as e-mail menu

indicated in Figure 9.14.

9.5.5 Hacking
In computer networking, hacking is a technical effort to manipulate the normal behavior
of network connections and connected systems. Hacking is performed both by computer
security experts and by computer criminals. Computer experts perform hacking to test
the security and find the vulnerabilities in computer networks and computer systems.
Such computer experts are often called ‘white hats’ and such hacking is called ethical
hacking.
Computer criminals break into secure networks to destroy data or make the network
unusable for those who are authorised to use the network. They do this with the intent
of stealing confidential data or destroying files. Such criminals are called ‘black hats’.

269
 There is another category of hackers called grey hat hackers, who fall between white
and black hackers. They sometimes act illegally, though with good intentions, to identify
the vulnerabilities. Grey hat hackers do this to achieve better security.
9.5.6 Phishing
Phishing is a type of identity theft that occurs online. Phishing is an attempt to acquire
information such as usernames, passwords and credit card details by posing as the
original website, mostly that of banks and other financial institutions. Phishing websites
have URLs and home pages similar to their original ones. The act of creating such a
misleading website is called spoofing. People are persuaded to visit these spoofed
websites through e-mails. Users are tempted to type their usernames, passwords, credit
card numbers, etc. in these web pages and lose them to these websites. These frauds
use this information to steal money. Phishing is currently the most widespread financial
threat on the Internet. The URL in Figure 9.15 indicates that it is a phishing website.

Fig. 9.15 : A phishing website

9.5.7 Denial of Service (DoS) attack
A Denial of Service(DoS) attack is usually aimed at a web server. Such an attack
forces the server/computer to restart. An attack in which the attackers’ goal is to shut
down the target server rather than stealing data is called DoS attacks.This prevents
genuine users of a service/website on the web server from using that service. This
attack can be done using a single computer called Denial of Service (DoS) attack or
using more than one computer called Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack.

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 9. Internet

We have learned that when we type a website Attacker

address in the browser and press the Enter
key, the browser requests for that web page
from the server. DoS attacks sends large Handler Handler
number of such requests to the server until it
collapses under the load and stops functioning.
A DoS attack using a computer on a network Zombies
slows down the network by flooding a server
with a large number of requests. A DDoS
attack uses multiple computers in the network
that it has previously infected. These infected
computers called ‘zombies’, work together
Victim
and send out large quantities of fake messages/
requests to the target server. Figure 9.16 Fig. 9.16 : Distributed Denial of Service
(DDoS) attacks
shows the Distributed Denial of Service attack.
This increases the amount of data traffic to the
target server. This leads to server overload and the server is unable to provide services
to its users. The target computer is thus forced to reset / restart leading to unavailability
of its service for a period of time. A DoS attack interrupts network service for some
period, but it does not cause severe damage to files as in the case of a virus attack.
9.5.8 Man-in-the-Middle attacks
A man-in-the-middle attack refers to an attack in which an attacker secretly intercepts
electronic messages between the sender and the receiver and then captures, inserts and
modifies messages during message transmission. If sender transmits messages without
appropriate security, the attacker may exploit the vulnerabilities in the network to capture
and modify the messages and send the modified messages to the receiver. Since the
network transmission still works properly, both the sender and receiver will find it difficult
to notice that the messages have been trapped or modified by an intruder. If we use
such a computer for online transactions, the man in the middle may capture our bank
account number and password to steal money, leading to financial loss. Encrypted
connections such as HTTPS (HTTP Secure), SFTP (Secure FTP), etc. should be used
for secure transactions, so that intruders cannot modify the messages.
9.6 Preventing network attacks
Threats to computers and networks are a major issue as long as information is accessible
and transferred across the Internet. Different defense and detection mechanisms are
developed to deal with these attacks.

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 9.6.1 Firewall
A firewall is a system of computer hardware and software that provides security to the
computer network in an organisation. A firewall controls the incoming and outgoing
network traffic by analysing the data
Home and determining whether they should
network be allowed through or not, based on a
Internet
Firewall
rule set. Firewalls deny malicious data
from entering into the computer
networks as shown in Figure 9.17.

Fig. 9.17 : Firewall

Sandboxing

Sandboxing is a technique through which programs that are suspected

to be infected with a virus can be run. Through sandboxing such
programs are run in a separate memory area and therefore cannot
damage our operating system.

9.6.2 Antivirus scanners

Viruses, worms and Trojan horses are all examples of malicious software (malware).
Antivirus tools are used to detect them and cure the infected system. Antivirus software
scans files in the computer system for known viruses and removes them if found. The
antivirus software uses virus definition files containing signatures (details) of viruses and
other malware that are known. When an antivirus program scans a file and notices that
the file matches a known piece of malware, the antivirus program stops the file from
running, and puts it into ‘quarantine’. Quarantine is a special area for storing files probably
infected with viruses. These files can later be deleted or the virus can be removed. For
effective use of antivirus software, virus definitions must be updated regularly.
9.6.3 Cookies
Cookies are small text files that are created when we use a browser to visit a website.
Cookies keep track of our movements within the web site – remembers our user name,
preferences, e-mail address, etc. Browsers store cookies for an interval of time, usually
in a cookie folder on the client’s computer. Cookies are text files and so they are not
executable programs. Web sites use cookies mainly because they save time and make
browsing efficient.
Cookies are treated as data and so it is not a virus, but it is always possible for a hacker
to use it for malicious purposes. Cookies can be used to act as a spyware. There are

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 9. Internet

harmful cookies that are used by different websites to compromise our privacy. Such
websites store a special cookie in our computer that will keep track of our activities
like, websites visited, products purchased or the forms that are filled. Most browsers
provide facilities to manage/delete harmful cookies. Frequent deletion of cookies helps
to prevent illegal access and use of personal information.

