COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

ADITYA SILVER OAK INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Program Name: Diploma Engineering Course

Department Name: Civil Engineering (003)
Subject name: Hydraulic and Fluid Mechanics
Subject code: 1010032216
SEMESTER: - 3rd

Laboratory Manual

College Name: -

Enrollment No: -

Name Of Student: -

Branch: -

Semester: -

Division: -
 Aditya Silver Oak Institute of Technology

Vision
⮚ To be the premier technological institution that fosters excellence in
education, research and values towards inspiring and developing future
leaders.

Mission

⮚ To impart quality education that encourages new ideas and foster’s

abilityto identify analyses various technical and social problems and
provide innovative solutions.
⮚ To promote collaboration with other research and academic institutions
globally to strengthen the research ecosystems.
⮚ To provide professional services to industries and communities through
educational, technical and professional activities.
⮚ To nurture and foster young minds with entrepreneurship skills.
 PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modelling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological.
 PREFACE

The rapid changes in all areas of Civil Engineering in the recent past are making the subject more
versatile nowadays. The main purpose of this course is to provide basic knowledge and
understanding of the subject in practical way.
This will help the undergraduates to enhance their abilities to understand the field solutions in
depth. The laboratory work comprises of various tests to understand the various properties and
behavior of materials under the parameters or standards governed by Bureau of Indian Standards.

Prepared by: Muzammil Mansuri

Assistant Professor,
Aditya Silver Oak Institute of Technology, Silver Oak University
 INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS

1. Attend the lab hours regularly, because ultimately the practical work is a great resource to knowledge.
2. Each and every student must have separate laboratory manuals with them. Students without the laboratory
manuals would not be allowed in the laboratories.
3. Maintain the utmost discipline within the laboratories.
4. Handle the instruments with utmost care as they are very delicate and sensitive.
5. Any losses and damage to laboratory belongings has to be borne by the respective student/s.
6. Use the laboratory equipment and instruments as per the instructions given to assure the safety of
equipment as well as students and faculties.
7. Submit the lab manuals punctually in stipulated time. Late submissions would not be entertained.
 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. /Ms. ………………………………… Enrollment

no ………………………. Of 3rd Semester. Diploma course in Civil Engineering

has satisfactorily completed his/her term work in HYDRAULIC AND FLUID

MECHANICS (1010032216) within four walls of the laboratory of this

college as well an field during the year …………. to …………

Staff In charge Head of Department

Date of Submission: ……………………………………

Signature of Faculty: ……………………………………

2
 INDEX
Marks (out
Sr. Page No Date of Date of
Experiment Title Sign of 10)
No Start Completion

To From

Study about
1 metacentric height of
ship model

Study of pressure
2 measurement devices

Study of Venturi meter,

3 Orifice meter & Rotameter

Study about flow over notch

4 apparatus

Study about Reynold’s

apparatus.
5

Study About Verification of

6 Bernoulli Theorem

1
 Date:

EXPERIMENT: 1
STUDY ABOUT METACENTRIC HEIGHT OF SHIP MODEL

AIM: To determine the metacentric height of a given floating body

INTRODUCTION AND THEORY

Buoyancy
When a body is completely submerged in a fluid, or it is floating or partially submerged, the
resultant fluid force acting on the body is called the buoyant force. It is also known as the net
upward vertical force acting on the body. A net upward vertical force results because pressure
increases with depth and the pressure forces acting from below are larger than the pressure forces
acting above. The Center of buoyancy is the center of gravity of the displaced water. It lies at the
geometric center of volume of the displaced water.

Metacentre
For the investigation of stability of floating body, it is necessary to determine the position of its
metacentre with respect to its centre of gravity. Consider a floating ship model, the weight of the
ship acts through its centre of gravity and is balanced by an equal and opposite buoyant force acting
upwards through the centre of buoyancy i.e., the centre of gravity of liquid displaced by the floating
body.

2
A small angular displacement shifts the centre of buoyancy and the intersection of the line of action
of the buoyant force passing through the new centre of buoyancy and the extended line would give
the metacentre.

