UNIT I CRUDE OIL COMPOSITION AND CLASSIFICATION

THEORIES BEHIND THE ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM

EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM

Exploration & production (E&P) is a specific sector within the oil and gas industry linked to the
early stage of energy production, which generally involves searching for and extracting oil and
gas. An E&P company finds and extracts the raw materials used in the energy business.
Typically they do not refine or produce energy but merely find and extract raw materials to be
shipped to other oil companies within the production process.

 Exploration and production (E&P) is the early stage of energy production, which
includes searching for and extracting oil and natural gas.
 After identifying potentially viable fields, a well is drilled to test the findings by
collecting samples.
 If there are both the quality and quantity needed to produce and sell commercially, the
production of oil wells begins.
 The oil and gas deposits are extracted from the wells, stored temporarily, and eventually
shipped via a pipeline to a refinery.

BASICS OF HYDROCARBON CHEMISTRY

COMPOSITION OF CRUDE OIL

IMPURITIES PRESENT IN CRUDE OIL

CRUDE OIL CLASSIFICATION AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

CRUDE OIL PROPERTIES
Crude Oil Properties

Crude of petroleum is very complex except for the low-boiling components, no attempt
is made by the refiner to analyze for the pure components that contained in the crude
oil. Relatively simple analytical tests are run on the crude and the results of these are
used with empirical correlations to evaluate the crude oils as feedstocks for the
particular refinery. Each crude is compared with the other feedstocks available and,
based upon the operating cost and product realization, is assigned a value. The useful
properties are discussed.
API Gravity:
 The density of petroleum oils is expressed in the United States in terms of API gravity
rather than specific gravity; it is related to specific gravity in such a fashion that an increase in
API gravity corresponds to a decrease in specific gravity. The units of API gravity are API and
can be calculated from specific gravity (sp. Gr.)
by the following:

API=141.5/Sp.Gr-131.5

Sp. Gr. of rude oil may vary from less than 10 oAPI to over 50oAPI but most crudes fall in
the 20 to 45o API range. API gravity always refers to the liquid sample at 60 oF (15.6 oC). API
gravities are not linear and, therefore, cannot be averaged. For example, a gallon of 20 o API
gravity hydrocarbons when mixed with a gallon of 30 oAPI hydrocarbons will not yield two
gallons of 25o API hydrocarbons, but will give two gallons of hydrocarbons with an API gravity
different from 250 API. On the other hand Specific gravities of different oils can be averaged.

Sulfur Content, wt%[

Sulfur content and API gravity are two properties which have the greatest influence on the value
of crude oil, although nitrogen and metals contents are increasing in importance. The sulfur
content is expressed as percent of sulfur by weight and varies from less than 0.1% to greater than
5%. Crudes with greater than 0.5% sulfur generally require more extensive processing than those
with lower sulfur content.

Pour Point
The pour point of the crude oil, in oF or oC, is a rough indicator of the relative paraffinicity and
aromaticity of the crude. The lower the pour point, the lower the paraffin content and the greater
the content of aromatics.

Carbon Residue
Carbon residue is determined by distillation to a coke residue in the absence of air. The carbon
residue is roughly related to the asphalt content of the crude and to the quantity of the lubricating
oil fraction that can be recovered. In most cases the lower the carbon residue, the more valuable
the crude. This is expressed in terms of the weight percent carbon residue by either the
Ramsbottom (RCR) or Conradson (CCR) .

Salt Content :
If the salt content of the crude, when expressed as NaCl, is greater than 10 lb/ 1000 bbl, it is
generally necessary to desalt the crude before processing. If the salt is not removed, severe
corrosion problems may be encountered. If residua are processed catalytically, desalting is
desirable at even lower salt contents of the crude. Although it is not possible to have an accurate
conversion unit between lb/1000 bbl and ppm by weight because of the different densities of
crude oils, 1 lb/1000 bbl is approximately 3 ppm.
Characterization Factors
There are several correlations between yield and the aromaticity and paraffinicity of crude oils,
but the two most widely used are the UOP or Watson ‘‘characterization factor’’ (KW) and the
U.S. Bureau of Mines ‘‘correlation index’’ (CI).