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9.7 Guidelines for using computers over Internet

Following are the major guidelines for using computers over Internet.
• Most of the computer viruses are spread through e-mail attachments. Do not
open any e-mail attachment that you are not sure about the sender.
• Download files only from reputed sources. Do not use/copy software that you
cannot confirm the origin.
• Avoid clicking on pop-up advertisements. Close them instead.
• Use USB drives with caution. Plugging someone else’s USB storage into your
computer or plugging your own USB storage into a computer at an Internet cafe/
unsafe computer, can spread an infection through the USB storage.
• Make sure the firewall is set and turned on.
• Use strong passwords. Change passwords at regular intervals.
• Update the virus definitions of your antivirus program periodically online.
• Keep a regular backup of your important files (on DVD, another hard disk, etc.)

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 Guidelines for Setting up a Strong Password
• A password should have atleast 8 characters.
• A password should contain
• Upper case letters
• Lower case letters
• Numbers
• Symbols like @, #, $, etc.
• A password should not be personal information like name, date of
birth, etc. or common words.
• Never disclose your password to others.
• Do not write it on a paper or store it in a file in your computer.
• Do not use the same password for all logins.
• Change password often.

• Be careful about giving personal data online. If you see e-mail message requests
for personal data such as telephone number, address, credit card number, etc.
from unknown persons, ignore it.
• Visit banks’ websites by typing the URL into the address bar. Do not click on links
within e-mails to go to bank websites. Banks or any of its representatives never
sends you e-mail/SMS or phone calls to get your personal information, usernames
or password. Never reveal your passwords or ATM card details to anyone.
• Check whether the website you are visiting is secure while performing financial
transactions. The web address in the address bar should start with ‘https://’. Also
look for a lock icon on the browser’s address bar.
• Keep a regular check on your online accounts. Regularly login to your online
accounts, and check your statements. If you see any suspicious transaction, re-
port them to your bank or credit card provider.

Fig 9.18 : Secure banking - lock icon and https

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 9. Internet

• Conduct a group discussion on the topic “security threats /

cyber attacks to your system”, and draw a bar diagram based
on information arrived in the event.
Let us do
• List the names of various viruses and their features in the form
of a chart.

Check yourself
1. What is a virus?
2. What do you mean by phishing?
3. The small text files used by browsers to remember our email id’s,
user names, etc are known as _____________ .
4. The act of breaking into secure networks to destroy data is called
_____________ hacking.
5. What is quarantine?

Let us sum up
The Internet, which was started as a defence project of the US government has
become a part of our life. Today the Internet is accessed using mobile devices like
mobile phones, tablets, etc. than using a desktop computer. Therefore speed of
Internet access has become an important factor. New technologies connect to Internet
focus on data transmission speed. Internet services like e-mail, social media, searching
etc. have changed the way we communicate. Each of the above services has its own
benefits and risks. Computer networks today play an important role in providing the
above services. It has increased the risk factors for networks, like viruses, worms,
Trojan horse, phishing, etc. Antivirus software, firewalls, etc. are used to protect
computer networks from different kinds of attacks. The risks for a network attack
can be reduced by following certain guidelines while using computers on Internet.

Learning outcomes
After the completion of this chapter the learner will be able to
• recognise the people behind the evolution of Internet.
• identify the hardware and software requirements for Internet connection.
• use the services available on Internet.
• classify the different types of social media.
• judge the risks while interacting with social media.
• recognise the threats to network security.

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 Sample questions
Very short answer type
1. Why is the invention of HTTP and HTML considered as an important land mark
in the expansion of Internet?
2. Compare intranet and extranet.
3. Write short notes on
a. Mobile broadband b. Wi-MAX
4. Explain the terms web browser and web browsing.
5. Compare blogs and microblogs.
6. What are wikis?
7. What is firewall?
Short answer type
1. Your neighbour Ravi purchased a new PC for his personal use. Mention the com-
ponents required to connect this PC to Internet.
2. What are the advantages of using broadband connection over a dial-up connec-
tion?
3. XYZ engineering college has advertised that its campus is Wi-Fi enabled. What is
Wi-Fi? How is the Wi-Fi facility implemented in the campus?
4. Madhu needs to prepare a presentation. For this, he uses www.google.com to
search for information. How does google display information when he types
‘Phishing’ in the search box and clicks search button?
5. Manoj’s e-mail id is [email protected]. He sends an e-mail to Joseph whose
e-mail id is [email protected]. How is the mail sent from Manoj’s computer to
Joseph’s computer?
6. How does a Trojan horse affect a computer?
7. Explain a few threats that affect a computer network.
Long answer type
1. Suppose you wish to visit the website of kerala school kalolsavam,
www.schoolkalolsavam.in and you have entered the URL in the address bar. Write
the steps that follow until the home page is displayed.
2. Write the disadvantages of social media. What are the different ways to avoid the
disadvantages of social media?
3. Explain the various broadband technologies available for Internet access.

