Unit 1 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics-I

UNIT 1
SYMMETRY IN QUANTUM
MECHANICS-I
Structure

1.1 Introduction 1.4 Time Translation

Expected Learning Outcomes 1.5 Conservation Laws
1.2 Space Translation Symmetries and Degeneracies
Space Translation Operator 1.6 Summary
Momentum as a Translation 1.7 Terminal Questions
Generator 1.8 Solutions and Answers
1.3 Rotation
The Rotation Group
Rotation Operator
Rotation of an Observable

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In your undergraduate courses in mechanics you have studied the laws of
conservation of energy, linear momentum and angular momentum and derived
them from the laws of motion that govern the dynamics of the system. In your
first semester course in classical mechanics (MPH-002), however, you have
seen that these conservation laws follow from something far more basic, which
are the symmetries that govern the physical system. This semester, in
Classical mechanics-II (MPH-006) you will study Noether’s theorem which
puts on a firm footing the idea that every continuous symmetry (like
symmetry under the translation or rotation) of a physical system leads to a
conservation law.
One example of a symmetry that you may also be familiar with, from your
undergraduate courses is symmetry in molecules and crystals. For example, if
we take a molecule of benzene and rotate it by 120° about an axis passing
through the centre of the molecule it will look the same as before. It will also
look the same if we reflect it through a mirror plane passing through opposite
single and double bonds. Crystal symmetry, however, is an example of a
discrete symmetry.
A symmetry operation on any system can be defined as an action (some
change) on a physical system that leaves the system invariant. For example if
the force acting on a physical system does not depend upon the location of
the system, then the result of any experiment performed on the system would 9
Block 1 Symmetry and Conservation Laws in Quantum Mechanics
be the same irrespective of which region of space the experiment is carried
out. So one could translate the experiment in space and get the same result.
This is an example of translational symmetry, a consequence of the
homogeneity of space and leads us to the conservation of linear momentum.
Similarly in the absence of a torque, the results of an experiment do not
change if we describe it in a coordinate system that is rotated with respect to
the initial frame. This is an example of rotational symmetry, a consequence of
the uniformity of space and it leads us to the conservation of angular
momentum. We also talk about the homogeneity of time or time-translation
which tells us that an experiment performed at two different times on identical
systems must give us the same result. This leads us to the law of
conservation of energy. Space and time translations and rotations which leave
the dynamics of an isolated physical system unchanged are examples of
symmetry operations. These are also examples of continuous symmetries.
In general, a symmetry transformation of a physical system is one that does
not change the result of any experiment performed on it. Mathematically
symmetry operations (like the rotation of a vector in three dimensional space)
are represented by groups and you have studied about these in Unit 19 of
MPH-001. In this unit we study how a symmetry operation is defined in
quantum mechanics and understand how this leads us to the theorems on the
conservation of various quantities in quantum mechanical systems.
Quantum mechanical systems are described by states and all transformations
of the quantum mechanical system are described by operators acting on
states. You must remember that in quantum mechanics (Unit 11, MPH-004),
the average measured value of an observable for a physical system, (say A) is
the expectation value of the operator ( Â ) in the state (  ) of the system
Eugene Paul "E.P." n
Wigner (1902-995),
Hungarian American
which is  Aˆ    ai  i  2 where  i are the eigenkets of  . So the
i 1
physicist and result of any measurement depends on the transition amplitudes between
mathematician, received
quantum states and therefore a symmetry transformation on a quantum
a share of the Nobel
Prize in Physics in 1963
system is one that leaves these transition amplitudes between states
"for his contributions to unchanged. This is the underlying principle of the mathematical formulation of
the theory of the atomic symmetries like translation, rotation, parity, time reversal etc.
nucleus and the
There is also a famous theorem by Eugene Wigner (read the margin remark)
elementary particles,
particularly through the called Wigner’s theorem which states that a symmetry transformation in the
discovery and Hilbert space of states could be represented by either a unitary or an anti-
application of unitary operator . We will be using both of these concepts in defining
fundamental symmetry symmetry transformations in quantum systems in this Unit and the next .
principles". His work laid
the foundation for the We first derive the operators that represent the symmetry operations on a
theory of symmetries in quantum mechanical system like space and time translation, rotation,
quantum mechanics. reflection etc and then we study the action of these operators on states and on
operators.
In Sec. 1.2 we study about space translation. We define the space translation
operator and show how linear momentum is the generator of space translation.
We study about rotation in Sec.1.3 and derive the expression for the rotation
operator. We also use the properties of rotation groups that you have studied in
10
Unit 1 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics-I
MPH-003 and show how the angular momentum operator is the generator of
rotations in quantum systems. In Sec. 1.4 we study time translation and derive
the expression for the time-translation operator. In Sec. 1.5 we study how the
general ideas of symmetry lead us to the conservation laws and degeneracies in
the eigenstates of the Hamiltonian.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you will understand:

 the space translation operator for infinitesimal and finite space translation
and be able to establish its properties;

 that linear momentum is the generator of space translation;

 the matrix representation of the rotation operator for infinitesimal and finite
rotation about an axis and establish its properties;

 that angular momentum is the generator of rotation;

 the commutation relations between the linear momentum and angular

momentum operators from symmetry considerations;

 the time-translation operator and explain the effect of time translation on

the state kets and observables; and

 derive the conservation laws that follow from different symmetry

operations.

1.2 SPACE TRANSLATION

In Unit 10 of MPH-001 you have learnt that the state  of a quantum system
may be represented in terms of the position eigenkets x which are
eigenstates of the position operator x̂ . The one-dimensional wave function
wave function (x ) corresponding to the state vector  in the x basis is:
( x)  x  . There is a natural extension of this idea to three dimensions as
   
follows: (r )  r  where r is the position vector and r  x, y , z is the
 
simultaneous eigenket of the operators xˆ , yˆ, zˆ : xˆ r  x r ;
    
yˆ r  y r ; zˆ r  z r . In order that r be a simultaneous eigenket of xˆ , yˆ, zˆ ,
the uncertainty in the simultaneous measurement of all these three

observables for any state r must also be zero and therefore(Unit 11, MPH-
004):

xˆ, yˆ   yˆ, zˆ   zˆ, xˆ   0 (1.1)

To keep the discussion simple, we consider a one-dimensional quantum

system represented by the ket  and the one-dimensional wave function
(x ) described in a frame S which has its origin at O. Let us say that the
system is initially localized around the point x (as shown in Fig. 1.1(a)), so the
probability distribution has a maximum at x. Now consider an infinitesimal
translation of the system as a whole along the x-direction by an amount  x ,
11
maintaining the shape of the wavefunction, ( Fig. 1.1b ).
Block 1 Symmetry and Conservation Laws in Quantum Mechanics

(x )
(x )

x x x  x x

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.1: Infinitesimal space translation.

The system is now localized around the point x   x (the maximum of the
probability distribution is now at x   x ). So the wave function is displaced to
the right by a distance  x . Let us say that the system is now located at the
point x  where:
x  x   x (1.2)

This description is known as an active transformation, in which the coordinate

system remains the same but the state ket (physical system) is displaced. This
is in contrast to the passive transformation picture in which the state ket can
be assumed to be same and the coordinate system is displaced (in this case
the coordinate system would be displaced by   x ). Recollect that you have
studied in MPH-001 that both descriptions of transformations are completely
equivalent.
Let the transformed wave function at x   x   x be T (x ) (the subscript T is
to show that this is the wave function after the translation of the system). If we
now demand that the physics of the system remains invariant under a space
translation as defined in Eq. (1.2), we must have:
T ( x )  ( x ) (1.3)

Using Eq. (1.2) in Eq. (1.3) we can write:

T ( x   x )  ( x )  T ( x )  ( x   x ) (1.4a)

For an infinitesimal value of  x , we can write Eq. (1.4a) as:


T ( x )  ( x   x )  ( x )   x  terms in higher powers of  x
x
(1.4b)

Retaining only the first two terms in the expansion we get:

  
T ( x )  1   x ( x )  1  i x Kˆ x ( x ) (1.5a)
x   
 


where Kˆ x  i (1.5b)
x

12
Unit 1 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics-I
So the translation of the wavefunction is brought about by the action of an
operator K̂ x acting on (x ) . The operator K̂ x is called the generator of
infinitesimal translation along the x-axis.