KW= TB1/3/ G,
Where, TB is the mean average boiling point, R and G is the specific gravity at 60 oF.
The Watson characterization factor :KW ~15 for highly paraffinic compounds , KW <10 for
highly aromatic materials and KW vary from 10.5 to 12.9. For a highly naphthenic crude it is
10.5 to 12.9 for a paraffinic base crude.

The correlation index is useful in evaluating individual fractions from crude oils. The CI scale is
based upon straight-chain paraffins having a CI value of 0 and benzene having a CI value of 100
and is defined as follows:

C.I = 87552/TB + 473.7 G – 456.8

The CI values are not quantitative, but the lower the CI value, the greater the concentration of
paraffin hydrocarbons in the fraction; and higher the CI value, greater the concentration of
naphthenes and aromatics.

Nitrogen Content, wt%

High nitrogen content is undesirable in crude oils because organic nitrogen compounds cause
severe poisoning of catalysts used in processing and cause corrosion problems. Crudes
containing nitrogen more than 0.25% by weight require special processing to remove the
nitrogen.[19,20]

Distillation Range
The boiling range of the crude gives an indication of the quantities of the various products
present. The most useful type of distillation is known as a true boiling. point (TBP) distillation
and generally refers to a distillation performed in equipment that accomplishes a reasonable
degree of fractionation. There is no specific test procedure called a TBP distillation, but the U.S.
Bureau of Mines Hempel and ASTM D-285 distillations are the tests most commonly used.
Neither of these specify either the number of theoretical plates or the reflux ratio used and, as a
result, there is a trend toward using the results of a 15:5 distillation (D- 2892) rather than the
TBP. The 15:5 distillation is carried out using 15 theoretical plates at a reflux ratio of 5: 1. The
crude distillation range has to be correlated with ASTM distillations because product
specifications are generally based on the simple ASTM distillation tests like D-86 and D-1160
etc.
Metals Content, ppm

The metals content metals (nickel, vanadium, and copper) of crude oils vary from a few parts per
million to more than 1000 ppm. Minute quantities of some of these metals can severely affect the
activities of catalysts and result in a lower value product distribution. Vanadium concentrations
above 2 ppm in fuel oils can lead to severe corrosion to turbine blades and deterioration of
refractory furnace linings and stacks. Distillation concentrates the metallic constituents of crude
in the residues, but some of the organometallic compounds are actually volatilized at refinery
distillation temperatures and appear in the higher-boiling distillates. The metallic content may be
reduced by solvent extraction with propane or similar solvents as the organometallic compounds
are precipitated with the asphaltenes and resins.

API GRAVITY(Indicates the crude sp.gr) (American petroleum Institute)

  API=141.5/Sp.Gr. – 131.5
 Heavy oils: Petroleum- materials less than 200 oAPI
 Heavy oils: API gravity range of 10o to 15 oAPI
 Bitumen : API gravity 5o to 10o API
 Atmospheric residua: 10o to 15o API
 vacuum residua : 2o to 8o API

UOP Characterization Factor/ Waston Characterization Factor

Characterization factors: K=(TB)1/3/d

(Correlates boiling point with sp.Gr.)
where TB is the average boiling point in degrees Rankine (= F + 460) and d is the specific
gravity 60 oF/60 oF. (Also Kuop= (Tk)3/0.827 G, if T in K)
K:additive on a weight basis.
Highly paraffin oils:K : 12.5 to 13.0
Cyclic (naphthenes) oils have K : 10.5 to 12.5.
Aromatics: 9.0- 10.5
Correlation Index (C.I.)