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 10. IT Applications

Information Technology (IT) is growing rapidly.

It has influenced almost every sphere of life and
has become an integral part of our daily life.
Key concepts Various IT applications available today help to
• e-Governance make life easier. For example, we can pay
o Types of interactions various utility bills, reserve railway or airline
o Infrastructure tickets and do online shopping from anywhere,
o Benefits of e-Governance anytime. IT is also extensively used in the field
o Challenges of education. One of its recent contributions is
• e-Business e-Learning with virtual classrooms. The
o e-Commerce and possibilities of IT are increasingly used in
e-Business e-Governance, e-Business and in health care
o Electronic payment applications as well.
system
o e-Banking This chapter discusses some of these areas
o Advantages of e-Business where IT is widely used today. In the case of
o Challenges to e-Business online shopping, the required items can be
• e-Learning ordered and the same will be delivered at our
o e-Learning tools door step. Cash transactions can also be made
o Advantages of online. The field of education has also advanced
e-Learning with the development of IT. Teachers and
o Challenges to e-Learning students need not be in the same room as in the
• ICT applications in health conventional teaching system. They can share
care
virtual class rooms and make use of e-Learning
o Medical equipments
materials, sitting in dispersed locations.
o Patient records
Healthcare is another major area which uses
o Web based diagnosis
o Telemedicine
IT for its assistance. With the use of new
• ICT enabled services computer aided medical imaging devices and
o BPO related technologies, various diseases can be
o KPO diagnosed at a very early stage. IT also plays a
o Call centres

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 key role in conducting research for the development of new drugs.We also discuss
various ICT enabled services in this chapter.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is the term often used as an extended
synonym for Information Technology (IT). ICT is more specific in integrating
telecommunication and computers comprising of many technologies for capturing, storing,
processing, interpreting and printing information.
10.1 e-Governance
Information Technology (IT) has contributed much to the smooth functioning of
governments. It comprises many technologies for capturing, processing, interpreting,
storing and transmitting information. IT helps governments to take quick and judicious
decisions. It also increases transparency and accountability in all its services. Information
and Communication Technology(ICT) aided Governance is generally known as
e-Governance.
e-Governance is the application of ICT for delivering Government services to citizens
in a convenient, efficient and transparent manner. The objective of e-Governance is to
ensure that the services of the Government reach the public promptly and effectively. In
Kerala, we have many government departments like the Motor Vehicle Department,
Education, Revenue, etc. which have successfully implemented e-Governance. Let us
now discuss various types of interactions in e-Governance.
10.1.1 Types of interactions in e-Governance
e-Governance facilitates interaction among different stakeholders in governance.
Categories of these interactions are described as follows:
Government to Government (G2G) - It is the electronic sharing of data and/or
information among government agencies, departments or organisations. The goal of
G2G is to support e-Governance initiatives by improving communication, data access
and data sharing.
Government to Citizens (G2C) - It creates an interface between the government and
citizens. Here the citizens enjoy a large range of public services. It increases the availability
and accessibility of public services. It also improves the quality of services. Its primary
purpose is to make the government citizen-friendly.
Government to Business (G2B) - Here, e-Governance tools are used to aid the
business community to interact with the government. The objective is to cut red-tapism,
save time, reduce operational costs and create a more transparent business environment
while dealing with the government.
Government to Employees (G2E) - Government, being the biggest employer has to
interact with its employees on a regular basis. This interaction is a two-way process
between the government and the employees. The policies and guidelines for implementing

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 10. IT Applications

various government programmes are made available to the employees as government

orders or circulars through e-Governance portals. The salary and personal details of
government employees are also managed through e-Governance services. Use of ICT
tools helps in making these interactions fast and efficient.
10.1.2 e-Governance infrastructure
In India, the e-Governance infrastructure mainly consists of State Data Centers (SDC)
for providing core infrastructure and storage, State Wide Area Network (SWAN) for
connectivity and Common Service Centers (CSC) as service delivery points. The
integration of these three components of e-Governance is shown in Figure 10.1.

Fig 10.1 : e-Governance infrastructure

a. State Data Centre (SDC)
State Data Centre (SDC) is one of the important constituents of the core infrastructure
for supporting e-Governance initiatives of National e-Governance Plan (NeGP). Under
NeGP, it is proposed to create SDCs to combine services, applications and infrastructure
and to provide efficient electronic delivery of G2G, G2C and G2B services. These
services can be rendered by each state government through a common delivery platform.
This platform is supported by a core connectivity infrastructure such as State Wide
Area Network (SWAN) and Common Service Centre (CSC) connectivity that is
extended up to the village level. State Data Centre provides several functionalities.
These include keeping central data repository of the state, securing data storage, online
delivery of services, citizen information/services portal, state intranet portal, disaster
recovery, etc. SDCs also provide better operation and management control and minimize
the overall cost of data management, resource management, deployment etc.
b. Kerala State Wide Area Network (KSWAN)
Kerala State Wide Area Network (KSWAN) has been set up as a backbone of the
State Information Infrastructure (SII). It connects Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi and
Kozhikode as its hubs and extends to all the 14 districts linking each of the 152 Block