Have you noticed that K̂ x looks familiar ? K̂ x can be related to the

  
momentum operator in quantum mechanics  pˆ x  i  :
 x 

pˆ
So: Kˆ x  x (1.5c)


Eq. (1.5a) can be written as:

 pˆ 
T ( x )  1  i x x ( x ) (1.6)
  

The momentum operator in quantum mechanics is therefore proportional

to the generator of infinitesimal translations.

We can carry out the same analysis for the transformation of the three

dimensional wave function (r ) under an infinitesimal space translation
   
defined by r   r   , where  is a constant vector, to get:

  pˆ    
T ( r )   1  i (r ) (1.7)
  

where p̂  i .

The two different functional forms of the wave function, (x ) and T (x ) of the
same state  can also be taken to be the representation of the state  in
two different bases in Hilbert space , namely x and x  . So we can write:

( x )  x  and T ( x )  x   (1.8)

So the problem of transformation of wave functions a under space translation

is equivalent to the problem of the transformation of the bases under space
translation. Let us now look at how the transformation of bases takes place.

1.2.1 Space Translation Operator

We start by formally defining a translation operator Tˆ ( x ) which has the
following action:
Tˆ ( x ) x  x   x (1.9)

There could be an arbitrary phase factor in the RHS of Eq. (1.9), which we
take to be unity. A particle in the state x is located at x. When the operator
Tˆ ( ) acts on the state x , it is transformed to the state x   . A particle in
x
the state x   x is located at x   x .

Let us look at the effect of the translation operator on an arbitrary state  .

Since x form a bases, by introducing the identity operator  dx x x  Î we
can write: 13
Block 1 Symmetry and Conservation Laws in Quantum Mechanics


Tˆ ( x )   Tˆ ( x )  dx x x     dx Tˆ( x ) x  x    dx x   x x 

(1.10)
Defining x   x   x , Eq. (1.10) reduces to

Tˆ ( x )    dx  x  x    x  (1.11)

x  being a dummy variable, Eq. (1.11) can also be written as

Tˆ ( x )    dx x x   x  (1.12)

Using the definition ( x)  x  , we can write

x Tˆ ( x )   ( x   x ) (1.13)

This tells us the translated wave function is just the original wavefunction
translated to the right by an amount  x .

The next step is to deduce a form for the translation operator. We ask that the
translation operator defined in Eq. (1.9) have the following properties:

 Tˆ (  x )  Tˆ ( x )1 (1.14a)

To prove this property, let us first consider two successive infinitesimal

translations  x and  along the x-axis, given by Tˆ ( ) and Tˆ (  )
respectively. From Eq. (1.9) we can write:

Tˆ (  x ) x  x   x ; Tˆ (  ) x   x  x   x   (1.14b)

Therefore:

Tˆ ( )Tˆ ( ) x  x   x    Tˆ ( )Tˆ ( x )  Tˆ (   x ) (1.14c)

Now suppose that    x . Then

Tˆ (  x )Tˆ (  x ) x  x  Tˆ (  x )Tˆ (  x )  ˆI  Tˆ (  x )  Tˆ (  x ) 1

 Tˆ ( ) is a unitary operator: Tˆ ( x )† Tˆ ( x )  Î (1.15)

If the state  is normalized, that is:    1 , it is reasonable to impose

the condition that Tˆ (  )  is also normalized, hence we should have:
x

 Tˆ ( x )† Tˆ ( x )   1  Tˆ ( x )† Tˆ ( x )  Î

 Tˆ ( x )†  Tˆ (  x ) (1.16)

For any unitary operator Û we know that Uˆ 1  Uˆ † , so using Eq. (1.14)

we can write: Tˆ ( x )†  Tˆ ( x ) 1  Tˆ (  x ) .

 As   0 , Tˆ (  x )  Î (1.17)

You may now like to work through an SAQ on these properties.

14
Unit 1 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics-I
SAQ 1
a) Show that Tˆ ( x )Tˆ ( )  Tˆ ( )Tˆ ( x ) .

b) Show that (i) Tˆ ( x )    Tˆ (  x ) ; ii) Tˆ ( x ) Tˆ ( x )    .

Notice that we have not yet imposed any particular form for the translation
operator. We now show that if we choose the translation operator for an
infinitesimal translation  x to be of the form:

Tˆ ( x )  ˆI  i x Kˆ x (1.18)

 
where K̂ x is a Hermitian operator Kˆ x †  Kˆ x , then it satisfies all the properties
listed above. Let us check a few of these.
 Unitarity

From Eq. (1.17) we can write (using Kˆ x †  Kˆ x ) : Tˆ † ( x )  ˆI  i x Kˆ x .

  
Hence Tˆ † ( x )Tˆ ( x )  ˆI  i x Kˆ x ˆI  i x Kˆ x  ˆI   x 2Kˆ x 2  ˆI

if we neglect terms of order  x 2 , since  x is infinitesimal.

 For any two infinitesimal translations  x and  x ,

Tˆ (  x )Tˆ ( x )  Tˆ ( x   x )

From Eq. (1.17): Tˆ ( x )  ˆI  i x Kˆ x and hence

  
Tˆ ( x )Tˆ ( x )  ˆI  i x Kˆ x ˆI  i x Kˆ x  ˆI  i  x   x Kˆ x

 Tˆ ( x   x ) (1.19)

where we once again neglect the higher order terms.

The properties in Eqs. (1.14 and 1.16) are also true as is Eq. (1.17).

SAQ 2

For Tˆ ( x )  ˆI  i  x Kˆ x show that:

i) Tˆ (  x )†  Tˆ (  x ) ; ii) Tˆ (  x )  Tˆ (  x ) 1 .

Using the form of the translation operator in Eq. (1.18), it is possible to prove
an important property of the Hermitian operator K̂ x .

Let us consider the action of the position operator x̂ on the state Tˆ ( x ) x .

Using Eq. (1.9) we get:
xˆTˆ ( x ) x  xˆ x   x   x   x  x   x (1.20)

Similarly:
Tˆ ( x )xˆ x  xˆ x   x   x Tˆ ( x ) x   x (1.21)

Therefore 15
Block 1 Symmetry and Conservation Laws in Quantum Mechanics
 
xˆTˆ ( x )  Tˆ ( x )xˆ x   x   x   x  x   x

 x x  x (1.22)

Now, using Eq. (1.18):

 
x   x  Tˆ ( x ) x  ˆI  i x Kˆ x x  x  i x Kˆ x x (1.23)

Substituting from Eq. (1.23) into Eq. (1.22) we get

 
 x x   x  ˆI  i x Kˆ x x   x x  i  x 2 Kˆ x x   x x (1.24)

In arriving at the result of Eq. (1.24) we have once again neglected terms of
the order of  x 2 . Using the result of Eq. (1.24) in Eq. (1.22), we can write:

xˆTˆ( x )  xˆTˆ ( x ) x  
  x x  xˆ ,Tˆ ( x )   x (1.25)

Using Eq. (1.18) win Eq. (1.25) we can write

xˆ , ˆI  i x Kˆ x    x  xˆ , ˆI   i x xˆ , Kˆ x    x (1.26)

Since xˆ , ˆI   0 we get the result:

 i x xˆ , Kˆ x    x  xˆ , Kˆ x   i (1.27)

Remember that the only conditions that we have imposed on the translation
operator is that  x is infinitesimal and K̂ is hermitian. We can extend the

analysis to a three dimensional infinitesimal translation  to write the
translation operator as:
 
Tˆ (  )  ˆI  i   Kˆ (1.28)

where K̂ has the components K̂ x , K̂ y and K̂ z and

xˆ , Kˆ x   i ; yˆ ,Kˆ y   i ; zˆ , Kˆ z   i (1.29)

1.2.2 Momentum as a Translation Generator

You have already seen how the momentum enters into the translation
operator for the wave function. We arrive at the same conclusion from the
formal definition of the translation operator. Notice that the commutation
relations proved in Eqs. (1.27) show that the commutation relation of the
operator K̂ with the position operators are similar to those between the
momentum operator and the position operator.

