SQL Interview

Questions
1. What is Pattern Matching in SQL?

SQL pattern matching provides for pattern search in data if you have no clue as to what that
word should be. This kind of SQL query uses wildcards to match a string pattern, rather than
writing the exact word. The LIKE operator is used in conjunction with SQL Wildcards to fetch
the required information.

Using the % wildcard to perform a simple search

The % wildcard matches zero or more characters of any type and can be used to define
wildcards both before and after the pattern. Search a student in your database with first
name beginning with the letter K:

SELECT *

FROM students

WHERE first_name LIKE 'K%'

Omitting the patterns using the NOT keyword

Use the NOT keyword to select records that don't match the pattern. This query returns all
students whose first name does not begin with K.

SELECT *

FROM students

WHERE first_name NOT LIKE 'K%'

Matching a pattern anywhere using the % wildcard twice

Search for a student in the database where he/she has a K in his/her first name.

SELECT *

FROM students
WHERE first_name LIKE '%Q%'

Using the _ wildcard to match pattern at a specific position

The _ wildcard matches exactly one character of any type. It can be used in conjunction with
% wildcard. This query fetches all students with letter K at the third position in their first
name.

SELECT *

FROM students

WHERE first_name LIKE '__K%'

Matching patterns for a specific length

The _ wildcard plays an important role as a limitation when it matches exactly one character.
It limits the length and position of the matched results. For example -

SELECT * /* Matches first names with three or more letters */

FROM students

WHERE first_name LIKE '___%'

SELECT * /* Matches first names with exactly four characters */

FROM students

WHERE first_name LIKE '____'

2. How to create empty tables with the same structure as another table?

Creating empty tables with the same structure can be done smartly by fetching the records
of one table into a new table using the INTO operator while fixing a WHERE clause to be false
for all records. Hence, SQL prepares the new table with a duplicate structure to accept the
fetched records but since no records get fetched due to the WHERE clause in action, nothing
is inserted into the new table.

SELECT * INTO Students_copy

FROM Students WHERE 1 = 2;

3. What is a Recursive Stored Procedure?

A stored procedure that calls itself until a boundary condition is reached, is called a recursive
stored procedure. This recursive function helps the programmers to deploy the same set of
code several times as and when required. Some SQL programming languages limit the
recursion depth to prevent an infinite loop of procedure calls from causing a stack overflow,
which slows down the system and may lead to system crashes.

DELIMITER $$ /* Set a new delimiter => $$ */

CREATE PROCEDURE calctotal( /* Create the procedure */

IN number INT, /* Set Input and Ouput variables */

OUT total INT

) BEGIN

DECLARE score INT DEFAULT NULL; /* Set the default value => "score" */

SELECT awards FROM achievements /* Update "score" via SELECT query */

WHERE id = number INTO score;

IF score IS NULL THEN SET total = 0; /* Termination condition */

ELSE

CALL calctotal(number+1); /* Recursive call */

SET total = total + score; /* Action after recursion */

END IF;

END $$ /* End of procedure */

DELIMITER ; /* Reset the delimiter */

4. What is a Stored Procedure?

A stored procedure is a subroutine available to applications that access a relational database

management system (RDBMS). Such procedures are stored in the database data dictionary.
The sole disadvantage of stored procedure is that it can be executed nowhere except in the
database and occupies more memory in the database server. It also provides a sense of
security and functionality as users who can't access the data directly can be granted access
via stored procedures.

DELIMITER $$

CREATE PROCEDURE FetchAllStudents()

BEGIN

SELECT * FROM myDB.students;

END $$

DELIMITER ;

5. What is Collation? What are the different types of Collation Sensitivity?

Collation refers to a set of rules that determine how data is sorted and compared. Rules
defining the correct character sequence are used to sort the character data. It incorporates
options for specifying case sensitivity, accent marks, kana character types, and character
width. Below are the different types of collation sensitivity:

Case sensitivity: A and a are treated differently.

Accent sensitivity: a and á are treated differently.
Kana sensitivity: Japanese kana characters Hiragana and Katakana are treated differently.
Width sensitivity: Same character represented in single-byte (half-width) and double-
byte (full-width) are treated differently.