279
 Panchayats. The network also connects a large number of various offices of government
departments. The infrastructure supports the integration of a large number of G2G,
G2C services with the applications received from the State Data Centre.
c. Common Service Centre (CSC)
Common Service Centres (CSC) are the front-end delivery points of the government,
private and social sector services for the rural citizens of India. A highlight of the CSCs
is that it offers web-enabled e-Governance services in rural areas. It helps in utility
payments such as electricity, telephone and water bills, submission of online applications
and generating and distributing the certificates to the needy. Other services that could
be offered through CSC are listed below:
• Agriculture services
• Education and training services
• Health services
• Rural banking and insurance services
• Entertainment services
• Commercial services
In Kerala Akshaya centres are working as Common Service Centres.
Akshaya centres
Akshaya centres were initially launched in the year 2002 in the Malappuram district in
Kerala. Its intention was to impart e-Literacy to the citizens. Akshaya was conceived
as a landmark ICT project by the Kerala State Information Technology Mission
(KSITM) to bridge the digital divide and to bring the benefits of ICT to the entire
population of the State. The services include e-grantz, e-filing, e-district, e-ticketing,
submitting online application for ration card and electoral ID, Aadhaar enrolment,
Aadhaar based services, insurance and banking services.

Akshaya was launched on 18th November 2002 by the former

President of India, Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam.
Akshaya works in the Private Public Partnership
(PPP) Model. An Akshaya centre is owned by a private
entrepreneur preferrably from the same panchayath where
the Akshaya centre is located and its selection is done by
local self governments. The income for the Akshaya A£b
Entrepreneurs is the nominal service charge collected either Ah-k-c-ß-fpsS PmeIw
from the citizen or paid by the government for each
transaction. www.akshaya.kerala.gov.in

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 10. IT Applications

Aadhaar is a 12 digit individual identification number issued as part of

e-Governance by the Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI)
on behalf of the Government of India. This number will serve as a
proof of identity and address, anywhere in India. Any individual,
irrespective of age and gender, who is a resident in India, can enroll in Aadhaar.
Each individual needs to enrol only once which is free of cost. During the enrolment,
demographic details (name, age , gender and address) and biometric details ( photo,
10-finger- print and 2-iris-images ) of a resident are entered. Each Aadhaar number
will be unique to an individual and will remain valid throughout life. Aadhaar number
will help you provide access to services like banking, taking mobile phone connections
and other Government and Non-Government services.
10.1.3 Benefits of e-Governance
Implementing e-Governance has many advantages. It informs the public about the
functioning of the government and the policies they are trying to implement. Major
benefits of e-Governance are listed below:
• e-Governance leads to automation of governement services, ensuring the
information regarding the activities of public welfare is easily available to all citizens.
• e-Governance strengthens the democracy by ensuring greater participation of
citizens at all levels of governance.
• It ensures more transparency in the functioning and thus helps eliminate
corruption.
• It makes every government department responsible as they know that they
are closely observed.
• Proper implementation of e-Governance saves unnecessary visits of the
public to offices. It saves time and money.
10.1.4 Challenges to e-Governance
Though e-Governance has many benefits, it faces some challenges too. Let us have a
look at a few challenges in the implementation of e-Governance.
• The existing digital divide is an obstacle in utilising the services of e-Governance.
Those who live in remote areas with lower e-Literacy will face difficulty to access
the services of e-Governance.
• e-Governance applications being computer/web based, security measures are
highly required since there is possibility of cyber-attack.
• Usually a huge initial investment and planning are required for the proper
implementation and maintenance of e-Governance services.
• Many people are anxious about the sharing of their personal information,
biometry, etc. to the agencies designated for data collection.
• Integrity of various departments is very much essential for the efficiency and effec-
tiveness of e-Governance.

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 10.1.5 Useful e-Governance websites
Table 10.1 shows the addresses of some websites that provide various services of the
Government of Kerala. Figure 10.2 shows the home page of the Department of Higher
Secondary Education, Kerala State and Figure 10.3 shows the home page of e-District
portal.

Address of website Purpose/Service

www.dhsekerala.gov.in An official site of the Department of Higher Secondary

Education, Government of Kerala that provides various
facilities and services to students, teachers and school
administrators.
www.edistrict.kerala.gov.in It provides government services to the public.
www.incometaxindia.gov.in It provides the services of Income Tax department.
www.keralamvd.gov.in It is the official website of the Motor Vehicles
Department of Kerala.
www.rti.gov.in Right to Information Act 2005 mandates timely response
to a citizen who requests for information from the
Government or authorities under it.
www.itmission.kerala.gov.in It is a Government of Kerala site which provides
managerial support to various IT initiatives.
www.spark.gov.in It is a web based G2E integrated solution for Service
and Payroll Management.
Table 10.1 : Some e-Governance websites

Fig. 10.2 : The home page of DHSE website

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 10. IT Applications

www.dhsekerala.gov.in
As an official site of the Department of Higher Secondary Education,
Government of Kerala, www.dhsekerala.gov.in provides various
facilities and services to students, teachers and school administrators.
The services include registration for the examinations, issue of hall tickets,
publication of exam results, distribution of various circulars and notifications, etc.
This site also provides facilities for downloading various forms and study materials
including model question papers.