At this point we invoke a concept familiar to you from classical mechanics. In

the unit on canonical transformations you have studied that an infinitesimal
translation can be written as the following canonical transformation:
Q  q  q ; P  p

The generating function for this transformation is:

F (q, P )  qP  qP (1.30)

Now since F (q, P )  qP is the generator of the identity transform

(Q = q; P = p), it appears that the form of the translation operator for
16 infinitesimal translation in quantum mechanics is similar to the one in classical
Unit 1 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics-I
mechanics (compare Eqs. 1.18 and 1.30). So it seems reasonable to infer that
the operator K̂ x is related to the momentum operator in some way. However it
is also necessary that the quantity  x K̂ x be dimensionless for which K̂ x must
have the unit of inverse length. Therefore K̂ x cannot be pˆ x . However, if we
p̂
take K̂ x to be x then the dimensions of K̂ would be appropriate.

So in Eq. (1.28) we take:
pˆ
Kˆ x  x . (1.31)


Then, on substituting for K̂ x from Eq.(1.31) into Eq. (1.27) we get back the
commutation relations: xˆ , pˆ x   i . So the definition is consistent with all the
properties of the translation operation and the basic commutation rules. So the
translation operator for an infinitesimal translation of  x along the x-direction is

 pˆ
Tˆ (  x )  ˆI  i x x (1.32)


For a 3D translation,  , the translation operator is

   pˆ
Tˆ (  )  ˆI  i (1.33)


Substituting from Eq. (1.31) into Eq. (1.29) we get back the familiar
commutation relations: xˆ , pˆ x   i ; yˆ , pˆ y   i ; zˆ , pˆ z   i

Hence in quantum mechanics, momentum is the generator of infinitesimal

space translation.
We can now say that a finite translation  x is made up of N infinitesimal

translations of magnitude x , in the limit of N   . Using Eq. (1.19) in
N
Eq. (1.9) we can write:
N
  pˆ    pˆ 
Tˆ ( x )  lim N    ˆI  i x x   exp  i x x  (1.34)
 N    

We may write:

  pˆ 
x   x  exp  i x x  x (1.35a)
  

For a finite translation   (  x ,  y ,  z ), Eq. (1.32) reduces to:

    pˆ    x pˆ x   y pˆ y   z pˆ z 
Tˆ (  )  exp   i   exp   i  (1.35b)
     

It is also true that translations in different directions commute. In other words,

a translation of  x in the x-direction followed by a translation  y in the
y-direction is equivalent to translation  y in the y-direction followed by a
translation of  x in the x-direction. In terms of the translation operator this
 
means that Tˆ (  x )Tˆ (  y )  Tˆ (  y )Tˆ (  x ) or Tˆ (  x ),Tˆ (  y )  0 . This property 17
Block 1 Symmetry and Conservation Laws in Quantum Mechanics
can be used to prove the commutation relation between the different
components of the momentum operator.

SAQ 3
 
Use Eq. (1.32) to show pˆ x , pˆ y  0 .

From the results of SAQ 3, we can write Eq. (1.35b) as:

   pˆ    y pˆ y    pˆ 
Tˆ (  )  exp  i x x  exp  i  exp  i z z  (1.35c)
        

This is a consequence of the fact that translations in different directions

commute. An equation of this kind is not true for the rotation operator.
We have said earlier that symmetry transformations are mathematically
represented by groups. Whenever the generators of a transformation
commute, the group of transformations is said to be Abelian. The translation
group in three dimensions is therefore an Abelian group.
We now go on to discuss the transformation of a quantum mechanical system
due to rotation.

1.3 ROTATION
As we have done for space translation, let us first look at how the wave
function of a particle changes with a rotation of the system. Consider a

quantum system represented by the wave function ( r )  ( x, y , z ) and after

rotation the wave function is  R ( r )   R ( x , y , z ) .

Let us consider that the rotation of the system is by an angle  about the z-
axis (Fig. 1.2). Let us say that the system is localized at ( x, y , z ) before the
rotation and at ( x  , y  , z  ) after the rotation.

x

(r )

y

Fig. 1.2: Rotation about the z-axis.

The coordinates ( x, y , z ) and ( x  , y  , z ) are related as follows

x   x cos   y sin  ; y   x sin   y cos  ; z   z (1.36)

For an infinitesimal value of the rotation angle  , sin   and cos   1 , so

the transformation of Eq. (1.36) is:
18
Unit 1 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics-I
x   x  y  ; y   x   y ; z  z (1.37)

We can now assume that the value of the initial wave function of the system at
the point ( x, y , z ) , i.e. ( x, y , z ) must be equal to value of the final wave
function at ( x  , y  , z  ) . i.e.  R ( x  , y  , z  ) . So :

 R ( x  , y  , z  )  ( x, y , z ) (1.38a)

which can also be written as (using Eq. 1.36):

 R ( x  , y  , z  )  ( x   y  , y   x  , z0 ) (1.38b)

Since Eq. (1.38b) holds for all ( x , y , z ) , we can write

 R ( x, y , z )  ( x  y, y  x, z ) (1.38c)

Eq. (1.38c) can be written as:

 
 R ( x, y , z )   ( x, y , z )  y  x  terms with higher powers of 
x y
(1.39)
Dropping the terms with higher powers of  , we write:
   
 R ( x, y , z )  ( x, y , z )   x y ( x, y , z )
 y x 
    
 1  i  ix  iy  ( x, y , z )
  y x 
 Lˆ 
 1  i z  ( x, y , z ) (1.40)
  

where L̂z is the z-component of the angular momentum operator as defined in

Unit 4 of MPH-004. So we can see that the z-component of the angular
momentum operator acts as the generator of the infinitesimal rotation about
the z-axis.
We now formally derive the rotation operator in quantum mechanics. In
Sec. 1.3.1 we revise what you have studied about rotation in three
dimensional space in Unit 19 of MPH-001, which are also called geometrical
rotations. Here, as you will remember, a 33 orthogonal matrix, which is the
rotation matrix, operates on a column matrix which are the components of
classical vector. The result is a column matrix, which are the three
components of the rotated vector. This is purely a classical concept.
In quantum mechanics, on the other hand, we are interested in deriving a
rotation operator (like the translation operator in Sec. 1.2), which acts on a
state ket in Hilbert space (though quantum mechanical operators can be
represented by matrices in a basis). The properties of the rotation matrices
related to geometrical rotations are used to deduce some properties of the
rotation operator in quantum mechanics. For example for every rotation in
three-dimensional space represented by a 3  3 matrix, there exists
corresponding rotation operator R̂ in state space. The group of rotation
operators have the same properties of identity, inverse, associativity and
closure as the rotation matrices. You will not be tested on the contents of
Sec. 1.3.1. This is being provided only for completeness. You are just required
to know the properties of rotation operators (Eqs. 1.46, 1.47a-e) 19
Block 1 Symmetry and Conservation Laws in Quantum Mechanics
1.3.1 The Rotation Group
From undergraduate physics courses you will remember that while rotations
about the same axis commute, rotations about different axes do not. For
example a rotation of  about the z-axis, followed by a rotation of  about the
z-axis is equivalent to a rotation of  about the z-axis followed by a rotation of
 about the z-axis. But a rotation of  about the z-axis, followed by a rotation of
 about the x-axis is not equivalent to a rotation of  about the x-axis followed
by a rotation of  about the z-axis. In this sense rotations are different from
space translations.
You have studied about rotations in three dimensional space in Unit 19 of
MPH-001, which are also called geometrical rotations. We state here the
important results related to rotation from this Unit:
 Rotations of a vector in three-dimensional space about a fixed point are
represented by 3  3 real orthogonal matrices of determinant  1 which

form the group SO(3). A vector r ( x, y , z ) after rotation is transformed to a
  
vector r  ( x , y , z ) as r   Rr where R is the rotation matrix:

 x    R11 R12 R13   x 

    
    
 y     R 21 R 22 R 23   y 
    
 z   R R 32 R 33   z 
   31
 The rotation can be about a fixed axis, in which not just a single point but
a whole line remains fixed and these rotations are represented by a single
parameter which is the angle of rotation about the axis. An example of this
is a rotation of the kind described in Eq. (1.36) which can be written
as(Unit 19, MPH-001):
 x 0   cos   sin  0  x 0 
    
      
r0  R z ()r0   y 0    sin  cos  0  y 0  (1.41a)
    
 z   0 0 1  z0 
 0 

 cos   sin  0
 
 
where the rotation matrix is R z ()   sin  cos  0 (1.41b)
 
 0 0 1 

The subscript z in Eq. (1.41b) indicates that the rotation is about the z-axis
and  is the magnitude of rotation. The one-parameter group of rotations
about an axis is SO(2) which is a sub group of SO(3).
 Since rotations about a fixed axis add up, it is possible to construct a finite
rotation about a fixed axis by adding up a large number of infinitesimal
rotations. An infinitesimal rotation  about the z-axis can be written as:

20
Unit 1 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics-I

 2 3 
1   ...   ... 0
 2! 3! 
 3 2 
R z ( )     1 0
 3! 2! 
 0 0 1 

 
2
 I  A z  Az 2  ...  exp(Az ) (1.42a)
2!
where the matrix Az is said to be the generator of the infinitesimal rotation
 about the z-axis. Similar rotation matrices R x and R y can be defined for
infinitesimal rotations about the x and y-axes respectively:
R x ( )  exp( Ax ) ; R y ( )  exp( Ay ) (1.42b)

Ax and Ay are the corresponding generators. Remember all the matrices

Ri , Ai with i  x, y , z are 3  3 matrices.