6. What are the differences between OLTP and OLAP?

OLTP stands for Online Transaction Processing, is a class of software applications capable of
supporting transaction-oriented programs. An important attribute of an OLTP system is its
ability to maintain concurrency. OLTP systems often follow a decentralized architecture to
avoid single points of failure. These systems are generally designed for a large audience of
end-users who conduct short transactions. Queries involved in such databases are generally
simple, need fast response times, and return relatively few records. A number of transactions
per second acts as an effective measure for such systems.

OLAP stands for Online Analytical Processing, a class of software programs that are
characterized by the relatively low frequency of online transactions. Queries are often too
complex and involve a bunch of aggregations. For OLAP systems, the effectiveness measure
relies highly on response time. Such systems are widely used for data mining or maintaining
aggregated, historical data, usually in multi-dimensional schemas.

7. What is OLTP?

OLTP stands for Online Transaction Processing, is a class of software applications capable of
supporting transaction-oriented programs. An essential attribute of an OLTP system is its
ability to maintain concurrency. To avoid single points of failure, OLTP systems are often
decentralized. These systems are usually designed for a large number of users who conduct
short transactions. Database queries are usually simple, require sub-second response times,
and return relatively few records. Here is an insight into the working of an OLTP system [ Note
- The figure is not important for interviews ] -
8. What is User-defined function? What are its various types?

The user-defined functions in SQL are like functions in any other programming language that
accept parameters, perform complex calculations, and return a value. They are written to use
the logic repetitively whenever required. There are two types of SQL user-defined functions:

Scalar Function: As explained earlier, user-defined scalar functions return a single scalar
value.
Table-Valued Functions: User-defined table-valued functions return a table as output.
Inline: returns a table data type based on a single SELECT statement.
Multi-statement: returns a tabular result-set but, unlike inline, multiple SELECT
statements can be used inside the function body.

9. What is a UNIQUE constraint?

A UNIQUE constraint ensures that all values in a column are different. This provides
uniqueness for the column(s) and helps identify each row uniquely. Unlike primary key, there
can be multiple unique constraints defined per table. The code syntax for UNIQUE is quite
similar to that of PRIMARY KEY and can be used interchangeably.

CREATE TABLE Students ( /* Create table with a single field as unique */

ID INT NOT NULL UNIQUE

Name VARCHAR(255)

);

CREATE TABLE Students ( /* Create table with multiple fields as unique */

ID INT NOT NULL

LastName VARCHAR(255)
 FirstName VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL

CONSTRAINT PK_Student

UNIQUE (ID, FirstName)

);

ALTER TABLE Students /* Set a column as unique */

ADD UNIQUE (ID);

ALTER TABLE Students /* Set multiple columns as unique */

ADD CONSTRAINT PK_Student /* Naming a unique constraint */

UNIQUE (ID, FirstName);

10. What is a Query?

A query is a request for data or information from a database table or combination of tables. A
database query can be either a select query or an action query.

SELECT fname, lname /* select query */

FROM myDb.students

WHERE student_id = 1;

UPDATE myDB.students /* action query */

SET fname = 'Captain', lname = 'America'

WHERE student_id = 1;

11. What is Data Integrity?

Data Integrity is the assurance of accuracy and consistency of data over its entire life-cycle
and is a critical aspect of the design, implementation, and usage of any system which stores,
processes, or retrieves data. It also defines integrity constraints to enforce business rules on
the data when it is entered into an application or a database.

12. What is the difference between Clustered and Non-clustered index?

As explained above, the differences can be broken down into three small factors -
 Clustered index modifies the way records are stored in a database based on the indexed
column. A non-clustered index creates a separate entity within the table which
references the original table.
Clustered index is used for easy and speedy retrieval of data from the database, whereas,
fetching records from the non-clustered index is relatively slower.
In SQL, a table can have a single clustered index whereas it can have multiple non-
clustered indexes.

13. What is an Index? Explain its different types.

A database index is a data structure that provides a quick lookup of data in a column or
columns of a table. It enhances the speed of operations accessing data from a database table
at the cost of additional writes and memory to maintain the index data structure.

CREATE INDEX index_name /* Create Index */

ON table_name (column_1, column_2);

DROP INDEX index_name; /* Drop Index */

There are different types of indexes that can be created for different purposes:

Unique and Non-Unique Index:

Unique indexes are indexes that help maintain data integrity by ensuring that no two rows of
data in a table have identical key values. Once a unique index has been defined for a table,
uniqueness is enforced whenever keys are added or changed within the index.