 According to the chemical composition of the 250 oC to 300 oC fraction has been used.
 But the difficulty is that in the fractions boiling above 200 oC (390 oF) the molecules can
no longer be placed in one group, because most of them are of a typically mixed nature.
 More direct chemical information is desirable and can be supplied by means of the
correlation index (CI).
 The CI, developed by the U.S. Bureau of Mines, is based on the plot of specific gravity
vs the reciprocal of the boiling point in Kelvin.
 For pure hydrocarbons,the normal paraffin series is given value of CI=0 and for benzene
CI = 100.

 CI= 473.7d - 456.8 + 48,640/TK

 Where, TK for a petroleum fraction is the average boiling point (K) and ‘d’ is the specific
gravity
 CI Values between 0 and 15 : indicates a predominance of paraffin hydrocarbons in the
fraction.
 CI Values 15 to 50 : indicates predominance of either naphthenes or of mixtures
of paraffins, naphthenes, and aromatics.

 CI values more than 50 : indicates a predominance of aromatic species.

CRUDE OIL ASSAY

Crude Assay

The complete and definite analysis of a crude oil is called crude assay. A complete crude assay
will contain some or all of the following:

1. Whole crude gravity, Viscosity, ‘S’ content, pour point etc.

2. TBP curve, Mid Volume plot of gravity, Viscosity etc.
3. Light end analysis up to C8 and C9.
4. Properties of fractions. (naphtha, middle distillates, gas oil residue).Yield vs Vol.%,
gravity, S, viscosity, octane no., diesel index, Flash point , Fire point, Smoke point, Pore
point, Vapor Pressure etc.
5. Properties of lube distillates (only if the crude is suitable for the manufacture of lube base
stocks).
6. Properties of asphalt (only if residue have suitable characteristics for preparation of
asphalt.
7. EFV curve run at atm. Pressure. Not useful for design work but is of great importance to
the refinery or to a crude oil purchaser.
 INDIGENOUS AND IMPORTED CRUDES
Various sources of indigenous crude are:  Assam crude  Bombay high and satellite
fields, North Gujarat & Ankhleshwar  KG basin-Rava crude  Cauvery basin crude 
Rajasthan crude
Various sources of imported crude are  Arab mix,  Lavan blend  Upper Zakum 
Iran mix Dubai  Kuwait crude  Suez mix  Zeit bay  Quaiboe  Miri light  Bonny
light.

CRUDE AVAILABILITY VS DEMANDS:

  India is the third largest consumer of crude oil in the world, after the United States and
China.
 High speed diesel oil accounted for 37.42% of total consumption of all types of
petroleum products in 2020–21, followed by petrol (14.40%), liquefied petroleum
gas (14%), petroleum coke (8.03%), and naphtha (7%). The largest consumers of natural
gas are the fertilizer industry (29%), power generation (18%), and transportation (15%).
Natural gas is consumed for both energy (57.08%) and non-energy (35.45%) related uses.

REFINING CAPACITY OF INDIA.

Unit-1 Pat A

1. What is Petroleum or crude oil?

Petroleum (also called crude oil) is a naturally occurring (a non-renewable resource) with
yellowish-black liquid mixture of hydrocarbons found in geological formations beneath the Earth
comprised of hydrocarbons, organic compounds and small amounts of metal.,
Generally in the liquid state, that may also include compounds of sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, and
metals and other elements (ASTM D-4175). Inorganic sediment and water may also be present.
It is usually found in underground areas called reservoirs.
2. How is the production of petroleum? (Or) Origin of petroleum?
It is created through the heating and compression of organic materials over a long period of time.
Most of the oil we extract today comes from the remains of prehistoric algae and zooplankton
whose remains settled on the bottom of an Ocean or Lake.
Over time this organic material combined with mud and was then heated to high temperatures
from the pressure created by heavy layers of sediment. This process, known as diagenesis,
changes the chemical composition first into a waxy compound called kerogen and then, with
increased heat, into a liquid through a process called catagenesis.