 Rotations about different axes do not commute, for example

 
R x ()R y () r  R y ( )R x ()r . It can also be shown that Suppose that R̂ is the rotation
R y ( )R x ( ) R y ( )R x ( )  Rz ( ) (1.42c) operator corresponding to the
rotation matrix R and Î is the
The sequence of rotations (infinitesimal rotation by  about the x-axis, identity operator. Then
followed by an infinitesimal rotation by  about the y-axis, and then an  
inverse infinitesimal rotation about the x-axis by –  followed by an RI r  R r
infinitesimal rotation about the y-axis by angle –  is equivalent to an  
 Rˆ r  Rˆ I r
infinitesimal rotation by an angle  about the negative z-axis.
Similarly
Note that all these properties are purely the properties of the rotation of a
vector in a three dimensional vector space. We now describe the rotation  
Rˆ Rˆ 1 r  Rˆ R 1 r
operator in quantum mechanics.
 
 R R 1 r  r
1.3.2 Rotation Operator
 Rˆ Rˆ 1  Î
Now let us consider a quantum system in the state  . At this point we must
make it clear that we are considering a spinless physical system, which has Also
a scalar wave function in three-dimensional space. Suppose now, that the
   
physical system undergoes a rotation. The rotation of the system changes the Rˆ1 Rˆ 2 Rˆ 3  r   Rˆ1 R2 R3 r
physical system, so let us represent the state of the rotated system by the ket   
 R . Let us assume that the rotation is affected by a rotation operator R̂ so  
 R1 R2 R3 r  Rˆ 1 Rˆ 2 Rˆ 3 r
that: Similarly
 ˆ ˆ  ˆ   ˆ ˆ 
 R  Rˆ  (1.43)  R1 R2 R3 r   R1R2 R3r
 
    
where ( r )  r  . Under rotation the position vector for a point r ( x, y , z )  R1 R2 R3 r  Rˆ 1 Rˆ 2 Rˆ 3 r
  
transforms to r ( x  , y  , z ) as r   Rr where R is the rotation matrix. For the So

system to be symmetric under rotation we must have (Eq. 1.38a): Rˆ1 Rˆ 2 Rˆ 3    Rˆ1Rˆ 2 Rˆ 3
   
   
 R (r )  (r )   R (r )  (R 1r ) (1.44a)

And we can write Eq. (1.44a) as:

21
Block 1 Symmetry and Conservation Laws in Quantum Mechanics
  
 R (r )  r Rˆ   R 1r  (1.44b)


where R 1r are the basis kets for the rotated wave function. You know that
the operator R̂ is represented by a matrix. If the Hilbert space is
N-dimensional, the order of the matrix corresponding to the operator R̂ is
N  N . So if the Hilbert space is 2-dimensional, the matrix is 2  2 and so on.
In this respect the matrix corresponding to the rotation operator R̂ is different
from the rotation matrices R you have studied about in Unit 19 of MPH-001,
because they are always 3  3 and act on the three components of a three
dimensional classical vector.

Before we move on to construct the rotation operator, let us deduce some of

its properties.
 R̂ is a unitary operator

From Eq. (1.44b), since the state vector  is arbitrary we can write:
 
r Rˆ  R 1r (1.45a)

 
which has the Hermitian conjugate: Rˆ † r  R 1r (1.45b)

 
However we also know that while r represents a system localised at r ,
 
Rˆ r represents a rotated system which is now localised at Rr , so we can
As you know, the write:
rotation matrices
 
satisfy the property of Rˆ r  Rr (1.45c)
closure, therefore for
any two rotation 
Now let us consider the action of Rˆ Rˆ † on a state r . From Eq. (1.45b) we
matrices, R1 and R 2
which are elements of get
the rotation group, we
can write: R1R 2  R3  
  
  
Rˆ Rˆ † r  Rˆ R 1r  Rˆ Rˆ † r  RR 1r  Rˆ Rˆ †  Î (1.46)
where R 3 is also an
element of the rotation The rotation operators also have another important property.
group.
 The set of rotation operators R̂ form a representation of the rotation
group

In other words, for every rotation in three-dimensional space represented

Suppose that R̂ is the by a 3  3 matrix, there exists corresponding rotation operator R̂ in state
rotation operator
space. The importance of this property is that the rotation operators
corresponding to the
rotation matrix R and Î
should have the same group properties as the rotation group.
is the identity operator.
Suppose we associate the rotation operators Rˆ 1 , Rˆ 2 and R̂3 to the
Then
  rotation matrices R1 , R2 and R3 respectively that is (Eq. 1.43c):
RI r  R r
       
 Rˆ r  Rˆ I r Rˆ 1 r  R1r ; Rˆ 2 r  R 2 r ; Rˆ 3 r  R 3 r (1.47a)
Contd.....
So:

 
   
Rˆ 1 Rˆ 2 r  Rˆ 1  R2 r   Rˆ 1Rˆ 2 r  R1R2r
22
Unit 1 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics-I
Since we know that because R1R 2  R3 (see margin remark), Eq. (1.45a)
can also be written as
 
Rˆ 1Rˆ 2 r  R3 r  Rˆ 1Rˆ 2  Rˆ 3 (1.47b)

Similarly we have (see margin remark):

Rˆ ˆI  Rˆ (1.47c)

Rˆ Rˆ 1  Î (1.47d)

  
Rˆ 1 Rˆ 2 Rˆ 3  Rˆ 1Rˆ 2 Rˆ 3 (1.47e) Contd.....
Similarly
You can prove some of the properties of the rotation operators in the following
 
SAQ. Rˆ Rˆ 1 r  Rˆ R 1 r
 
 R R 1 r  r
SAQ 4
 Rˆ Rˆ 1  Î
a) Show that the rotation operator R̂ is linear.
Also
b) Show that the rotation operator conserves the scalar product, i.e. for any
two states  and  , is 
Rˆ 1 Rˆ 2 Rˆ \ 3  r



 R  Rˆ  and  R  Rˆ  we have R   .  Rˆ 1 R 2 R3 r

 R1 R 2 R 3 r
Let us now construct the general operator R̂ for an infinitesimal rotation  
 Rˆ 1 Rˆ 2 Rˆ 3 r
about a fixed axis, characterized by the unit vector n̂ . In analogy with
Eq. (1.18) for the translation operator, let us assume that the infinitesimal Similarly
rotation operator has the form: Rˆ 1 Rˆ 2 Rˆ 3 r 

 Rˆ 1Rˆ 2 R3 r
Rˆ n ()  ˆI  iKˆ (1.48)

 R1 R 2 R 3 r
where K̂ is a Hermitian operator, which is the generator of the rotation. Just 
 Rˆ 1 Rˆ 2 Rˆ 3 r
as we have shown that the generator of translation in any direction is related
to the corresponding linear momentum in that direction, let us start with the
assumption that the orbital angular momentum operator L̂ is related to the
generator of infinitesimal rotation and so:

Rˆ n ( )  ˆI  i
Lˆ  nˆ  (1.49)


where Rˆ n () is the rotation operator for an infinitesimal rotation  about the
direction specified by the unit vector n̂ . You can check for yourself that the
operator Rˆ (nˆ ) is unitary.