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX myIndex

ON students (enroll_no);

Non-unique indexes, on the other hand, are not used to enforce constraints on the tables
with which they are associated. Instead, non-unique indexes are used solely to improve query
performance by maintaining a sorted order of data values that are used frequently.

Clustered and Non-Clustered Index:

Clustered indexes are indexes whose order of the rows in the database corresponds to the
order of the rows in the index. This is why only one clustered index can exist in a given table,
whereas, multiple non-clustered indexes can exist in the table.

The only difference between clustered and non-clustered indexes is that the database
manager attempts to keep the data in the database in the same order as the corresponding
keys appear in the clustered index.
Clustering indexes can improve the performance of most query operations because they
provide a linear-access path to data stored in the database.

14. What is a Cross-Join?

Cross join can be defined as a cartesian product of the two tables included in the join. The
table after join contains the same number of rows as in the cross-product of the number of
rows in the two tables. If a WHERE clause is used in cross join then the query will work like an
INNER JOIN.

SELECT stu.name, sub.subject

FROM students AS stu

CROSS JOIN subjects AS sub;

15. What is a Self-Join?

A self JOIN is a case of regular join where a table is joined to itself based on some relation
between its own column(s). Self-join uses the INNER JOIN or LEFT JOIN clause and a table
alias is used to assign different names to the table within the query.

SELECT A.emp_id AS "Emp_ID",A.emp_name AS "Employee",

B.emp_id AS "Sup_ID",B.emp_name AS "Supervisor"

FROM employee A, employee B

WHERE A.emp_sup = B.emp_id;

16. What is a Join? List its different types.

The SQL Join clause is used to combine records (rows) from two or more tables in a SQL
database based on a related column between the two.

There are four different types of JOINs in SQL:

(INNER) JOIN: Retrieves records that have matching values in both tables involved in the
join. This is the widely used join for queries.

SELECT *

FROM Table_A

JOIN Table_B;

SELECT *
FROM Table_A

INNER JOIN Table_B;

LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Retrieves all the records/rows from the left and the matched
records/rows from the right table.

SELECT *

FROM Table_A A

LEFT JOIN Table_B B

ON A.col = B.col;

RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Retrieves all the records/rows from the right and the matched
records/rows from the left table.

SELECT *

FROM Table_A A

RIGHT JOIN Table_B B

ON A.col = B.col;

FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Retrieves all the records where there is a match in either the left or
right table.

SELECT *

FROM Table_A A

FULL JOIN Table_B B

ON A.col = B.col;

17. What is a Foreign Key?

A FOREIGN KEY comprises of single or collection of fields in a table that essentially refers to
the PRIMARY KEY in another table. Foreign key constraint ensures referential integrity in the
relation between two tables.
The table with the foreign key constraint is labeled as the child table, and the table containing
the candidate key is labeled as the referenced or parent table.

CREATE TABLE Students ( /* Create table with foreign key - Way 1 */

ID INT NOT NULL

 Name VARCHAR(255)

LibraryID INT

PRIMARY KEY (ID)

FOREIGN KEY (Library_ID) REFERENCES Library(LibraryID)

);

CREATE TABLE Students ( /* Create table with foreign key - Way 2 */

ID INT NOT NULL PRIMARY KEY

Name VARCHAR(255)

LibraryID INT FOREIGN KEY (Library_ID) REFERENCES Library(LibraryID)

);

ALTER TABLE Students /* Add a new foreign key */

ADD FOREIGN KEY (LibraryID)

REFERENCES Library (LibraryID);

18. What is a Subquery? What are its types?

A subquery is a query within another query, also known as a nested query or inner query. It is
used to restrict or enhance the data to be queried by the main query, thus restricting or
enhancing the output of the main query respectively. For example, here we fetch the contact
information for students who have enrolled for the maths subject:

SELECT name, email, mob, address

FROM myDb.contacts

WHERE roll_no IN (

SELECT roll_no

FROM myDb.students

WHERE subject = 'Maths');

There are two types of subquery - Correlated and Non-Correlated.