3. What is oil exploration and production?

An exploration & production (E&P) company is in a specific sector within the oil and gas
industry — companies involved in the high-risk/high-reward area of exploration and
production focus on finding, augmenting, producing and merchandising different types of oil
and gas.

4. What are the crude oil types?

• Very light oils – these include: Jet Fuel, Gasoline, Kerosene, Petroleum Ether, Petroleum
Spirit, and Petroleum Naphtha. They tend to be very volatile, evaporating within a few days
which in turn evaporates their toxicity levels.
• Light oils – These include Grade 1 and Grade 2 Fuel Oils, Diesel Fuel Oils as well as Most
Domestic Fuel Oils. They are both moderately volatile and toxic.
• Medium oils – These are the most common types of Crude Oil. They generally have low
volatility and a higher viscosity than the light oils which leads to higher toxicity and a greater
environmental impact during cleanups.
• Heavy fuel oils – These include the heaviest Grade 3,4,5 and 6 Fuel Oils along with Heavy
Marine Fuels. These are the most viscous and least volatile Crude Oils as well as the most toxic.

5. What are the Composition of petroleum?

The elemental composition of petroleum is much less variable than that of coal: 83-87% carbon,
11-16% hydrogen, 0-4% oxygen plus nitrogen, and 0-4% sulfur. Petroleum is essentially a
mixture of hydrocarbons, and even the non-hydrocarbon elements are generally present as
components of complex molecules predominantly hydrocarbon in character, but containing small
quantities of oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, vanadium, nickel, and chromium.

6. What are the Classification of crude oil?

o Paraffins(CnH2n+2)saturated hydrocarbons with straight or branched chains, but without any
ring structure.
o Cycloparaffins (CnH2n)(naphthenes),saturated hydrocarbons containing one or more rings,
each of which may have one or more paraffin side-chains(also known as alicyclic hydrocarbons).
o Aromatics(CnH2n-6)i.e,hydrocarbons containing one or more aromatic nuclei such as
benzene, naphthalene, and phenanthrene ring systems that may be linked up with (substituted)
naphthalene rings or paraffin side-chains.

7. What are the Indigenous and imported crudes

Various sources of indigenous crude are: • Assam crude • Bombay high and satellite fields,
North Gujarat & Ankhleshwar • KG basin-Rava crude • Cauvery basin crude • Rajasthan crude.

Various sources of imported crude are • Arab mix, • Lavan blend • Upper Zakum • Iran mix •
Dubai • Kuwait crude • Suez mix • Zeit bay • Quaiboe • Miri light • Bonny light.

8. What are the Properties of crude oil

• Density
• Specific Gravity
• API Gravity
• Viscosity
• Pour Point
• Carbon Residue
• Sulfur Content
• Flash point
9. List the major impurities present in crude oil

Unit 1
Part B
1. Explain the composition and characteristics of hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbons
present in crude petroleum.
2. (a) Describe the origin and types of crude in detail.
(b) Classify the petroleum products.
3. Explain the various types of crude.
4. Explain origin and formation of petroleum with the help of different theories in
chronological manner.
5. Discuss the crude composition, classification and characteristics in detail.
6. Comment in detail about crude assay, indigenous and imported crudes and their
properties.
7. Explain about Crude availability and demand, refinery capacity in india?

UNIT II TESTING OF PETROLEUM PRODUCTS

IS 1448: Standard – Important commercial petroleum products:

LPG-Liquified Petroleum Gas Important Properties and Tests

Types of Gasoline & it’s Important Properties and Tests
Boiling point range of gasoline is from 37˚C to 180˚C.
- We can not use gasoline as in pure form but when we are using it we add some additives.
- Straight run gasoline are blended with the processed gasolines by various method, these are :
(1) Reformate gasolines
(2) Coker gasolines
(3) Alkylated gasolines
(4) Cracked gasolines and
(5) Hydrocracked gasolines.

Tests for Gasoline :

- The important tests :
(1) ASTM distillation
(2) Reid vapour pressure
(3) Octane number
(4) Gum content
(5) Sulfur content etc.