Now if the infinitesimal rotation is z about the z-axis, we can write:

 Lˆ
Rˆ z ( z )  ˆI  i z z (1.50a)


And for the rotations  x and  y about the x and y axes respectively we have:

 Lˆ
Rˆ x ( x )  ˆI  i x x (1.50b)
 23
Block 1 Symmetry and Conservation Laws in Quantum Mechanics
 y Lˆy
Rˆ y (  y )  ˆI  i (1.50c)


Rotations about different axes do not commute. So in general

Rˆ x ( x )Rˆ y ( y )  Rˆ y ( y )Rˆ x ( x ) .

Let us now use the definition of the rotation operators and the one-to-one
correspondence between the rotation operators and the rotation group to
derive the angular momentum commutation relations.

From Eq. (1.42c) we can write for infinitesimal rotations  x ,  y and  z about
the x , y and z axes respectively:

Rˆ y (  y )Rˆ x ( x ) Rˆ y ( y )Rˆ x (  x )  Rˆ z ( x  y ) (1.51)

Expanding the functions in Eq. (1.51) up to the first term only we get:
  Lˆ  ˆ  ˆ  y Lˆ y  ˆ   ˆ  x  y Lˆ z 
 ˆI  i y y  ˆI  i  x L x  I  i  ˆI  i  x L x    I  i  (1.52)
           
      
which can be written as:
  Lˆ ˆ     Lˆ ˆ   
 ˆI  i y y  i  x L x  y x Lˆ y Lˆ x  ˆI  i y y  i  x L x  y x Lˆ y Lˆ x 
    2     2 
  
  x  y Lˆ z 
  Î  i  (1.53a)
  
 
Dropping terms of order higher than  y  x , we get from Eq. (1.53a):

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆI  i  y Ly  i  x Lx  i  y Ly  i  x L x   x  y Ly L x   x  y Lx Ly  2  x  y Ly L x
    2 2 2
 x  y Lˆz
 ˆI  i

which is:
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆI   x  y Ly Lx   x  y Lx Ly  ˆI  i  x  y Lz (1.53b)
2 2 
Thus we get:
Lˆx ,Lˆy   iLˆz (1.54)

So we get back the angular momentum commutation relation (Unit 4,

MPH-004) from the properties of the rotation operator. We can derive the
remaining commutation relations in a similar fashion.

SAQ 5

Using the properties of the rotation operator show that Lˆy , Lˆz  iLˆ x .  
Now a finite rotation can be thought of as the result of a large number of
successive infinitesimal rotations. For example, writing a finite rotation z
24
Unit 1 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics-I
z
about the z-axis as N successive infinitesimal rotations each equal to , in
N
the limit of N   , we can write:
N
  Lˆ    Lˆ 
Rˆ z ( z )  limN    ˆI  i z z   exp   i z z  (1.55a)
 N    
Similarly:
  Lˆ  ˆ   y Lˆ y 
Rˆ x (  x )  exp   i x x  ; R y (  y )  exp   i  (1.55b)
     
 
In analogy with Eq. (1.49) we can write the rotation operator for a finite rotation
 about the direction n̂ as

  Lˆ  nˆ 
Rˆ n ()  exp   i  (1.56)
  
 

which is

x x
  Lˆ nˆ  Lˆ nˆ  Lˆ nˆ
y y z z  
R n ( )  exp  i
ˆ (1.57)
  
 
n̂ x , n̂ y and n̂ z are the components of the vector n̂ along the x, y and z
axes, respectively. However the components of the angular momentum
operators do not commute so:


  Lˆ nˆ  Lˆ nˆ  Lˆ nˆ
x x y y z z   
 Lˆ x nˆ x 


 Lˆ y nˆ y 
 
 Lˆz nˆ z 

exp   i  exp   i  exp   i  exp   i 
       
 
       

You can check for yourself that the rotation operators for finite rotations
defined in Eqs. (1.55 and 1.57) are also unitary.
At this you should also note that we have not yet explicitly used the definition
of the angular momentum operators in terms of the Cartesian operators, for
example Lˆ z  xˆpˆ y  yˆpˆ x .

SAQ 6
a) Show that the rotation operators for finite rotations are unitary.
b) Rˆ z (2)  Î

The discussion of this section for spinless particles can be extended to particle
with spin by replacing the orbital angular momentum L̂ by the total angular
momentum Jˆ  Lˆ  Sˆ . So we can write for infinitesimal rotations  x ,  x and
 y about the x , y and z axes respectively :

 Jˆ  y Jˆy  Jˆ
Rˆ x (  x )  ˆI  i x x ; Rˆ y ( y )  ˆI  i ; Rˆ z ( z )  ˆI  i z z (1.58a)
  
And for the finite rotations  x ,  x and  y about the x , y and z axes
respectively we have : 25
Block 1 Symmetry and Conservation Laws in Quantum Mechanics
  Jˆ    Jˆ  ˆ
Rˆ x ( x )  exp   i x x  ; Rˆ y ( y )  exp   i y y ; Rˆ ( )  exp   i  z J z 

     z z   
     
(1.58b)
Next let us study how an observable O changes under the rotation of the
system.
1.3.3 Rotation of an Observable
Consider an operator Ô which describes an observable O of the physical
system. Let 1 ,  2 ….  n be the eigenkets corresponding to the discrete
non-degenerate eigenvalues of Ô :

Oˆ i  ai i (1.59a)

Any arbitrary state of the system can be written as a superposition of the

eigenkets of Ô .
We now want to find how the observable is affected by the rotation of the
physical system. Let us now suppose that the system is in the eigenstate i .
If now we measure the observable O (using some measuring device) we
would get the value ai . Now let us assume that both the system and the
measuring device are rotated (a geometrical rotation described by the matrix
R). Since there is no change in the physical system with respect to the
measuring device, the result of the measurement should still be ai . So
basically while we have:
i R  Rˆ i (1.59b)

Yet:

Oˆ R i R  ai i R  OˆRRˆ i  ai Rˆ i (1.59c)

Multiplying Eq. (1.59c) from the left by R̂ † we get

Rˆ †Oˆ R Rˆ  i  ai Rˆ † Rˆ  i (1.59d)

Since the rotation operator is unitary ( Rˆ † Rˆ  Î ) we get:

Rˆ †Oˆ Rˆ   a   Oˆ 
R i i i i (1.59e)
Hence we get:
Rˆ †Oˆ R Rˆ  Oˆ  Oˆ R  Rˆ Oˆ Rˆ † (1.60)
Suppose we have an infinitesimal rotation described by
Jˆ  nˆ
Rˆ n ( )  ˆI  i , then Eq. (1.60) is (upto first order in ):

Jˆ  nˆ  ˆ  ˆ Jˆ  nˆ  ˆ i ˆ

Oˆ R  Rˆ Oˆ Rˆ †   ˆI  i

O I  i


  O  J  nˆ,Oˆ

 (1.61)
   

SAQ 7

Calculate the expectation value of Ŝ x for a spin-half system under a finite

rotation  about the z-axis.
26
Unit 1 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics-I

1.4 TIME TRANSLATION

In Unit 11 of MPH-004, we have already discussed the time evolution operator
for a state ket. Given an initial state of the system (0) (at t = 0), using
Eqs. (11.32 and 11.41) of Unit 11 of MPH-004, we know that the state vector
at time t , (t ) is connected to the initial state (0) by a unitary time
iHˆ t

evolution operator, Uˆ (t ) : (t )  Uˆ (t ) (0) where Uˆ (t )  e  . In general
we can write, if (t 0 ) is the state ket (at t  t 0 ), then:

iHˆ (t  t0 )

(t )  Uˆ (t , t 0 ) (t 0 ) ; Uˆ (t , t 0 )  e  ( t  t0 ) (1.62)

We also know that the condition that the inner product of the state vectors is
conserved, that is : (t (t  (t 0 ) | (t 0 ) requires the unitarity of the time
evolution operator. Another important property of the time evolution operator,
is that the time evolution of a state from t 0 to t 2 is equivalent to a time
evolution of the state from t 0 to t1 followed by a time evolution from t1 to t 2 :

(t )  Uˆ (t 2 , t 0 ) (t 0 )
iHˆ ( t 2  t0 )

e   (t 0 )

 iHˆ (t 2  t1)  iHˆ ( t1  t0 )

e  ( t 0 )
iHˆ ( t 2  t1) iHˆ ( t1  t0 )
 
e  e  ( t 0 )

 Uˆ (t 2 , t1 )Uˆ (t1, t 0 ) (t 0 ) (1.63)