 A correlated subquery cannot be considered as an independent query, but it can refer to
the column in a table listed in the FROM of the main query.
A non-correlated subquery can be considered as an independent query and the output
of the subquery is substituted in the main query.

19. What is a Primary Key?

The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each row in a table. It must contain UNIQUE
values and has an implicit NOT NULL constraint.
A table in SQL is strictly restricted to have one and only one primary key, which is comprised
of single or multiple fields (columns).

CREATE TABLE Students ( /* Create table with a single field as primary key */

ID INT NOT NULL

Name VARCHAR(255)

PRIMARY KEY (ID)

);

CREATE TABLE Students ( /* Create table with multiple fields as primary key */

ID INT NOT NULL

LastName VARCHAR(255)

FirstName VARCHAR(255) NOT NULL,

CONSTRAINT PK_Student

PRIMARY KEY (ID, FirstName)

);

ALTER TABLE Students /* Set a column as primary key */

ADD PRIMARY KEY (ID);

ALTER TABLE Students /* Set multiple columns as primary key */

ADD CONSTRAINT PK_Student /*Naming a Primary Key*/

PRIMARY KEY (ID, FirstName);

20. What are Constraints in SQL?

Constraints are used to specify the rules concerning data in the table. It can be applied for
single or multiple fields in an SQL table during the creation of the table or after creating using
the ALTER TABLE command. The constraints are:

NOT NULL - Restricts NULL value from being inserted into a column.
CHECK - Verifies that all values in a field satisfy a condition.
DEFAULT - Automatically assigns a default value if no value has been specified for the
field.
UNIQUE - Ensures unique values to be inserted into the field.
INDEX - Indexes a field providing faster retrieval of records.
PRIMARY KEY - Uniquely identifies each record in a table.
FOREIGN KEY - Ensures referential integrity for a record in another table.

21. What are Tables and Fields?

A table is an organized collection of data stored in the form of rows and columns. Columns
can be categorized as vertical and rows as horizontal. The columns in a table are called fields
while the rows can be referred to as records.

22. What is the difference between SQL and MySQL?

SQL is a standard language for retrieving and manipulating structured databases. On the
contrary, MySQL is a relational database management system, like SQL Server, Oracle or IBM
DB2, that is used to manage SQL databases.

23. What is SQL?

SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is the standard language for relational database
management systems. It is especially useful in handling organized data comprised of entities
(variables) and relations between different entities of the data.

24. What is RDBMS? How is it different from DBMS?

RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System. The key difference here,
compared to DBMS, is that RDBMS stores data in the form of a collection of tables, and
relations can be defined between the common fields of these tables. Most modern database
management systems like MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, IBM DB2, and Amazon
Redshift are based on RDBMS.

25. What is DBMS?

DBMS stands for Database Management System. DBMS is a system software responsible for
the creation, retrieval, updation, and management of the database. It ensures that our data is
consistent, organized, and is easily accessible by serving as an interface between the
database and its end-users or application software.

26. What is Database?

A database is an organized collection of data, stored and retrieved digitally from a remote or
local computer system. Databases can be vast and complex, and such databases are
developed using fixed design and modeling approaches.

27. What is the SELECT statement?

SELECT operator in SQL is used to select data from a database. The data returned is stored in
a result table, called the result-set.

SELECT * FROM myDB.students;

28. What are some common clauses used with SELECT query in SQL?

Some common SQL clauses used in conjuction with a SELECT query are as follows:

WHERE clause in SQL is used to filter records that are necessary, based on specific
conditions.
ORDER BY clause in SQL is used to sort the records based on some field(s) in ascending
(ASC) or descending order (DESC).

SELECT *

FROM myDB.students

WHERE graduation_year = 2019

ORDER BY studentID DESC;

GROUP BY clause in SQL is used to group records with identical data and can be used in
conjunction with some aggregation functions to produce summarized results from the
database.
HAVING clause in SQL is used to filter records in combination with the GROUP BY clause.
It is different from WHERE, since the WHERE clause cannot filter aggregated records.