Fig. 10.3 : The home page of e-District portal.

e-District is a State Mission Mode Project under the National
e-Governance plan. The project aims at supporting computerisation
for services to the public.
In Kerala, issue of different certificates of the Department of Revenue
is integrated with the e-District portal. It has simplified all complex procedures in
government offices and made the citizens' life easy. It has been a difficult task
for the citizen to obtain copies of public records, submit applications, meet officials,
or to seek information regarding their day-to-day needs. This has caused the loss
of his/her day's income, time as well as the cost of transportation. At government
offices, sometimes, the relevant record, information, or official may not be available,
resulting in repeated visits and additional expenses.
To avail a service in e-District, one has to apply online through the web portal or
approach a nearby Akshaya centre with essential documents. Akshaya centre submits
an online application on behalf of the citizen. This application through a work-flow
reaches the village officer. After processing the application, the village officer
forwards it to the next higher authority or approves it and issues the certificate
using the digital signature. The availability of the certificate in the portal is informed
with an SMS alert.

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 Check yourself

1. Name the application of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

for delivering government services to the citizens in a convenient, efficient
and transparent manner.
2. Define the term e-Governance.
3. "e-Governance facilitates interaction between different stakeholders in
governance". Say whether the statement is True or False.
4. Give an example for an e-Governance website.
5. What is KSWAN?
10.2 e-Business
We often visit shopping places and it takes a considerable amount of time and effort for
shopping. What about the idea of shopping without leaving your home? It is one of the
realities of the times. Almost all services and business are available online now. They
are only a few clicks away.
e-Business is the sharing of business information, maintaining business relationships
and conducting business transactions by means of the ICT application. Companies
(business), public institutions (administration), as well as individuals (consumer) engage
in e-Business. e-Business helps in effective e-marketing and increasing sales through
effective use of e-Commerce services. It also reduces communication and travel cost
through online meeting and shared workspace, etc.
10.2.1 e-Commerce and e-Business
Although the terms e-Commerce and e-Business are often used interchangeably there
are differences. e-Commerce covers business transaction that involve exchange of money,
whereas e-Business includes all aspects of running a business such as marketing,
obtaining raw materials or goods, customer education, looking for suppliers etc. Thus
e-Business is an extension of e-Commerce.
10.2.2 Electronic Payment System (EPS)
Can you think of living without money in your pocket? If somebody tells that he/she
lived a week without touching currency notes, will you believe? Today we live in a
world where almost every commodity has a price tag attached to it. Then how is it
possible to buy something without giving money, the paper currency?
Electronic Payment System (EPS) is the solution. When we move on to electronic
business, exchange of money also needs to be electronic. It is both convenient and
secure if properly implemented. EPS plays an important role in e-Business.
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 10. IT Applications

A system of financial exchange between buyers and sellers in an online environment is

called an Electronic Payment System (EPS). The financial exchange is facilitated by
a digital financial instrument (such as credit/debit card, electronic cheque or digital cash)
backed by a bank and/or an intermediary.
10.2.3 e-Banking
Banking has also undergone drastic changes with the advancements in Information
Technology. Our traditional concept of banking has changed a lot. For example, now
there is no need to visit bank for making financial transactions. We can do the transaction
using online banking facilities even while travelling. Facilities such as ATM, debit cards,
credit cards, Internet banking and core banking help in transforming traditional banking
into e-Banking. e-Banking or electronic banking is defined as the automated delivery
of banking services directly to customers through electronic channel. It can access data
without geographical limitations.
10.2.4 Advantages of e-Business
e-Business provides many advantages to customers and firms. Let us discuss some of
the major advantages of using e-Business applications.
• It overcomes geographical limitations. If you have a physical store, you are
limited by the geographical area where you can provide service. But with
e-Commerce, this limitation can be overcome.
• e-Business reduces the operational cost. An e-Commerce merchant does
not need a prominent physical location; it reduces the operational cost. A portion
of money thus saved can be passed on to the customers in the form of discounts.
• It minimises travel time and cost. Sometimes customers have to travel long
distances to reach their preferred store. e-Business allows them to visit the same
store virtually.
• It remains open all the time. e-Business application services are always open
(24×7). From the merchant's point of view, it increases the number of service
requests they receive. From the customer's point of view an 'always open' store is
more convenient.
• We can locate the product quicker from a wider range of choices. On an
e-Business website the consumers can have a wider range of choices of a product
from various sellers. Customers can quickly locate their preferences from the given
product lists. Some websites remember customer preferences and shopping lists
to facilitate repeat purchase. The features like product characteristics and price
comparisons are the other attractions of e-Business applications.

285
 The term M-Business or mobile business covers all the business
activities, processes and applications performed by means of mobile
devices such as mobile phone, PDA, etc. M- Business can be regarded
as a branch of e- Business.
e-tailing (or electronic retailing) is the selling of retail goods on the Internet. It is
the most common form of business-to-consumer (B2C) transaction.