So
Uˆ (t 2 , t 0 )  Uˆ (t 2 , t1 )Uˆ (t1, t 0 ) (1.64)

Let us derive the time translation operator in the same way that we derive the
space translation and rotation operators. We first talk about an infinitesimal
time translation as we have in the previous two sections. Consider the
evolution of a state vector (t 0 ) over an infinitesimal time interval  . So:

(t 0  )  Uˆ (t 0  , t 0 ) (t 0 ) (1.65)

For continuity of the wave function, in the limit of   0 , we must have
(t 0  )  (t 0 ) . Hence we can write from Eq. (1.65):

lim   0 Uˆ (t 0  , t 0 )  Î (1.66)

As before we assume that the time translation operator for an infinitesimal time
 can be written as (Eq. 1.48)

Uˆ ()  ˆI  iKˆ (1.67a)

where the generator of time-translation K̂ is Hermitian. Clearly the unit of K̂

is time inverse. From classical mechanics we already that the Hamiltonian is

27
Block 1 Symmetry and Conservation Laws in Quantum Mechanics
Hˆ
the generator of time translation. With this idea, let us write: Kˆ  and then

Eq. (1.66a) reduces to:
Hˆ
Uˆ ( )  ˆI  i (1.67b)

You can check for yourself that the time translation operator for infinitesimal
time translation is unitary:
Uˆ ()† Uˆ ()  Î (1.68a)
And for infinitesimal translations 1 and 2 :

Uˆ (1  2 )  Uˆ (1 )Uˆ (2 ) (1.68b)

SAQ 8

Show that i) Uˆ ()† Uˆ ()  Î ; and ii) Uˆ (1  2 )  Uˆ (1 )Uˆ (2 ).
A finite time translation  can now be constructed by dividing the time interval

 into a large number (N) of infinitesimal time intervals to write:
N
N
ˆ ˆ Hˆ   Hˆ 

U ()  limN   I  i   exp i  (1.69)
 N  
  
which is identical to the time evolution operator of Eq. (1.62) with t  t 0   .

The expectation value of an observable A at any instant of time t for a

general state (t ) of the system is,
Aˆ (t )  (t ) Aˆ (t )  (t 0 ) Uˆ (t , t 0 )† Aˆ Uˆ (t , t 0 ) (t 0 ) (1.70)

If the initial state t 0  0  is an eigenstate of the Hamiltonian, say Ei , then

we get (Eq. 11.49 of MPH-004):
iEi t iEi t

Aˆ (t )  E i (t ) Aˆ E i (t )  E e  Aˆ e  E  E i Aˆ E i (1.71)

So Aˆ (t ) remains constant with time. However if the initial state is not an

eigenstate of Ĥ , we can write the initial state (0) as a superposition of the
eigenkets of Ĥ :
 (0 )   ci Ei (1.72a)
i

Also:
iHˆ t iHˆ t iEi t
  
 (t )  e  (0)   ci e  Ei   ci e  Ei (1.72b)
i i
iHˆ t iEi t
(t )  (0) e    ci Ei e  (1.72c)
i

The expectation value of  at time t is

28
Unit 1 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics-I
iHˆ t iHˆ t

Aˆ (t )  (0) e  Aˆ e  (0)

 iE j t   iE t 
 i

  cj Ej e 
 j   i

 Aˆ  c i e  E i 

  
i Ei  E j t

  c i c j E j Aˆ E i e  (1.73)
i j

E i Ej 
If we write   ij then we get:

iij t

Aˆ (t )   c i c j E j Aˆ E i e  (1.74)
i j

So the expectation value has oscillatory terms with angular frequencies  ij .

With this we come to the end of our description of the transformation of the
wavefunction / state ket describing the physical state of the system and
observables under space and time translation and rotation of the physical
system.
Note that all these operations on the physical system, involve changes that
can be looked upon as successive infinitesimal changes (translation or
rotation). So these are continuous transformations. However all
transformations in quantum mechanics are not continuous transformations.
They can involve discrete changes. We will look at these in the next Unit.
We now discuss what how symmetry operations lead us to the conservation
principles.

1.5 CONSERVATION LAWS

We start with the ideas that are familiar to you from Classical Mechanics
(MPH-002 and MPH-006). In MPH-002 you studied the EL equation of motion
for the Lagrangian of a system L(qi , qi , t ) :

d  L  L
  0
dt  q i  q i
L
When L does not contain q i ( q i is a cyclic coordinate), then  0 and
q i
d  L 
   0  pi  constant . If L is not a function of q i , this also means
dt  q i 
that L is invariant under an infinitesimal translation defined by q i  q i  q i .
So the invariance of L under a translation of the coordinate q i implies that the
canonical momentum p i corresponding to the generalized coordinate q i is a
constant of motion or as we usually say: p i is a conserved quantity.

Similarly in the Hamiltonian formulation in MPH-006, you have seen that if

H
 0 , the momentum pi is a constant of motion.
q i

29
Block 1 Symmetry and Conservation Laws in Quantum Mechanics
So whenever the Lagrangian or the Hamiltonian of a system are invariant
under a translation or have a symmetry corresponding to the translation
q i  q i  q i , there is a conserved quantity, which is the momentum.

Now we have already defined the operators for space and time translation and
rotation in Secs. 1.2 to 1.4. We know that the unitary operator for infinitesimal
translation or rotation  is:
Sˆ ( )  ˆI  iKˆ (1.75)

where K̂ , the generator of the transformation, is Hermitian. In anticipation of

this being a symmetry operator, that is, an operation which leaves the physical
system unchanged, we denote the operator by Ŝ .
For the physical system to be invariant under a symmetry operation, the
Hamiltonian Ĥ of the system is not changed by the symmetry operation Ŝ .
Suppose the effect of Sˆ ( ) on a state  is :

Sˆ ()    S   Sˆ † ( )   S (1.76)

Let us now say that invariance of the system under the symmetry
operation Ŝ implies that the following is true:
 Hˆ    S Hˆ  S   Hˆ    Sˆ † Hˆ Sˆ  (1.77a)

which gives us : Sˆ † Hˆ Sˆ  Hˆ  Sˆ, Hˆ  0  (1.77b)

From Eq. (1.75) we have Sˆ † (  )  ˆI  iKˆ , so Eq. (1.77a) becomes, on

retaining terms upto order :
  
 Hˆ    ˆI  iKˆ Hˆ ˆI  iKˆ  
  Hˆ   iKˆHˆ  Hˆ Kˆ 

  Hˆ   i  Kˆ , Hˆ  (1.78)

From this we get that for the Hamiltonian Ĥ of the system to be invariant under
the symmetry operation Ŝ , we must have:
 Kˆ , Hˆ   0 (1.79)

From Ehrenfest’s theorem, we know that this implies that

d Kˆ
0 (1.80)
dt
So if the Hamiltonian of a physical system is unchanged under a translation or
rotation of the system defined by an operator Ŝ , Ŝ is a symmetry operation
and the generator of the symmetry operator is a constant of motion.
From Eq. (1.32) and (1.50) therefore we can say that:
 If the Hamiltonian of the system is invariant under translation, then

  pˆ
Tˆ † (  k )Hˆ Tˆ ( k )  Hˆ  Tˆ (  k ), Hˆ  0 where Tˆ ()  ˆI - i k . Therefore


30
 
pˆ k , Hˆ  0 and
d ˆk
p
dt
 0 . So the momentum pk is a constant of motion.
Unit 1 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics-I
The translational invariance of the Hamiltonian implies that the same
experiment performed at two different places in the earth will give the
same result (with respect to the local observers).
Every interaction known to man is translationally invariant, hence an
experiment repeated at any site will always give the same result. This is
why momentum conservation applies to any system irrespective of the
nature of the interactions in the system and reflects the homogeneity of
space.
 If the Hamiltonian of the system is invariant under rotation, then
   
Rˆ k † ( )Hˆ Rˆ k ( )  Hˆ where Rˆ k ( )  ˆI  iLˆk , so Rˆ k ( ),, Hˆ  Lˆk , Hˆ  0 and
d Lˆk
so  0 . The angular momentum Lk is a constant of motion and L̂k
dt
and Ĥ have a common set of eigenvectors.
L̂k can be written in terms of the operators xˆ i , pˆ i which transform under
rotation in the same way as their classical counterparts x i , pi as shown in
Eqs. (1.36). So if the operator Ĥ is invariant under rotation, it means that
the corresponding classical Hamiltonian is invariant too and vice-versa.
Hence the result of any experiment and its rotated version will be the
same.
 If the Hamiltonian Ĥ of the system is invariant under time-translation
Hˆ
Uˆ (  )  ˆI - i , then we must have that the result of an experiment

performed on the system at any instant of time must be identical.
Consider a system prepared in an initial state (t1 ) at time t1 which
undergoes an infinitesimal time-translation to the state (t1  ) . So

 Hˆ (t1 ) 
(t1   )   ˆI  i  ( t 1 )
  

where we assume that Hˆ  Hˆ (t ) has an explicit time dependence.