SELECT COUNT(studentId), country

FROM myDB.students

WHERE country != "INDIA"

GROUP BY country

HAVING COUNT(studentID) > 5;

29. What are UNION, MINUS and INTERSECT commands?

The UNION operator combines and returns the result-set retrieved by two or more SELECT
statements.
The MINUS operator in SQL is used to remove duplicates from the result-set obtained by the
second SELECT query from the result-set obtained by the first SELECT query and then return
the filtered results from the first.
The INTERSECT clause in SQL combines the result-set fetched by the two SELECT statements
where records from one match the other and then returns this intersection of result-sets.

Certain conditions need to be met before executing either of the above statements in SQL -

Each SELECT statement within the clause must have the same number of columns
The columns must also have similar data types
The columns in each SELECT statement should necessarily have the same order

SELECT name FROM Students /* Fetch the union of queries */

UNION

SELECT name FROM Contacts;

SELECT name FROM Students /* Fetch the union of queries with duplicates*/

UNION ALL

SELECT name FROM Contacts;

SELECT name FROM Students /* Fetch names from students */

MINUS /* that aren't present in contacts */

SELECT name FROM Contacts;

SELECT name FROM Students /* Fetch names from students */

INTERSECT /* that are present in contacts as well */

SELECT name FROM Contacts;

30. What is Cursor? How to use a Cursor?

A database cursor is a control structure that allows for the traversal of records in a database.
Cursors, in addition, facilitates processing after traversal, such as retrieval, addition, and
deletion of database records. They can be viewed as a pointer to one row in a set of rows.

Working with SQL Cursor:

 1. DECLARE a cursor after any variable declaration. The cursor declaration must always be
associated with a SELECT Statement.
2. Open cursor to initialize the result set. The OPENstatement must be called before
fetching rows from the result set.
3. FETCH statement to retrieve and move to the next row in the result set.
4. Call the CLOSE statement to deactivate the cursor.
5. Finally use the DEALLOCATE statement to delete the cursor definition and release the
associated resources.

DECLARE @name VARCHAR(50) /* Declare All Required Variables */

DECLARE db_cursor CURSOR FOR /* Declare Cursor Name*/

SELECT name

FROM myDB.students

WHERE parent_name IN ('Sara', 'Ansh')

OPEN db_cursor /* Open cursor and Fetch data into @name */

FETCH next

FROM db_cursor

INTO @name

CLOSE db_cursor /* Close the cursor and deallocate the resources */

DEALLOCATE db_cursor

31. What are Entities and Relationships?

Entity: An entity can be a real-world object, either tangible or intangible, that can be easily
identifiable. For example, in a college database, students, professors, workers, departments,
and projects can be referred to as entities. Each entity has some associated properties that
provide it an identity.

Relationships: Relations or links between entities that have something to do with each other.
For example - The employee's table in a company's database can be associated with the
salary table in the same database.

32. List the different types of relationships in SQL.

One-to-One - This can be defined as the relationship between two tables where each
record in one table is associated with the maximum of one record in the other table.
 One-to-Many & Many-to-One - This is the most commonly used relationship where a
record in a table is associated with multiple records in the other table.
Many-to-Many - This is used in cases when multiple instances on both sides are needed
for defining a relationship.
Self-Referencing Relationships - This is used when a table needs to define a relationship
with itself.

33. What is an Alias in SQL?

An alias is a feature of SQL that is supported by most, if not all, RDBMSs. It is a temporary
name assigned to the table or table column for the purpose of a particular SQL query. In
addition, aliasing can be employed as an obfuscation technique to secure the real names of
database fields. A table alias is also called a correlation name.

An alias is represented explicitly by the AS keyword but in some cases, the same can be
performed without it as well. Nevertheless, using the AS keyword is always a good practice.

SELECT A.emp_name AS "Employee" /* Alias using AS keyword */

B.emp_name AS "Supervisor"

FROM employee A, employee B /* Alias without AS keyword */

WHERE A.emp_sup = B.emp_id;

34. What is a View?

A view in SQL is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement. A view contains
rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from one or more real
tables in the database.

35. What is Normalization?

Normalization represents the way of organizing structured data in the database efficiently. It
includes the creation of tables, establishing relationships between them, and defining rules
for those relationships. Inconsistency and redundancy can be kept in check based on these
rules, hence, adding flexibility to the database.