The distance between centre of gravity (G) and metacentre (M) is known as Metacentric height
(GM).
There are three conditions of equilibrium of a floating body
1) Stable Equilibrium - Metacentre lies above the centre of gravity
2) Unstable Equilibrium- Metacentre lies below the centre of gravity
3) Neutral Equilibrium - Metacentre coincides with centre of

gravity The Metacentric height (GM) is given by

GM = (m * X) / (W * tanθ)

Where,
W = weight of the floating body,
m = movable weight
X = distance through which the movable load is shifed
θ = Angle of Heel

APPARATUS DESCRIPTION
The apparatus consists of a SS tank and is provided with a drain cock. The floating body is made
from Clear Transparent Acrylic. It is provided with movable weights, protractor to measure the
angle of Heel and pointer. Weights are also provided to increase the weight of floating body by
known amount.

3
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

1) Fill the SS tank to about 2/3 levels

2) Place the floating body in the tank.
3) Apply momentum to the floating body by moving one of the adjustable weights
(m) through a known distance.
4) Note down the angle of heel corresponding to this shift of weight with the help of
protractor and pointer.
5) Take about 4-5 such readings by changing the position of the adjustable weight and
find out centre of gravity in each case

OBSERVATION TABLE
Weight of the ship mode = 1.9 X 9.81 = 18.64 N
Given Movable Weights = 100 gm = 0.98 N

Sr. No. Movable Weight Distance Angle of Tilt Tan θ Metacentric

Kg Moved M θ Height GM

4
CONCLUSION
Thus, Metacentre is the point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is tilted by a
small angle.
Metacentric Height of the given ship model is

CALCULATION

5
 Date:

EXPERIMENT: 2
STUDY OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICE

AIM: To study pressure and pressure measurement devices

INTRODUCTION AND THEORY: -

Fluid pressure can be defined as the measure of force per-unit-area exerted by a fluid; acting
perpendicularly to any surface it contacts the standard SI unit for pressure measurement is the
Pascal (Pa) which is equivalent to one Newton per square meter (N/m2) or the Kilopascal (kPa)
where 1 kPa = 1000 Pa.
Pressure can be expressed in many different units including in terms of a height of a column of
liquid. The Table below lists commonly used units of pressure measurement and the conversion
between the units.
kPa mm Hg millibar in H2O PSI

1 atm 101.325 760.000 1013.25 406.795 14.6960

1 kPa 1.000 7.50062 10.000 4.01475 0.145038

1 mm Hg 0.133322 1.000 1.33322 0.535257 0.0193368

1 millibar 0.1000 0.750062 1.000 0.401475 0.0145038

1 in H2O 0.249081 1.86826 2.49081 1.000 0.0361

1 PSI 6.89473 51.7148 68.9473 27.6807 1.000

1 mm H2O 0.009806 0.07355 9.8 x 10-8 0.03937 0.0014223

Pressure measurements can be divided into three different categories: absolute pressure, gauge
pressure and differential pressure.
1) Absolute pressure refers to the absolute value of the force per-unit-area exerted on a
surface by a fluid. Therefore, the absolute pressure is the difference between the pressure at a given
point in a fluid and the absolute zero of pressure or a perfect vacuum.
6
 2) Gauge pressure is the measurement of the difference between the absolute pressure and
the local atmospheric pressure. Local atmospheric pressure can vary depending on ambient
temperature, altitude and local weather conditions. A gauge pressure by convention is always
positive. A negative’ gauge pressure is defined as vacuum. Vacuum is the measurement of the
amount by which the local atmospheric pressure exceeds the absolute pressure. A perfect vacuum
is zero absolute pressure. Figure below shows the relationship between absolute, gauge pressures
and vacuum.

Differential pressure is simply the measurement of one unknown pressure with reference to
another unknown pressure. The pressure measured is the difference between the two unknown
pressures. This type of pressure measurement is commonly used to measure the pressure drop
in a fluid system. Since a differential pressure is a measure of one pressure referenced to
another, it is not necessary to specify a pressure reference. For the English system of units this
could simply be psi and for the SI system it could be kPa.In addition to the three types of
pressure measurement, there are different types of fluid systems and fluid pressures. There are
two types of fluid systems; static systems and dynamic systems.As the name simply, a static
system is one in which the fluid is at rest and a dynamic system is on in which the fluid is
moving.

7
Pressure measurement Devices:
Manometer
A Manometer is a device to measure pressures. A common simple manometer
consists of a U-shaped tube of glass filled with some liquid. Typically, the
liquid is mercury because of its high density.