Suppose now that we repeat the experiment at time t 2 with the system in
the same initial state (t 2 )  (t1 ) . We now allow the system to
undergoes a time-translation to the state (t 2  ) , so :

 Hˆ (t 2 )   Hˆ (t 2 ) 
(t 2  )   ˆI  i  (t 2 )   ˆI  i  ( t 1 )
     

If the outcome of the experiment is to be the same at both instants of time,

we must have: (t 2   )  (t1   )  Hˆ (t 2 )  Hˆ (t1 )

Hence it follows that for the energy of the system Ĥ to be conserved, Ĥ

d Hˆ
must be time independent so that 0 .
dt
1.5.1 Symmetry and Degeneracies
From Eq. (1.77b), we see that a symmetry transformation gives us Sˆ , Hˆ . Now  
if Ei is an eigenstate of Ĥ with an eigenvalue Ei , then Ŝ E i is also an
31
Block 1 Symmetry and Conservation Laws in Quantum Mechanics
eigenstate of Ĥ with the same eigenvalue. Ei (SAQ 9). So E i and Ŝ E i are
degenerate eigenstates of the Hamiltonian. For any continuous symmetry
transformation like translation or rotation, where Sˆ (  )  ˆI - iKˆ , every state
Sˆ () E is an eigenstate of Ĥ and the eigenstates of the Hamiltonian are
i
necessarily degenerate.
Let us now look at a specific example. Consider a Hamiltonian that has
rotational symmetry (the hydrogen atom Hamiltonian, for example). We know
that
   
Rˆ z ( ), Hˆ  0  Jˆz , Hˆ  0 (1.81a)
As you know the eigenstates of the hydrogen atom hamiltonian are
simultaneous eigenstates of Ĥ , Ĵ 2 and Ĵ z and are degenerate and every
state Rˆ () n, j , m has the same energy as the state n, j , m . (We will study
z
more about the action of the rotation operator on an angular momentum
eigenstate in Unit 4).
Similarly a Hamiltonian of the form Hˆ  Lˆ  Sˆ is rotationally invariant because
both L̂ and Ŝ are, but Hˆ   Sˆ B is not.
z z

SAQ 9
Show that for a symmetry transformation Ŝ , if E i is an eigenstate of Ĥ with
an eigenvalue Ei , then Ŝ E i is also an eigenstate of Ĥ with the same
eigenvalue Ei .

1.6 SUMMARY
 A symmetry operation on any system can be defined as an action (
some change) that leaves the physical system invariant. In quantum
mechanical systems, all transformations are described by operators
acting on the quantum mechanical states. A symmetry transformation
on a quantum system is a transformation that leaves the transition
amplitudes between quantum mechanical states unchanged.
 Wigner’s theorem states that a symmetry transformation in the Hilbert
space of states could be represented by either a unitary or an anti-
unitary operator.
 Space Translation
The wavefunction of a one-dimensional system following an
 pˆ 
infinitesimal translation  x along x is: T ( x )  1  i x x ( x )
  

In quantum mechanics the generator of infinitesimal translations is

proportional to the momentum operator p̂ x .
 pˆ
The space translation operator Tˆ (  x )  ˆI  i x x is a unitary operator

ˆ
which has the following action: T (  x ) x  x   x .

32
Unit 1 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics-I

For a infinitesimal translation   (  x ,  y ,  z ) the translation operator

   pˆ
is Tˆ (  )  ˆI  i .


    pˆ 
For a finite translation   exp  i .
  

 Rotation
The wavefunction of a quantum system following an infinitesimal
rotation by an angle  about the z-axis is:
 Lˆ 
 R ( x, y , z )  1  i z  ( x, y , z )
  

In quantum mechanics the generator of infinitesimal infinitesimal

rotation about the z-axis is proportional to the z-component of the
angular momentum operator L̂z .

The unitary rotation operator is defined by its action on the stateket

 R  Rˆ  and the rotation operators for infinitesimal rotations
 x ,  y ,  z about the x,y,z -axes respectively are:

 Lˆ  y Lˆy  Lˆ
Rˆ x ( x )  ˆI  i x x ; Rˆ y ( y )  ˆI  i ; Rˆ z ( z )  ˆI  i z z
  
The angular momentum commutation relations follow from the
properties of the rotation operator since rotations along different
directions do not commute.
For a finite rotation  about the direction n̂ the rotation operator is:

  Lˆ  nˆ 
Rˆ n ()  exp   i 
  
 

An operator Ô , under rotation transforms as : Oˆ R  Rˆ Oˆ Rˆ † , where R̂ is

the rotation operator.
 Time Translation
iHˆ ( t  t0 )

The unitary time evolution operator is Uˆ (t , t 0 )  e ( t  t0 ) 

and its action on a state ket (t 0 ) is given by (t )  Uˆ (t , t 0 ) (t 0 ) .

The expectation value of an observable A at any instant of time t for a

general state (t ) of the system is,
Aˆ (t )  (t ) Aˆ (t )  (t 0 ) Uˆ (t , t 0 )† Aˆ Uˆ (t , t 0 ) (t 0 )

 Conservation Laws
If the Hamiltonian of a physical system is unchanged under a
translation or rotation of the system defined by an operator Ŝ , Ŝ is a
symmetry operation and the generator of the symmetry operator is a
constant of motion.

33
Block 1 Symmetry and Conservation Laws in Quantum Mechanics
 If the Hamiltonian of the system is invariant under translation
pˆ
defined by the operator Tˆ (  )  ˆI  i k the linear momentum

momentum pk is a constant of motion.

 If the Hamiltonian of the system is invariant under rotation, defined

by the operator Rˆ k ( )  ˆI  iLˆk , the angular momentum Lk is a
constant of motion.
 If the Hamiltonian Ĥ of the system is invariant under time-
Hˆ
translation defined by Uˆ ( )  ˆI  i , Ĥ must be time

independent and the energy of the system Ĥ is conserved.

1.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

 
1. For an infinitesimal spatial displacement  , calculate  xˆ,Tˆ ( ) and
 

 pˆ ,Tˆ ( ) .
 x 

2. Under an infinitesimal displacement  x , show that xˆ  xˆ   x and

pˆ  pˆ .

3. Show that for a rotation of  about the z-axis:

i) Sˆ y  Sˆ y cos   Sˆ x sin  and ii) Sˆ z  Sˆ z

R R

4. Show that for a finite rotation of 2 about the z-axis for a spin-half system,
Rz ( 2)    

5. An angular momentum eigenstate is rotated by an angel  about the y

axis. Calculate the probability of finding it in the state j , j  1 upto order  .

1.8 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS

Self-Assessment Question
1. a) Using Eq. (1.9)
Tˆ ( x ) T ( ) x   Tˆ ( x ) x    x     x
 
Tˆ ( ) Tˆ ( x ) x  Tˆ ( ) x   x  x   x    x     x

 Tˆ ( )Tˆ ( x )  Tˆ (  x )Tˆ ( )

b) i) Tˆ ( x )  |    Tˆ ( x )†    Tˆ (  x )  (using Eq. 1.16)

ii) Tˆ ( x ) Tˆ ( x )  Tˆ † ( x )Tˆ ( x )     (using Eq. 1.15)

†
2. i) Tˆ † (  x )   ˆI  i  x Kˆ x   ˆI  i  x Kˆ x  Tˆ (  x )
 
Kˆ  Kˆ † 
 x x
 
ii) Tˆ † ( x )Tˆ ( x )  Î  Tˆ † (  x )  T 1( x )
34  Tˆ 1( x )  ( ˆI  i  x Kˆ x )†  ˆI  i  x Kˆ x  Tˆ (  x )
Unit 1 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics-I
3. Since Tˆx (  x )Tˆ (  y )  Tˆ (  y )Tˆ (  x ) we can write

 ˆ i  x pˆ x   ˆ i  y pˆ y   ˆ i  y pˆ y
   I 
  ˆ i  x pˆ x 
  I 
I   I  
         

x y i  pˆ i  y pˆ y ˆ  y  x i  y pˆ y  i  x pˆ y
 ˆI  pˆ x pˆ y  x x  I pˆ y pˆ x 
 2    2  
 pˆ x pˆ y  pˆ y pˆ x  0  pˆ x , pˆ y   0

4. a) Consider a state  which is a linear superposition of 1 and

 2 as   a 1  b  2

From Eq. (1.44b)

     
r Rˆ   R 1r   a R 1 r  1  b Rˆ 1 r  2  a r Rˆ 1  b r Rˆ  2

 R̂ is a linear operator.
b)  R  Rˆ    R   Rˆ †

  R   Rˆ † Rˆ     since Rˆ † Rˆ  Î .