10.2.5 Challenges to e-Business

Though e-Business has enormous potential in the business world, it faces many
challenges, particularly in developing countries like India. Major challenges are discussed
below:
• A good percentage of the population is unaware of IT applications and its uses.
Surprisingly, most of the regular Internet users also lack knowledge about online
business and its possibilities.
• Most of the customers, especially to rural population, do not possess plastic
money- credit card, debit card and net banking system, which is necessary for
e-Business.
• If not used with caution, customers may lose valuable information like their credit
card number, passwords, etc.
• Products like apparel, handicrafts, jewellery, etc are often purchased after exam-
ining physically. But in online shopping, customers don't have this ‘touch and feel’
advantage.
• For the success of e-Business of any organisation or company, perfect and
efficient shipment service is a necessity.
10.2.6 Useful e-Business websites
Some popular e-Business websites are given in Table 10.2. Figure 10.4 and 10.5 are
the home pages of some e-Business websites
Address of website Purpose/Service
www.irctc.co.in Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation
Limited web site for reservation and cancellation of
railway tickets and hotels for accommodation.
www.amazon.com US based retailer with headquarters in Washington.
www.ebay.in It is one of the largest online shopping sites in India.
www.licindia.com Insurance company website.
www.airindia.com Online site for booking Air India flight tickets.
www.keralartc.com Online website for KSRTC bus ticket booking.
www.bookmyshow.com Movies and theatre ticket booking website.
Table 10.2 : Some e-Business websites

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 10. IT Applications

Fig. 10.4 : The home page of www.irctc.co.in

www.irctc.co.in
Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation Limited (IRCTC) is
a government of India enterprise. It handles the catering , tourism
and online ticketing operations of the railways. IRCTC provides online
booking facilities of railway tickets and offers other services like checking
reservation status, train timing, reservation of hotels for the tourists across the
country.

Fig 10.5 : The home page of amazon.in

www.amazon.com
amazon.com, Inc is a US based company with headquarters in
Washington. It is the world's largest retailer. Initially started as an
online bookstore it soon diversified itself into selling software, video
games, electronics, furniture, food, toys, jewellery, etc. The company
also produces consumer electronics. Amazon has separate retail websites for
different countries. In 2013, Amazon launched its site for India, www.amazon.in.

287
 Check yourself

1. The system of financial exchange between buyers and sellers in an online

environment is known as __________.
2. Define e-Business.
3. Define e-Banking.
4. Check whether the following statement is true or false.
" e-Business is an extension of e-Commerce".
10.3 e-Learning
We are familiar with the traditional classroom consisting of a teacher, students, teaching
aids, etc. Think of a virtual class where you are attending classes as a student and a
teacher is engaging class from a distant location, may be from a different country. Is this
possible? Yes it is! Through e-Learning you can overcome many limitations of
conventional teaching-learning process. The use of electronic media and ICT
(Information and Communication Technologies) in education is termed e-Learning.
10.3.1 e-Learning tools
There are many tools for enhancing e-learning process. Some of the e-Learning tools
are discussed below:
a. Electronic books reader (e-Books)
Think of going to school without bags packed with text books, but all necessary books
are still with you in a small hand-held storage device! It is interesting, isn't it? e-Book
reader is a device that can store lot of books in digital form. Portable computer devices
that are loaded with digital book content via communication interfaces is called electronic
books reader. It can open any book, any page quickly, without much effort. In principle,
any web document can be downloaded from the Internet, sometimes by making online
payment, and read whenever required. In some e-Book readers voice output is also
available and the reader needs to just listen the audio of the text.
b. e-Text
Textual information available in electronic format is called e-Text. This text can be read
and interacted with an electronic device like computer, e-Book reader, etc. e-Text can
be converted to various formats to our liking using softwares. e-Text can be automatically
read aloud with the help of a computer or an e-Text reader device. This is quite helpful
for visually challenged people.
c. Online chat
It is a real-time exchange of text messages between two or more persons over the
Internet. In the virtual class environment, online chatting is used to discuss the topics
with teachers and other students. Chatting can be performed even with a low speed

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 10. IT Applications

Internet connection. Video chatting facility is also available. It however requires fairly
high speed Internet connection and supporting devices such as web camera and speakers.
On line chat is a framework that provides interaction in a social environment. It helps
communicating with people at different places. This facility can also be used to deliver
and transfer live lectures given by the faculty. Students can login from the remote locations
and attend the lecture.
d. e-Content
Nowadays lot of e-Learning materials are delivered in different multimedia formats like
videos, presentations, graphics, animations, etc. The e-Contents once prepared can be
broadcasted through television channels, webcasted or uploaded in websites. Uploaded
content can be downloaded, viewed and saved for future reference. The multimedia
contents have more scope to convey the subject matter effectively. It can show actual
or simulated activities which are not possible in the traditional classroom based teaching.
e. Educational TV channels
There are many telecasting/webcasting channels which are dedicated for the e-Learning
purpose. These channels broadcast recorded classes on various subjects, interviews
with experts, lab experiments, etc. Some of these channels can be watched in the
Internet also. Dooradarshan’s ‘VYAS’ and Kerala Government’s ‘VICTERS’ channel
are examples of educational television channels.
10.3.2 Advantages of e-Learning
e-Learning has lot of advantages. They are listed below:
• e-Learning has the ability to offer courses on variety of subjects to large number
of students from distant location.
• In e-Learning cost for learning is much less. It saves journey time and money,
instructor fees, etc.
• People with limited financial resources are very much supported by the lower cost
of e-Learning.
• It provides facility to do online courses from various nationally or internationally
reputed institutions.
• Time and place is not a constraint for e-Learning.
10.3.3 Challenges to e-Learning
Listed below are some of the challenges faced by e-Learning:
• Face to face contact between students and teachers is not possible.
• Proper interaction among teachers and students are often limited due to the lack
of infrastructural facilities.
• Equipment and technology (computer and high speed Internet) requirement
restrict adoption of e-Learning.
• Learners who require constant motivation may not be serviced adequately.
• Hands-on practicals in real laboratory scenario is also a constraint in e-Learning.
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 10.3.4 Useful e-Learning websites
The summary of useful e-Learning websites are shown in Table 10.3. Figure 10.6
shows the home page of IGNOU (Indira Gandhi National Open University)
Address of website Purpose/Service
www.ignouonline.ac.in Website of Indira Gandhi National Open University, one of
the leading open universities offering various courses in the
distance education mode.
www.nptel.iitm.ac.in National Programme on Technology Enhanced Learning
(NPTEL) provides e-Content through online Web and Video
for courses in Engineering, Science and humanities streams.