In the figure to the right, we show such a U-shaped tube filled with a liquid. Note that both ends
of the tube are open to the atmosphere. Thus, both points A and B are
at atmospheric pressure. The two points also have the same vertical height

Now the top of the tube on the right has been closed. We imagine that
there is a sample of gas in the closed end of the tube. The right side of
the tube remains open to the atmosphere. The point A, then, is at
atmospheric pressure.
The point C is at the pressure of the gas in the closed end of the tube. The point B has a pressure
greater than atmospheric pressure due to the weight of the column of liquid of height h. The point
C is at the same height as B, so it has the same pressure as B. And this is equal to the pressure of
the gas in the closed end of the tube. Thus, in this case the pressure of the gas that is trapped in the
closed end of the tube is greater than atmospheric pressure by the amount of pressure exerted by
the column of liquid of height h.

Some “rules” to remember about U-tube Manometer

8
 * Manometer height difference does not depend on tube diameter

* Manometer height difference does not depend on tube length

* Manometer height difference does not depend on tube shape

Shape of a container does not matter in hydrostatics. This implies that a U-tube manometer does
not have to be in a perfect U shape. There is a way to take advantage of this, namely one can
construct an inclined manometer, as shown here. Although the column height difference between
the two sides does not change, an inclined manometer has better resolution than does a standard

9
vertical manometer because of the inclined right side. Specifically, for a given ruler resolution,
one "tick" mark on the ruler corresponds to a finer gradation of pressure for the inclined case.

10
BURDON PRESSURE GAUGE
A Bourdon gauge uses a coiled tube, which, as it expands due to pressure increase causes a rotation
of an arm connected to the tube. In 1849 the Bourdon tube pressure gauge was patented in France
by Eugene Bourdon.
The pressure sensing element is a closed coiled tube connected to the chamber or pipe in which
pressure is to be sensed. As the gauge pressure increases the tube will tend to uncoil, while a
reduced gauge pressure will cause the tube to coil more tightly. This motion is transferred through
a linkage to a gear train connected to a pointer. The pointer is presented in front of a card face is
inscribed with the pressure indications associated with particular pointer defections

FIG: Parts of Burdon Tube

APPARATUS DESCRIPTION
The manometers and gauges unit are a framed structure with a backboard, holding as
● Vertical U-tube manometer
● U-tube manometer with an inclined limb
● Bourdon gauge for measuring vacuums

11
 ● Bourdon gauge for measuring positive pressure, and syringe assembly for pressurizing and
reducing pressure in the measurement devices.
Each gauge and manometer have a delivery point to connect to the syringe using plastic tubing
(included). All connections are push-ft, and T-pieces are provided to enable two instruments to be
connected to one point.

`
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Using the syringe connects its plastic tubing to pressure gauge. Push the syringe arm to
generate pressure. Observe the deflection on the gauge
2. Now connect the syringe tubing to vacuum gauge. Release the arm of syringe to generate
vacuum and observe the change in deflection.
3. U tube Manometer can be connected to any of the flow meter devices. Switch the pump
and observe the change in mercury levels in the manometer. Calculate the pressure
difference.
4. Similarly connect the Inclined U tube manometer to any of the flow meter and calculate
pressure difference

OBSERVATIONS

1) Density of liquid flowing in pipe =

2) Density of liquid flowing in pipe =

Manometer Reading Pressure/

Sr.
Types of Manometers Pressure
No. H1 H2
Difference
1 U tube Manometer

2 inclined Tube Manometer

3 Pressure Gauge - -

4 Vacuum Gauge - -

12
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

In the above figure, since the pressure at the height of the lower surface of the manometer
fluid is the same in both arms of the manometer, we can write the following equations
P1 + ρ1gd1 = P2 + ρ2gd2 + ρfgh
Here, ρ1 = ρ2 = ρw = Density of water;
P1 - P2 = ρwgd2 + ρfgh – ρwgd1
Also, d1- d2 =h
P1 - P2 = (of - ρw) gh
Here ρf = Density of Mercury; Substituting Standard Values
P1- P2 = (13580 – 1000 kg/m3). (g m/s2). (h/1000 m) = 12.58 g h (in N/m2)

Where g =9.81 m/s2; h = in mm

CONCLUSION
Thus, we have understood the working principle and calculation to obtain pressure values for the
following devices: -
1) U tube Manometer
2) Inclined U tube Manometer
3) pressure Gauge
4) Vacuum Gauge

13
CALCULATION

14
 Date:

EXPERIMENT: 3
STUDY OF VENTURI METER, ORIFICE METER &
ROTAMETER

AIM: To Calibrate and study different flow meters i.e., Venturi meter, Orifice meter and Rotameter

INTRODUCTION AND THEORY: -

The most important class of flow meter is that in which the flow is either accelerated or retarded
at the measuring sections by reducing the flow area, and the change in the kinetic energy is
measuring sections by reducing the flow area and the change in the kinetic energy is measured by
recording the pressure difference produced.