5. Rˆ z (  z )Rˆ y ( y ) Rˆ z (  z )Rˆ y (  y )  Rˆ x ( y  z ) (i)

Expanding the functions in Eq. (i) up to the first term only we get:

 ˆ  z Lˆ z  ˆ  y Lˆ y  ˆ  ˆ  y Lˆ y     Lˆ 
 I  i  I  i  ˆI  i  z Lz  I  i    ˆI  i y z x 
          
      
(ii)
which can be written as:
 ˆ  Lˆ  ˆ  Lˆ 
 ˆI  i  z Lz  i y y   z  x Lˆz Lˆ y  ˆI  i  z Lz  i y y   z  x Lˆ z Lˆ y 
   2    2 
  
  y  z Lˆ x 
  Î  i  (iii)
  
 
Dropping terms of order higher than  y  x , we get from Eq. (iii):

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
ˆI  i  z Lz  i  y L y  i  z Lz  i  y L y   y  z Lz L y   y  z Ly Lz  2  y  z Lz Ly
    2 2 2
 y  z Lˆ x
 ˆI  i

 y zLˆzLˆy  y zLˆy Lˆz  y zLˆx
which is: ˆI 
2

2
 ˆI  i

 
 Lˆy , Lˆz  iLˆx
 
  Lˆ.nˆ  ˆ †  i  Lˆ.nˆ 
6. a) Rˆ n ()  exp  i  ; R n ()  exp  
     

(since Lˆx , Lˆy , Lˆz are Hermitian)

i  Lˆ.nˆ i  Lˆ. nˆ

So, Rˆ n () Rˆ n ()  e  ˆI  Rˆ n† () Rˆ n ()
†
 e  35
Block 1 Symmetry and Conservation Laws in Quantum Mechanics
Hence Rn () is a unitary operator.

b) Let us consider an arbitrary state ket  which we expand in the basis

of the eigenkets of Lz , say l, ml . Now    Cn l
ml so

Lˆ z    Lˆz ml   C l ,m l
ml  n, l , ml
l , ml

i ( 2  )Lˆz

Rˆ z ( 2)    Cn, l ,m e e
 n, l , ml
n,l ,ml

  Cn, l ,m e im 2 n, l, ml
l
l   Cm l
n, l , ml
nl ml nl ml

since e iml 2  1 for all ml .

7. From MPH-004 (SAQ 2, Unit 14) we know that

i
Sˆ x         ; Sˆ y         

2 2
i  z Jˆ Z

For a state  :  R  R̂z  z   where Rˆ z ( z )  e  .

Sˆ x   Sˆ x    Rˆ z† Sˆ x Rˆ z 
R R

z i  Jˆz i z JˆZ


Rˆ z† Sˆ x Rˆ z  e      e 
2
 
Jˆ z   ; Jˆ z    
2 2


i z i
 z   i z Jˆz
ˆ † ˆ ˆ 
 Rz Sx Rz  e 2   e 2   e 2
2 

i z i z i i
  z  z 
 e 2  e 2 e 2  e 2 
2 


 e    e  i z  
 i z
2



(cos  z  i sin  z )    (cos  z  i sin  z )   
2


 ˆ
2

S x cos  z  Sˆ y sin  z 
 S x R  S x cos   S y sin 

8. i) Using Eq. (1.67b),

i  Hˆ † ˆ i  Hˆ
Uˆ † ()  ˆI  I
 
 i  Hˆ   ˆ i  Hˆ  ˆ i  Hˆ i  Hˆ 2 Hˆ 2
Uˆ † () Uˆ ()   ˆI   I  I  
   
     2
36
Unit 1 Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics-I

For small , therefore: Uˆ † ( ) Uˆ ( )  ˆI ( 2  0 )

i (1  2 ) Hˆ
ii) Uˆ (1  2 )  ˆI 

 i  Hˆ   i  Hˆ  i 1  2  Hˆ 1 2 Hˆ 2
Uˆ 1 Uˆ 2   ˆI  1   ˆI  2   ˆI  
      2
  

 ˆI 

i 1  2 Hˆ   
 Uˆ 1  2 (dropping terms of order 1 2 )


9. If Ŝ is a symmetry operation, Sˆ, Hˆ   0  Sˆ Hˆ  Hˆ Sˆ

 

 Hˆ Sˆ E1  Sˆ Hˆ E i  E i Sˆ Ei

 Ŝ E i is also an eigenket of Ĥ with an eigen value E i .

Terminal Questions
1. Using Eq. (1.33)
  pˆ i  y pˆ y i  z pˆ z
Tˆ (  )  ˆI  i x x  
  
   ˆ
 xˆ,Tˆ ( ) 
xˆ, pˆ x 
[ xˆ, pˆ y ] [ zˆ, pˆ z ]
   x, I   i  x   i  y   i  z 
ˆ


 i   i y i  .0
 0  i  x    .0  z   x
   

pˆ x ,Tˆ (  )  pˆ x , ˆI   i x  pˆ x , pˆ x   i x pˆ x , pˆ y   i x pˆ x , pˆ z  0

2. xˆ   xˆ 

After translation:
xˆ   Tˆ † (  x ) xˆ Tˆ (  x ) 
T

 xˆ Tˆ ( x )  Tˆ (  x ) xˆ   x we have xˆ Tˆ  Tˆ xˆ   x

 xˆ T   Tˆ † Tˆ xˆ     x   xˆ   x

Similarly, since pˆ x Tˆ ( x )  Tˆ ( x ) pˆ x

pˆ x T   pˆ x  T   T † pˆ xTˆ    T † ( x )Tˆ ( x ) pˆ x 

  p̂ x   p̂x

i
3. i) We use Sˆ y          and follow the steps of SAQ 7.
2
i  Sˆ z z iSˆ

With Sˆ y e  Sˆ y e  we get
R

i  Sˆ z iSˆ z
i 
e i Sz Sˆ y e  iSz     e        e
ˆ ˆ

 2 

37
Block 1 Symmetry and Conservation Laws in Quantum Mechanics
i i i i 
i   
  e 2   e 2  e 2   e 2 
2 

i
  (cos   i sin )    (cos   i sin )   
2
 cos  Sˆ y  sin  Sˆ x

 Sˆ y  cos  Sˆ y  sin  Sˆ x
R
  
ii) Sˆ z      
2  
iSˆz i Sˆ z i i   i i
  
 e  Sˆ z e   e 2   e 2  e 2   e 2   Ŝ z
2  

 Sˆ z  Sˆ z
R

4. For a finite rotation of 2 about the z-axis for a spin-half system:

i ( 2 )Sˆ z

 e  

Writing the general state  as:

  c1   c 2         

i 2  Sˆ z

 e      e  i      e i 

Now, e i  e i  1
 R z ( 2)              

5. We have   j, j and

 i  Jˆ y 
 R  R y ( ) j , j  1   j, j
  
1
Jˆ y  ( Jˆ   Jˆ  ) (Eq. 13.59, MPH-004)
2i
Jˆ  j , j  0 ; Jˆ  j , j  2 j  j, j  1

 i ˆ   ˆ  ˆ
 R  1  (J   Jˆ  ) j , j  j , j  J  j, j  J  j, j
 2i   2 2

 j, j 

2
 
2 j  j, j  1

 2j
j, j  1 j, j R  2j   
2 2
2 j
The probability of being in the state j , j  1 is .
2

38