ASTM Distillation (ASTMD - 86): [4 - Marks]

 In this test 100 ml of sample is distilled in a standard flask at a uniform rate of 5cc per
minute.

𝟎˚𝐂 by ice-water mixture.

 The distillate is condensed in a brass tube condenser, surrounded by a water bath kept at

 First drop from the condenser must be available in 5 to 10 minutes after heating started,
at which the recorded temperature is mentioned as initial boiling point (IBP) of the
sample.
  The vapour temperature is recorded at each successive 10cc distillate collected in a
measuring cylinder.
 The test continuous in the same way till 95% of fraction is condensed.
 At this juncture, the heat intensity may be increases (because of higherhydrocarbons
range)to obtain the maximum boiling point also known as End point(EP).
 When middle distillate like diesels are to be tested, instead of 100 ml sample, a 200 ml
sample is taken.
 Same here we note IBP and Final boiling point (FBP).

ASTM Distillation Characteristics curve :

 Ease of starting, at that temperature the combustion of fuel is proper starts.

 In ASTM distillation which type of fuel used, in which range distillation happen and with
that distillation which type of temperature variation get in distillation characteristics and
the nature of graph (how you are plotting).
The significance of this test varies from product to product. In case of crude oil,
 The ASTM distillation data give some idea of the frwtions that could be collected below
300°C. If it is a true boilkg point (T.B.P.) distillation, the TBP curve reveals a lot of
characteristics that are useful for the design of the refinery.
 The 10 vol.% of distillation for motor spirit is an indication of the ease with which the
engine can be started. Too high a FBP will cause crankcase oil dilution.

For Reid Vapour Pressure test we maintain uniform temperature that is 𝟑𝟖 ˚𝐂 ± 𝟎.1˚𝐂.
Reid Vapour Pressure test :

 The apparatus consist of two chambers.

 The lower chamber is in the form of cylindrical bomb for holding the test sample.
 The upper chamber is 4 times larger than lower chamber, which is hollow cylindrical
space.
 The Burdon gauge is fitted at the top of the upper chamber for pressure indication.
 Upper and lower chamber is interconnected as the fule is vaporised by heating in lower

 immersed in a water bath kept at 𝟑𝟖 ˚𝐂 ± 𝟎.1˚𝐂.and this vapour coming into the upper
chamber which is

chamber where Burdon

 gauge is fitted which indicate the pressure, that pressure we are calling as a raid vapour
pressure.
 Light distillates such as LPG, gasoline, naphtha, jet fuels are tested like this.
Octane Number :
 Octane number is defined as percentage volume of i-octane(2,2,4-trimethyl pentane) in a
mixture of i-octane and n-heptane.
 It gives same knocking characteristics as the fuel under consideration.
 Knocking is due to ultimately burning of fuel in a spark ignition engine.
 Octane number is influenced by different factors like speed of the engine, ambient
weather conditions, altitude, combustion chamber deposits and coolant temperature.

Oxidation stability (Gum content) :

 Gasoline manufactured by cracking process contain unsaturated components which may
oxidise during storage and form undesirable oxidation products or gum, a resinous
material.
 The deterioration of gasoline can be eliminated for a substantial period of time by
addition of small quantities of antioxidant additives known as inhibitors.
 Inhibitors retard the oxidation of the olefin constitutes of the fuel.
 Some such inhibitors are normally phenols or amine compounds between 0.001 and 0.02
% by weight are usually sufficient to ensure good stability.

Sulfur content :
 In addition to corrosive ness and pollution, sulfur compounds are extremely harmful to
the susceptibility of gasolines to tetra ethyl lead(TEL).
 To eliminate sulfur content we add TEL and Tetra Methyl Lead (TML) into gasoline.
 TEL also reduce knocking intensity as use as anti knocking agent.

Important tests & properties of Kerosene

 All these fraction have approximate boiling range 150 - 250˚𝐶.