This class includes

1) The pitot tubes
2) The Orifice meters
3) The Venturi meters
4) The Nozzle
5) The Notch or Weir
6) The variable Areometer or Rotameters

However, from apparatus point of view let us study a few in little details.

Orifice Meter
A circular Opening in a plate which is fitted suitably in a pipeline is a simple device to measure
the discharge flowing in the pipeline. Such a device is known as orifice meter and is as shown in
the figure. the opening is normally at the centre of the plate as shown in figure.

15
Applying Bernoulli's equation between section 1 and 2 and using continuity equation, it can be
shown that,
2𝑔 (ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) 0.5
Qa = Cd x A2 ( 𝐴2 )
1 −( )2
𝐴1

Where A2 is the area of cross section of the orifice, and (h1 – h2) is the difference in the
piezometric heads at section 1 and 2

FIG: Simple Orifice Meter

Venturi Meter
Like orifice meter, a Venturi meter is also used for the measurement of discharge in a pipeline.
Since head loss caused due to installation of venturi meter in a pipeline is less than that caused due
to installation of orifice meter, the former is usually preferred particularly for higher flow rates. A
Venturi meter consists of a converging tube which is followed by a diverging tube. The junction
of the two is termed as 'throat' which is the section of minimum cross-section.

16
 FIG: Venturi Meter
Nozzle Meter
The flow nozzle is a venturi meter that has been simplified and shortened by eliminating the
gradual downstream expansion. The streamlined entrance of the nozzle causes a straight jet
without contraction, so its effective discharge coefficient is nearly the same as the venturi meter.
Flow nozzles allow the jet to expand of its own accord.
The flow nozzle costs less than Venturi meter. It has the disadvantage that the overall losses are
much higher because of the lack of guidance of the jet downstream from the nozzle opening.

FIG: Simple Nozzle Meter

17
 Rotameter
The Rotameter is an industrial flowmeter used to measure the flowrate of liquids and gases. The
rotameter consists of a tube and float. The float response to flowrate changes is linear. The
rotameter is popular because it has a linear scale, a relatively long measurement range, and low
pressure drop. It is simple to install and maintain.
The rotameter's operation is based on the variable area principles fluid flow raises a float in a
tapered tube, increasing the area for passage of the fluid. The greater the flow, the higher the float
is raised. The height of the float is directly proportional to the flowrate. With liquids, the float is
raised by a combination of the buoyancy of the liquid and the velocity head of the fluid. With
gases, buoyancy is negligible, and the float responds to the velocity head alone.

FIG: Rota meter

APPARATUS DESCRIPTION: -
All flow meter is mounted along a pipeline with sufficient distance to stabilize flow between two
meters. The pressure taps are provided at sections as given in the fig. pressure head difference
between sections can be read on manometer having mercury as the manometer fluid. A valve,
fitted at the end of the pipeline, is used for regulating the discharge in the pipeline.
Technical Specifications:
- Orifice meter:
Size = 26 mm
Orifice Size = 16 mm
18
 Día Ratio = 0.615

Venturi meter:
Size = 26 mm
Throat Size = 16 mm
Día Ratio = 0.615
Rotameter:
Size = 1- 1000 L H
Type = Thread Ends

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE: -
1) Fill the storage tank/sump with the water.
2) Switch on the pump and keep the control valve fully open and close the bypass valve to
have maximum flow rate through the meter.
3) To calibrate Orifice meter open control valve of the same.
4) Open the vent cocks provided at the top of the manometer to drive out the air from the
manometer limbs and close both of them as soon as water start coming out.
5) Note down the difference of level of mercury in the manometer limbs.
6) Keep the drain valve of the measuring tank closed till its time to start collecting the
water.
7) Close the drain valve of the measuring tank and note down the initial level of the water in
the collection tank.
8) Collect known quantity of water in the measuring tank and note down the time required
for the same.
9) Change the flow rate of water through the meter with the help of control valve and repeat
the above procedure.
10) To calibrate Venturi meter and Nozzle meter repeat the same procedure indicated in step
4-9

19
 11) Take about 2-3 readings for different flow rates.