36. What is Denormalization?

Denormalization is the inverse process of normalization, where the normalized schema is

converted into a schema that has redundant information. The performance is improved by
using redundancy and keeping the redundant data consistent. The reason for performing
denormalization is the overheads produced in the query processor by an over-normalized
structure.
37. What are the various forms of Normalization?

Normal Forms are used to eliminate or reduce redundancy in database tables. The different
forms are as follows:

First Normal Form:

A relation is in first normal form if every attribute in that relation is a single-valued
attribute. If a relation contains a composite or multi-valued attribute, it violates the first
normal form. Let's consider the following students table. Each student in the table, has a
name, his/her address, and the books they issued from the public library -

Students Table

Student Address Books Issued Salutation

Sara Amanora Park Town Until the Day I Die Ms.

94 (Emily Carpenter),
Inception
(Christopher Nolan)

Ansh 62nd Sector A-10 The Alchemist (Paulo Mr.

Coelho), Inferno
(Dan Brown)

Sara 24th Street Park Beautiful Bad (Annie Mrs.

Avenue Ward), Woman 99
(Greer Macallister)

Ansh Windsor Street 777 Dracula (Bram Mr.

Stoker)

As we can observe, the Books Issued field has more than one value per record, and to convert
it into 1NF, this has to be resolved into separate individual records for each book issued.
Check the following table in 1NF form -

Students Table (1st Normal Form)

 Student Address Books Issued Salutation

Sara Amanora Park Until the Day I Die Ms.

Town 94 (Emily Carpenter)

Sara Amanora Park Inception Ms.

Town 94 (Christopher
Nolan)

Ansh 62nd Sector A-10 The Alchemist Mr.

(Paulo Coelho)

Ansh 62nd Sector A-10 Inferno (Dan Mr.

Brown)

Sara 24th Street Park Beautiful Bad Mrs.

Avenue (Annie Ward)

Sara 24th Street Park Woman 99 (Greer Mrs.

Avenue Macallister)

Ansh Windsor Street 777 Dracula (Bram Mr.

Stoker)

Second Normal Form:

A relation is in second normal form if it satisfies the conditions for the first normal form and
does not contain any partial dependency. A relation in 2NF has no partial dependency, i.e., it
has no non-prime attribute that depends on any proper subset of any candidate key of the
table. Often, specifying a single column Primary Key is the solution to the problem. Examples
-

Example 1 - Consider the above example. As we can observe, the Students Table in the 1NF
form has a candidate key in the form of [Student, Address] that can uniquely identify all
records in the table. The field Books Issued (non-prime attribute) depends partially on the
Student field. Hence, the table is not in 2NF. To convert it into the 2nd Normal Form, we will
partition the tables into two while specifying a new Primary Key attribute to identify the
individual records in the Students table. The Foreign Key constraint will be set on the other
table to ensure referential integrity.
 Students Table (2nd Normal Form)

Student_ID Student Address Salutation

1 Sara Amanora Park Ms.

Town 94

2 Ansh 62nd Sector A-10 Mr.

3 Sara 24th Street Park Mrs.

Avenue

4 Ansh Windsor Street 777 Mr.

Books Table (2nd Normal Form)

Student_ID Book Issued

1 Until the Day I Die (Emily Carpenter)

1 Inception (Christopher Nolan)

2 The Alchemist (Paulo Coelho)

2 Inferno (Dan Brown)

3 Beautiful Bad (Annie Ward)

3 Woman 99 (Greer Macallister)

4 Dracula (Bram Stoker)

Example 2 - Consider the following dependencies in relation to R(W,X,Y,Z)

WX -> Y [W and X together determine Y]

XY -> Z [X and Y together determine Z]

Here, WX is the only candidate key and there is no partial dependency, i.e., any proper subset
of WX doesn’t determine any non-prime attribute in the relation.

Third Normal Form

A relation is said to be in the third normal form, if it satisfies the conditions for the second
normal form and there is no transitive dependency between the non-prime attributes, i.e., all
non-prime attributes are determined only by the candidate keys of the relation and not by
any other non-prime attribute.

Example 1 - Consider the Students Table in the above example. As we can observe, the
Students Table in the 2NF form has a single candidate key Student_ID (primary key) that can
uniquely identify all records in the table. The field Salutation (non-prime attribute), however,
depends on the Student Field rather than the candidate key. Hence, the table is not in 3NF. To
convert it into the 3rd Normal Form, we will once again partition the tables into two while
specifying a new Foreign Key constraint to identify the salutations for individual records in
the Students table. The Primary Key constraint for the same will be set on the Salutations
table to identify each record uniquely.