 These fraction are low in viscosity, light in colour and free from smoky ill smelling
substances.
 Kerosene is used as illuminating oil in domestic needs (mantle burners & wick burners).

Tests and properties of kerosene :

(i) Flash point and Fire point
(ii) Smoke point (Burning quality)
(iii) Volatility
(iv) Sulfur content
(v) Aniline point

(i) Flash point and Fire point

 This is defined as
"The vapour from oil sample will give momentary flash at minimum temperature on application
of astandard flame under specific test condition."
 Apparatus frequently used for this test:
 Abel (P : 21 ; IP 170/59)
 Pensky - Martens (P : 21 ; IP 34/58)
 Cleveland
Significance of the flash point is that it can predict the possible fire hazards during
transportation, storage and handling.

 The flash point of marketable kerosene should be above 45˚𝐶.

 (ii) Fire Point :

"When the oil vapours can burnt continuously for 5 seconds, at that time temperature is noted is
called fire point."
 Fire point occurs after the flash point by 3-4˚𝐶.
 Apparatus frequently used for this test:
 Clave-land apparatus (ASTM D 92)
 For a domestic need very high flash point above 50˚𝐶 is also not desirable.

(ii) Smoke Point

"Smoke point is defined as the maximum height of flame in millimetres at which the given oil
will burnt without giving smoke."
 Different flame heights are obtained due to the presence of different components such as
paraffins, Napthenes and aromatics.
 Aromatics contribute smoke, hence removal of aromatics increases the smoke point.
 In India, marketable kerosene should possess a smoke point 18mm.

 Smoke point = 0.48(% pf peraffins) + 0.32(% of naphthenes) + 0.20(aromatics).

(iii) Aniline point :

"It is defined as the minimum temperature at which equal volume of kerosene and aniline
become completely miscible."
 This test indicates qualitatively the amount of aromatics present in kerosene.
 Kerosene with low aniline point has a higher concentration of aromatic hydrocarbons,
which can lead to increased carbon deposit in engines and other equipment.

(iv) Sulphure content :

 Kerosene typically has a low sulfur content, which is important for reducing air pollution
and minimizing the environmental impact of its use.

Types of Diesel & its Important Properties and Tests

 Diesel oils are the fractions in the boiling range of 250 - 320˚C and fall under gas oil
fractions.
 These are basically divided into two classes as high speed diesel (above 1000 RPM) and
low speed diesels(Below 300 RPM).

The general tests recommended for diesel fuels are :

(1) Pour Point
(2) Aniline point - Diesel Index (Cetane Number)
(3) Flash point
(4) Calorific value
(5) Viscosity
 (i) Pour Point :

"Pour point is the temperature at which diesel fuel starts to solidify and becomes too thick to
flow."
The criteria of pour point fixation depends upon two factors namely climate conditions and -
storage (handling).
 In India pour point is fixed at 5˚𝐶.
 A low pour point is important for diesel fuel to be used in cold weather conditions.

(ii) Cetane Number :

"The percentage of n-cetane in a mixture of n-cetane and 𝛂-methyl naphthalene."

This is a measure of the ignition quality of diesel fuel, which is related to its ability to burn
cleanly and efficiently.
 It is a measure of diesel's ignition delay.
 A higher cetane number indicates better combustion and smoother engine performance.
 The cetane number of diesel fuel typically ranges from 40 to 55.

(iii) Diesel Index :

"This is a measure of the ignition quality of diesel fuel based on its density and distillation
properties."
 A higher diesel index indicates better ignition quality and better cold weather
performance.
 The diesel index of diesel fuel typically ranges from 45 to 55.
(iv) Calorific Value :
 "It is defined as the total amount of heat liberated when a unit mass or volume of fuel
is burnt completely."
 Unit for Solid and Liquid Fuels: Calories/gram
 Unit for gaseous fuels: Calorie/cubic centimetre (cal/cm 3) or Kcal/cubic meter
(kcal/m3).
 A good fuel should possess high calorific value because calorific value determines the
efficiency of the fuel.
 Higher the calorific value, greater is the heat liberated per unit mass or volume.