OBSERVATIONS: -

● For Orifice meter

Diameter at Inlet D1 = 26 mm; Area A1 = 5.31 x 10-4 m2

Diameter at Orifice D2 = 16 mm; Area A2 = 2.01 x 10-4 m2

Sr. No. Manometer Difference in mm of Hg Flow rate (time for 10 lit) t in secs

● For Venturi meter

Diameter at inlet D1 = 26 mm; Area A1 = 5.31 x 10-4 m2
Diameter at throat D2 = 16 mm; Area A2 = 2.01 x 10-4 m2

Sr. No. Manometer Difference in mm of Hg Flow rate (time for 10 lit ) t in secs

● For Rotameter

Sr. No. Manometer Difference in mm of Hg Flow rate (time for 10 lit) t in secs

20
CALCULATIONS: -

● For Orifice meter and Venturi meters-

Actual Discharge, Qa = 0.01 m3/sec /t

We Know as per the theory; -

2𝑔 (ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) 0.5
Qa = Cd x A2 ( 𝐴2 )
1 −( )2
𝐴1

Before Substituting Values of Qact and (h1 – h2) into the above equation, it will simpler
to establish the value of

2𝑔 (ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) 0.5
A2 ( 𝐴2 )
1 −( )2
𝐴1

This value is
= 2.0096 x 10-4 [(2* 9.81)/ (1- (0.3782)]0.5 = 9.65 X 10-4
Therefore, Qa = Cd X 9.65 X 10-4 (h1-h2)0.5
So, Cd = 1036.26 * Q / ( h1 –h2)0.5

Put the values of Q and (h1-h2) from observations

Cd =

● For Rotameter:
Discharge from Rotameter in LPH =

Actual Discharge, Qa = 0.01 m3/sec/ t

21
In LPH Qa * 3600000 =

Conclusion: -
Average values of the co-efficient of discharge for various flow meters, as obtained
experimentally, are as follows:

⮚ Flow Meter Discharge Co-efficient, Cd

1) Orifice meter

2) Venturi meter

3) Rotameter

CALCULATION

22
 Date:
EXPERIMENT: 4
CALIBRATION OF RECTANGULAR, TRIANGULAR
& TRAPEZOIDAL NOTCHES

Aim: To calibrate the given Rectangular Triangular and Trapezoidal Notches

INTRODUCTION AND THEORY: -

Measurement of flow in open channel is essential for better management of supplies of water.
Hydraulic structures such as weirs are emplaced in the channel. They are used to determine the
discharge indirectly from measurements of the flow depth.
A notch is an opening in the side of a measuring tank or reservoir extending above the free surface.
A weir is a notch on a large scale, used, for the measurement of discharge in free surface flows
like a river. A weir is an orifice placed at the water surface so that the head on its upper edge is
zero. Hence, the upper edge can be eliminated, leaving only the lower edge named as weir crest.
A weir can be of different shapes - rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal etc. A triangular weir is
particularly suited for measurement of small discharges.

Rectangular Notch
The discharge over an unnumbered rectangular sharp-crested notch is defined as:
Q = 2/3.Cd.(2g)0.5 L. H3/2

23
 Fig: Rectangular Notch
Triangular Notch
The rate of flow over a triangular weir mainly depends on the head H, relative to the crest of the
notch; measured upstream at a distance about 3 to 4 times H from the crest. For triangular notch
with apex angle, the rate of flow Q is obtained from the equation,
Q = Cd .(8 /15) (2g)0.5 tan (θ/2) H5/2
Here, Cd is termed the coefficient of discharge of triangular notch

Triangular Notch

Trapezoidal Notch
Also known as Cipolletti weirs are trapezoidal with 1s4 slopes to compensate for end contraction
losses. The equation generally accepted for computing the discharge through an un-submerged
sharp-crested Cipolletti weir with complete contraction is:

24
 Q = 1.84.Cd.L.H3/2
Where,
Q = Discharge over notch (m3/sec);
L = Bottom of notch width;
H = Head above bottom of opening (m)

Trapezoidal Notch
APPARATUS DESCRIPTION:-

The pump sucks the water from the sump tank, and discharges it to a small flow channel. The
notch is fitted at the end of channel. All the notches and weirs are interchangeable. The water
flowing over the notch falls in the collector. Water coming from the collector is directed to the
measuring tank for the measurement of flow.