www.ncert.nic.in Website of National Council of Educational Research and

Training. Includes many features such as providing study
materials and reference materials in Hindi and English.
www.spoken_tutorial.org It is an IIT Mumbai initiative. It provides software training
through the spoken tutorials. All the courses are offerred
totally free of cost as it is funded by the Government of
India.
www.w3schools.com W3Schools is a web developer information website, with
tutorials and references relating to web development topics
such as HTML, CSS, JavaScript, PHP, SQL, and JQuery.
www.gcflearnfree.org GCFLearnFree.org is supported by the Goodwill Community
Foundation. It provides easy-to-follow lessons in
mathematics, science and technology and English to help
anyone anywhere learn skills and gain knowledge.
Table 10.3 : Some e-Learning websites

Fig. 10.6 : The home page of IGNOU site

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 10. IT Applications

www.ignouonline.ac.in
IGNOU (Indira Gandhi National Open University) is an open university
under Government of India. The website provides several features
including eGyankosh, which is a digital repository available in text
and video format. The site also provides webcasting facility linking to education
channels - Gyandarshan, Gyanvani and EDUSAT. Virtual class provides links to all
the online programmes conducted by the University.

Fig .10.7 : The home page of NPTEL website

www.nptel.iitm.ac.in
NPTEL is an abbreviation for National Programme on Technology
Enhanced Learning which is an initiative by seven Indian Institutes of
Technology (IIT) and Indian Institute of Science (IISc) for creating
course content in engineering and science. Web based Course materials have been
developed for different courses and are accessible freely through the website.
Lecture contents are also made available in web site through video.

Check yourself

1. Real-time exchange of text messages between two or more persons over

Internet is termed _________.
2. Pick the odd one out:
(a) e-Book reader (b) e-Text (c) television channels (d) e-business
3. Define e-Text.
4. Give an example for an e-Learning tool.

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 10.4 ICT applications in health care
Developments in ICT have contributed much in the field of medical practice and medical
care. There is an enormous range of opportunities for significant cost reduction and
service enhancement through IT applications in health care. Let us discuss some of the
changes that ICT has brought about in the field of medicine and healthcare.
10.4.1 Medical equipments
ICT in
Most of the modern medical equipment work with Health Care
the support of computers. Scanners like CT and
MRI depend on computers to process their data
Medical Patient record
into a readable format. Micro-processors are used equipment keeping
to control a variety of support devices. Computer
guided lasers are used in surgery, even in the
Web-based
removal of brain tumours. Some hand-held devices support/ Communication
are also available that help patients to lead normal diagnosis
life. A device for self-monitoring of sugar levels
for people with diabetes is an example.
Research
10.4.2 Electronic Medical Record (EMR)
There has been a move to store all patients' records Fig. 10.8 : ICT in health care

in digital format. This is known as Electronic Medical Record (EMR). An EMR is

mostly used by doctors for diagnosis and treatment. There are many advantages in
keeping patients record in electronic format.
Some of them are listed below:
• It is a more economical way of storing data.
• Access to medical history of patients will be easier and quicker.
• Transfer of records will be quicker between doctors and hospitals.
• Data can be examined to analyse the medical conditions of the patients.
• Prescription will be legible and are stored for later reference.
10.4.3 Web-based support/diagnosis
On the Internet you can find a wide variety of medical information, including information
about available treatments/alternative therapies, access to medical research/journals,
support groups for people suffering from particular conditions, etc .
Some websites also provide facility for symptom diagnosis - for people who wish to
get primary awareness about their health problem without the help of a doctor. However
there are some risks involved here. This can lead to incorrect diagnosis and cause false
complacency or anxiety.
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10.4.4 Telemedicine
Telemedicine has been used to share observations and prescriptions with the experts in
the medical field. A surgeon in one part of the world can procure medical expertise
from another who is far away, while performing surgery. It reduces cost and time. A
patient in a critical condition can get attention from a surgeon who may not be physically
available at the operation theatre. Wireless transmission helps medical personnel,
transport workers and hospitals to keep in touch in emergency.
10.4.5 Research and development
Over recent years drug discovery has been a concern for many in the pharmaceutical
industry. Escalating costs and increasing complexity suggest that traditional research
and development methods are to be changed. Now the convergence of information
and bio-technology is revolutionising drug discovery and design. Today, drugs meant
for specific purposes can be developed with the use of advanced computers. Use of IT
may radically alter the cost associated with the discovery of drug over the coming
years. Thus IT helps in diagnosis, treatment of patients and better running of hospitals.
10.5 ICT enabled services
ICT enabled services, also called web enabled services cover the entire range of
operations which make use of ICT for improving services provided by an organisation.
These services provide a wide range of career options that include opportunities in call
centres, BPOs, medical transcription, etc. Some of the common ICT enabled services
are discussed in the following sections.
10.5.1 Business Process Outsourcing (BPO)
Outsourcing is a term used in the business field. It is a practice used by different
companies to reduce costs by transferring portions of work to outside suppliers. It is
the process of hiring another company to handle business activities for you. Business
process outsourcing (BPO) is a subset of outsourcing. It involves contracting of the
operations and responsibilities of specific business functions to a third-party service
provider. Outsourcing sometimes involves transferring employees and asset from one
firm to another.
Companies implement Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) because it increases their
efficiency and saves cost. Processes such as human resource management, customer
care services, payroll, etc. are some of the processes that are usually given to BPO.
10.5.2 Knowledge Process Outsourcing (KPO)
Knowledge Process Outsourcing (KPO) is a form of outsourcing. Here knowledge
and information related work is carried out by a different company or subsidiary within
the same organisation. It helps in saving costs and resources. Some of the core processes
outsourced in KPO include: data search, data integration, market research, fraud
analytics, etc. The KPO sector has experienced explosive growth in recent years.
Industries that are increasingly using KPO include legal, financial services, management
and consulting.