LUBE OIL
Generally lubes have a boiling point above 350˚𝐶 and these are obtained as the main products
from vaccum distillation units.

Composition of lube oil :

 Lubricating oils are composed of paraffins, Naphthenes, aromatic and unsaturated bodies.
 The chief molecular structure of lubes seems to be naphthene rings or naphthenes and
aromatic rings arranged ingroups of as many as six with paraffinic side chains.

 The more such chains the more paraffinic the oil is.
 Normal paraffins (long chains) in this range are usually waxy in nature and have to be
separated for maintaining free flow of oil.
  Thus a crude oil rich with paraffinic chains gives high viscosity index, less viscosity
gravity constant and higher stability lube oils.

Tests for Lube oil :

 (1) Flash point
 (2) Pour point
 (3) Viscosity and Viscosity Index
 (4) Oxidation Stability
 (5) Carbon Residue.

(i) Viscosity Index :

"Viscosity index is a measure of the change in viscosity of a lubricating oil with temperature."
 It is an important property of lube oil because the viscosity of the oil affects its ability to
lubricate moving parts, as well as its flow characteristics and ability to maintain a
protective film between metal surfaces.
 A high viscosity index means that the viscosity of the lube oil changes relatively little
with temperature.
 In practical terms, the viscosity index of lube oil is determined by measuring its viscosity
at two different temperatures, typically 40°C and 100°C, and comparing these values to
the viscosity of two reference oils with known viscosity index values.
 The result is a numerical value that represents the degree to which the viscosity of the
lube oil changes with temperature, with higher value indicating better viscosity
temperature stability.

(ii) Carbon Residue :

 In the context of lube oil, carbon residue is an important property that is used to assess
the tendency of the oil to form deposits or carbonaceous residues in engines and other
machinery.
 To control the carbon residue content in lube oil, various methods are used to remove or
reduce the amount of carbonaceous material in the oil, such as hydrotreating, solvent
extraction, and clay treatment.
 The carbon residue content of lube oil is typically measured using standardized test
methods, such as Ramsbottom method (IP 14/65 ; IS : 1448 P : 8) or Conradson method
(IP 13/66).

(iii) Oxidation Stability (Gum content):

 When lube oil is exposed to heat, air, and metal surfaces in an engine or machinery, it can
begin to oxidize, forming various harmful contaminants such as acids, sludge, and
varnish.
 These contaminants can cause engine deposits, corrosion, and wear, leading to reduced
engine performance and shorter service life.
 To ensure good oxidation stability, lube oil is typically formulated with various
antioxidants and other additives that can help to prevent or slow down the oxidation
process.

ATF – Aviation Turbine Fuels, Jet Fuels

UNIT- 2
PART A
1. What is anti-knocking?
2. What is RVP test? Mention the signification
3. Why are Indian standards needed for testing of petroleum crude?
4. Expand ATF, HFO and LPG?
5. What does ASTM stands for?
PART B

1. How will you measure the API gravity of crude oil? Explain in detail.
2. Define viscosity write the importance of viscosity determination for petroleum
product and how are the measured.
3. Discuss any one of the methods for testing of petroleum crude as per the IS 1448
standards.
4. How are standard product specification determined? What is their significance.
5. Explain any two methods to determine the volatility of petroleum products with neat
diagram.
6. Explain the various test for kerosene.
7. Explain the various test for gasoline.
8. Explain the various test for diesel.
9. Discuss in detail about testing and specifications of LPG, Gasoline, Kerosene and
ATF?
10. Explain about diesel and lube oil specification and testing methods?
UNIT III CRUDE PROCESSING

Pretreatment of crude oil

Dehydration and desalting
Types of fractionating column

– Types of trays – Flow pattern in the trays – Products separation using Atmospheric distillation –
Vacuum distillation of residue products – Reflux types and its significance.