The following notches are provided with the apparatus: -

1) Rectangular notch (Crest length L = 0.050m)
2) Triangular notch (Notch Angle – 600; 450)
3) Trapezoidal notch (Crest length L = 0.030m; Slope = 4V:1H)

25
26
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE: -
1) Fit the required notch in the flow channel.
2) Fill up the water in the sump tank.
3) Open the water supply gate valve to the channel and fill up the water in the
channel up to sill level.
4) Take down the initial reading of the crest level (sill level)
5) Now start the pump and open the gate valve slowly so that water starts flowing
over the notch
6) Let the water level become stable and note down the height of water surface at the
upstream side by the sliding depth gauge.
7) Close the drain valve of measuring tank, and measure the discharge.
8) Take the reading for different flow rates.
9) Repeat the same procedure for another notch also.

OBSERVATIONS: -

Notch Type: - Triangular

Sr. Still Level reading “s” mts Water height on upstream Discharge time for
No. side “h” mts 10 litres “t” sec

Notch Type: Rectangular

Sr. Still Level reading “s” mts Water height on upstream Discharge time for
No. side “h” mts 10 liters “t” sec

27
28
Notch Type: Trapezoidal
Sr. Still Level reading “s” mts Water height on upstream Discharge time for
No. side “h” mts 10 litres “t” sec

CALCULATIONS: -
A. Rectangular Notch-
Head over the notch, H = | h-s | m
Actual Discharge, Qa = 0.01 m3/sec t Crest
Length of notch L= 0.05 m
1. Now theoretical
discharge Qth = 2/3
(2g)0.5 L. H3/2

2. coefficient of discharge

𝑄
Cd = 𝑄 𝑎
𝑡ℎ

B. Triangular notch-
Head over the notch, H = | h-s | m
Actual Discharge, Qa = 0.01 m3/sec
Now theoretical discharge
Qth = (8 /15) (2g) 0.5 tan (60/2) H5/2

Coefficient of discharge
Qa

29
 𝑄
Cd = 𝑄 𝑎
𝑡ℎ

C. Trapezoidal Notch (or Capulet

Weir) Head over the notch, H = | h-s |
m Actual Discharge, Qa = 0.01 m3/sec
Crest length of notch (L) = 0.030 m
Now theoretical discharge
Qth = 1.84.L.H3/2
Coefficient of discharge

𝑄
Cd = 𝑄 𝑎
𝑡ℎ

CONCLUSION: -
1. Average Cd of given Triangular notch is _______ _
2. Average Cd of given rectangular notch is ________
3. Average Cd of given rectangular notch is ________

CALCULATIONS

30
 Date:

EXPERIMENT: 5
STUDY ABOUT REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT

AIM: To study Laminar and Turbulent flow and its Visualization on Reynold’s Apparatus

INTRODUCTION & THEORY: -

The properties of density and specific gravity are measures of the “heaviness” of fluid. These
properties are however not sufficient to uniquely characterize how fluids behave since two fluids
(such as water and oil) can have approximately the same value of density but behaves quite
differently when flowing. There is apparently some additional property that is needed to describe
the “fluidity” of the fluid.
Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer
of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. It is an inherent property of each fluid. Its effect
is similar to the frictional resistance of one body sliding over other body. As viscosity offers
frictional resistance to the motion of the fluid consequently, in order to maintain the flow, extra
energy is to be supplied to overcome effect of viscosity. The frictional energy generated comes out
in form of heat and dissipated to the atmosphere through boundary surfaces.

TYPES OF FLOW AND REYNOLDS NUMBER: -

Laminar flow: -
Laminar flow is that type of flow in which the particle of the fluid moves along well-defined parts
or streamlines. In laminar flow all streamlines are straight and parallel. In laminar flow one layer
of fluid is sliding over another layer, whenever the Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is
said to be laminar. In laminar flow, energy loss is low and it is directly proportional to the velocity
of the fluid. The following reasons are for the laminar flow, fluid has low velocity, fluid has high
viscosity and diameter of pipe is large

31
 Turbulent Flow: -
The flow is said to be turbulent flow it he flows moves in a zigzag way. Due to movement of the
particles in a zigzag way the eddies formation take place which are responsible of high-energy
losses. In turbulent flow, energy loss is directly proportional to the square of velocity of fluid. If
Reynolds number is greater than 4000, then flow is said to be turbulent flow.