Students Table (3rd Normal Form)

Student_ID Student Address Salutation_ID

1 Sara Amanora Park 1

Town 94

2 Ansh 62nd Sector A-10 2

3 Sara 24th Street Park 3

Avenue

4 Ansh Windsor Street 777 1

Books Table (3rd Normal Form)

 Student_ID Book Issued

1 Until the Day I Die (Emily Carpenter)

1 Inception (Christopher Nolan)

2 The Alchemist (Paulo Coelho)

2 Inferno (Dan Brown)

3 Beautiful Bad (Annie Ward)

3 Woman 99 (Greer Macallister)

4 Dracula (Bram Stoker)

Salutations Table (3rd Normal Form)

Salutation_ID Salutation

1 Ms.

2 Mr.

3 Mrs.

Example 2 - Consider the following dependencies in relation to R(P,Q,R,S,T)

P -> QR [P together determine C]

RS -> T [B and C together determine D]

Q -> S

T -> P

For the above relation to exist in 3NF, all possible candidate keys in the above relation should
be {P, RS, QR, T}.

Boyce-Codd Normal Form

A relation is in Boyce-Codd Normal Form if satisfies the conditions for third normal form and
for every functional dependency, Left-Hand-Side is super key. In other words, a relation in
BCNF has non-trivial functional dependencies in form X –> Y, such that X is always a super
key. For example - In the above example, Student_ID serves as the sole unique identifier for
the Students Table and Salutation_ID for the Salutations Table, thus these tables exist in
BCNF. The same cannot be said for the Books Table and there can be several books with
common Book Names and the same Student_ID.

38. What are the TRUNCATE, DELETE and DROP statements?

DELETE statement is used to delete rows from a table.

DELETE FROM Candidates

WHERE CandidateId > 1000;

TRUNCATE command is used to delete all the rows from the table and free the space
containing the table.

TRUNCATE TABLE Candidates;

DROP command is used to remove an object from the database. If you drop a table, all the
rows in the table are deleted and the table structure is removed from the database.

DROP TABLE Candidates;

39. What is the difference between DROP and TRUNCATE statements?

If a table is dropped, all things associated with the tables are dropped as well. This includes -
the relationships defined on the table with other tables, the integrity checks and constraints,
access privileges and other grants that the table has. To create and use the table again in its
original form, all these relations, checks, constraints, privileges and relationships need to be
redefined. However, if a table is truncated, none of the above problems exist and the table
retains its original structure.

40. What is the difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE statements?

The TRUNCATE command is used to delete all the rows from the table and free the space
containing the table.
The DELETE command deletes only the rows from the table based on the condition given in
the where clause or deletes all the rows from the table if no condition is specified. But it does
not free the space containing the table.

41. What are Aggregate and Scalar functions?

An aggregate function performs operations on a collection of values to return a single scalar
value. Aggregate functions are often used with the GROUP BY and HAVING clauses of the
SELECT statement. Following are the widely used SQL aggregate functions:

AVG() - Calculates the mean of a collection of values.

COUNT() - Counts the total number of records in a specific table or view.
MIN() - Calculates the minimum of a collection of values.
MAX() - Calculates the maximum of a collection of values.
SUM() - Calculates the sum of a collection of values.
FIRST() - Fetches the first element in a collection of values.
LAST() - Fetches the last element in a collection of values.

Note: All aggregate functions described above ignore NULL values except for the COUNT
function.

A scalar function returns a single value based on the input value. Following are the widely
used SQL scalar functions:

LEN() - Calculates the total length of the given field (column).

UCASE() - Converts a collection of string values to uppercase characters.
LCASE() - Converts a collection of string values to lowercase characters.
MID() - Extracts substrings from a collection of string values in a table.
CONCAT() - Concatenates two or more strings.
RAND() - Generates a random collection of numbers of a given length.
ROUND() - Calculates the round-off integer value for a numeric field (or decimal point
values).
NOW() - Returns the current date & time.
FORMAT() - Sets the format to display a collection of values.