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 10.5.3 Call centre
Call centres are becoming a very important part of any business/service organisation.
Call centres facilitate the public for the payment of bills, purchase of goods, etc. A call
centre is a telephone service facility set up to handle a large number of both incoming
and outgoing calls for an organisation.
Call centres are also called service centres, sales centres, contact centres, etc. Basic
responsibility of a call centre is to handle the telephone calls for supporting various
services provided by an organisation. Call centres are used by telemarketing companies,
computer product help desks and any large organisation that uses the telephone to sell
products and carryout services. Generally the calls can be classified as in-bound calls
and out-bound calls. In-bound calls are usually meant to seek assistance, help, or to
order, while out-bound calls are meant for sales promotion or other messages.
Some firms, however, specialise only in calls that are in-bound or out-bound. Most
telephonic orders are handled by call centres and not by the manufacturers or suppliers
of goods or services.
10.5.4 Teleconferencing
Teleconferencing is a meeting or conference held between two or more parties in remote
locations, made possible by the use of IT infrastructure and services.
Teleconferencing is used to connect several different people from several different
locations. It is used in educational, business and administrative fields. Saving time, reducing
travel expense and including several people in a decision-making process are some of
the advantages.
10.5.5 Video conferencing
Video conferencing is a type of teleconferencing wherein we can include the video of
the parties involved in the conference. Videoconference allows people at remote locations
join in a conference and share information. A video camera and a speakerphone are
connected to a computer and the computers are connected to the network or Internet.
Video conferencing is a facility which enables participants in distant locations to take
part in a conference by means of audio and video communication.

Let us sum up
Information Technology (IT) is a fast growing field. It is widely used in our day today
activities. Business transactions, government activities, learning processes, research
and medical field, etc. are some of the major areas where IT is substantially utilised.
The explosion in the development of communication owes much to information
technology. The use of IT helps people communicate with less effort and minimum
cost. ICT is another term often used as an extended synonym for IT. Some of the
ICT enabled services include BPO, KPO, Call centre, Teleconferencing and Video
conferencing. Hence IT and ICT enabled services have become inseparable part of
modern society.

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Learning outcomes

After the completion of this chapter the learner will be able to

• list the facilities of e-Governance, e-Business, e-Learning.
• explain the tools used in e-Learning.
• list the ICT applications in health care.
• list various advantages and challenges faced in implementing e-
Governance, e-Business, e-Learning applications.
• use some of the useful websites in each area.
• utilise various ICT enabled services.

Sample questions
Very short answer types
1. Name an electronic device using which we can easily read e-Text.
2. Write the full forms of BPO and KPO.
3. Name any two e-Learning tools.
Short answer types
1. List out different types of interactions in e-Governance.
2. Differentiate between BPO and KPO.
3. What are the advantages of e-Governance?
4. What are the duties of Akshaya?
5. Write down the function of Call centres.
Long answer types
1. What are the major challenges faced in the implementation of e-Learning ?
2. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of implementing e-Business?
3. Explain any three IT enabled services in detail.
4. Discuss in detail various uses of IT in health care field.
5. What is Common Service Centre (CSC)? List some of the services offered through
CSC.

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 References
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V. Rajaraman (2010). Fundamentals of Computers : PHI Publication

Thomas L. Floyd (2011). Digital Fundamentals : Pearson Education

Craig Zacker, John Rourke (2008). PC Hardware: The Complete Reference:

TMH Publication

Abraham Silberschatz, Greg Gagne, Peter B. Galvin (2005). Operating

System Concepts : John Wiley & Sons

GIMP Documentation Team. GIMP User Manual : gimp.org

OpenOffice.org. OpenOffice.org3: Getting Started Guide : openoffice.org

Andrew S. Tanenbaum, David J. Wetherall (2010). Computer Networks :

Prentice Hall

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