REYNOLDS’S NUMBER
Reynolds was first to determine the translation from laminar to turbulent depends not only on the
mean velocity but on the quality

𝜌𝑣𝐷
µ
Where;
ρ= Density of Fluid
D = Diameter of pipe
μ=Dynamic Viscosity
The term is dimensionless and it is called Reynolds Number (Re). It is the ration of the
inertia force to the viscous force
Re = Inertia Force / Viscous
Force Re = (ρV2) / μ (V/D)
= ρVD / μ

This indicates that it is non-dimensional number.

APPARATUS DESCRIPTION: -
The apparatus consists of
1) A tank containing water at constant head
2) Die container
3) A glass tube

32
 4) The water from the tank is allowed to flow through the glass tube. The velocity of flow can
be varied by regulating valve. A liquid die having same specific weight as that of water has
to be introduced to glass tube.

Additional materials or Equipment’s required: -

1) Stop Watch
2) Measuring Flask
3) Color Dye
4) Water Supply

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE: -
1) Switch on the pump and fill the head tank. Manually also fill the dye tank with some
amount of bright dye liquid provided.
2) Open the control valve slowly at the bottom of the tube and release small flow of dye.
3) Observe the flow in the tube.
4) Note down the time for 1 liter of discharge with the help of stopwatch and measuring
flask.
5) Repeat the above process for various discharges

OBSERVATIONS
The following observations are made:
1) When the velocity of flow is low, the die filament in the glass tube is in the form of a
straight line of die filament is parallel to the glass tube which is the case of laminar flow
as shown in fg.1
2) With the increase of velocity of flow the die filament is no longer straight line but it
becomes wavy one as shown in fg.2 this is shown that flow is no longer laminar. This is
transition flow.
3) With further increase of velocity of the way die filament is broken and finally mixes in
water as shown in fg.3
33
 Dye Filament

LAMINAR

Transition

Turbulent

CALCULATIONS: -

Re = (ρ x V x D) / μ
Re = (V x D) / v
Where: ρ is Kinematic viscosity of water which in m2/s
V is Velocity of Water in m/s
D is diameter of pipe is 0.025 m

34
OBSERVATION TABLE

Sr. Time of Discharge Q Velocity V (m/s) Reynolds No. Observe the

No. 500 ml (m3/s) Re flow
Discharge (Laminar,
(sec) Transition,
Turbulent)

CONCLUSION
Laminar flow
o Re < 2000
o Observed at 'low' velocity
o Dye does not mix with water
o Fluid particles move in straight lines
o Simple mathematical analysis possible
o Rare in practice in water systems.

Transitional flow
o 2000 > Re < 4000
o Observed at 'medium' velocity
o Dye stream wavers in water - mixes slightly.

Turbulent flow
o Re > 4000
o Observed at 'high' velocity

35
 o Dye mixes rapidly and completely
o P article paths completely irregular
o Average motion is in the direction of the flow
o Cannot be seen by the naked eye
o Changes/fluctuations are very difficult to detect.
o Mathematical analysis very difficult - so experimental measures are used
o Most common type of flow.

APPENDIX

Temperature Dynamic Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity

–v-
–t– –u-
(m /s) x 10-
2

(0C) (N s/m) x 10-3 6

0 1.787 1.787
5 1.519 1.519
10 1.307 1.307
20 1.002 1.004
30 0.798 0.801
40 0.653 0.658
50 0.547 0.553
60 0.467 0.475
70 0.404 0.413
80 0.355 0.365
90 0.315 0.326
100 0.282 0.294

CONVERSION FACTORS
1 litre/sec = 0.001 m3/sec, 0.5 litre/sec = 0.0005 m3/sec

36
CALCULATION: -

37
 Date:

EXPERIMENT: 6
STUDY ABOUT VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI’S
EXPERIMENT
AIM: To validate Bernoulli’s theorem as applied to the flow of water in tampering circular duct

INTRODUCTION AND THEORY: -

Bernoulli's principle is named after the Dutch-Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli who
published his principle in his book Hydro dynamic in 1738.
Bernoulli’s principle in its simplest form states that "the pressure of a fluid [liquid or gas] decreases
as the speed of the fluid increases." The principle behind Bernoulli’s theorem is the law of
conservation of energy. It states that energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but merely
changed from one form to another.
The energy, in general, may be defined as the capacity to do work. Though the energy exists in
many forms, yet the following are important from the subject point of views
a) Potential Energy
b) Kinetic Energy and
c) Pressure Energy

Potential energy of a liquid in Motion

It is the energy possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its position. If a liquid particle is Z
meters above the horizontal datum (arbitrary chosen), the potential energy of the particle will be
Z meter-kilogram (briefly written as mkg) per kg of liquid. Potential head of the liquid, at that
point, will be Z meters of the liquid.
Kinetic Energy of a liquid Particle in Motion
It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its motion or velocity. If a liquid particle
is flowing with a mean velocity of v meter per second, then the kinetic energy of the particle will
be v2/2g meter of the liquid. Velocity head of the liquid, at that velocity, will be v2/2g meter of
liquid.
38
 Pressure Energy of a liquid Particle in Motion
It is the energy, possessed by a liquid particle, by virtue of its existing pressure. If a liquid particle
is under a pressure of p kg/m2, then the pressure energy of the particle will be p/w mkg per kg of
liquid, where w is the specific weight of the liquid. Pressure head of the liquid under that pressure
will be p/w meter of the liquid.

Total Energy of a liquid Particle in Motion

The total energy of a liquid particle, in motion, is the sum of its potential energy, kinetic energy and
pressure energy.
Mathematically,
Total
Energy,
𝐸 = 𝑍 + V2+ 𝑃 mkg/kg of liquid
2𝑔 𝑤

Bernoulli’s Equation
It states, “For a perfect incompressible liquid, flowing in a continuous stream, the total energy of
a particle remains the same; while the particle moves from one point to another. l This statement
is based on the assumption that there are no losses due to friction in pipe.
Mathematically,
𝐸 = 𝑍 + 𝑉2 + 𝑃 = Constant

2𝑔 𝑤

39
APPARATUS DESCRIPTION: -
The apparatus is made from transparent acrylic and has both the convergent and
divergent sections. Water is supplied from the constant head tank attached to the test section. Constant
level is maintained in the supply tank. Piezometric tubes are attached at different distance on the test
section. Water discharges to the discharge tank attached at the far end of the test section and from there
it goes to the measuring tank through valve. The entre setup is mounted on a stand.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE: -
1) Note down the area of cross-section of the conduit at sections where piezometer have
been fixed.
2) Open the supply valve and adjust the flow in the conduit so that the water level in the
inlet tank remains at a constant level (i.e., the flow becomes steady).
3) Measure the height of water level (above an arbitrarily selected suitable horizontal plane)
in different piezometer tubes.
4) Measure the discharge by calculating time taken for 10 liters flow.
5) Repeat steps (2) to (4) for other discharges.

● Plot the following on an ordinary graph paper for all the runs taken.
1) {(p/ρg) + z} v/s distance (x) of piezometer tubes from some reference point. Draw a
smooth curve passing through the plotted points. This is known as the hydraulic gradient
line.
2) E = {(p/ρg) + z + V2/2g} v/s distance (x) of piezometer tubes on the graph {(p/ρg) + z}
v/s distance. Draw a smooth curve passing through the plotted points. This is the total
energy line.

40
 OBSERVATION TABLE

Piezometer tube 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
number

Diameter of Cross- 4.0 27.5 22.9 25.0 28.1 31.1 34.2 37.2
Section (mm)

Area of Cross- 9.08 x 5.94 x 4.12 x 4.91 x 6.20 x 7.6 x 9.10 x 10.87
section 104 104 104 104 104 104 104 x 104
A

Run No. V = Q/A

1
Discharge V2/2g
Q1 =
0.01/t (p/Pg) +
z
E

Run No. V = Q/A

2
Discharge V2/2g
Q2 =
0.01/t (p/Pg) +
z
E

Run No. V = Q/A

3
Discharge V2/2g
Q3 =
0.01/t (p/Pg) +
z
E

Total Energy remains the same at different sections of the conduit.

41
CONCLUSION: -

42