The Rise of the Integrated Circuit: The Third Generation of Computers (1964-1971)

The third generation of computers, spanning roughly from 1964 to 1971, marked a significant
leap forward in computing technology, propelled by the revolutionary invention of the integrated
circuit (IC), or microchip. This era witnessed a transition from bulky, power-hungry machines to
more compact, reliable, and affordable systems, fundamentally altering the landscape of
computing and paving the way for the personal computer revolution.
The Limitations of the Second Generation:
The second generation, characterized by transistors, had already ushered in significant
improvements over vacuum tube-based machines. However, transistors, while smaller and more
efficient than vacuum tubes, still required manual wiring onto circuit boards, leading to:
* Complexity and Cost: As the complexity of computer designs increased, the number of
transistors and wiring connections grew exponentially, making manufacturing expensive and
prone to errors.
* Size and Power Consumption: While smaller than vacuum tube computers, transistor-based
systems were still relatively large and consumed considerable power.
* Reliability Issues: The numerous soldered connections were potential points of failure,
impacting the overall reliability of the systems.
* Speed Limitations: Although faster than vacuum tube computers, the speed of
transistor-based computers was still limited by the time it took signals to travel through the
wires.
The Dawn of the Integrated Circuit:
The limitations of discrete transistors highlighted the need for a more integrated approach. The
solution arrived in the form of the integrated circuit, independently invented by Jack Kilby at
Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1958-1959.
* Jack Kilby's Monolithic Idea: Kilby's approach involved creating all the components of a circuit,
including transistors, resistors, and capacitors, on a single piece of germanium. He
demonstrated the first working IC in September 1958.
* Robert Noyce's Planar IC: Noyce's invention, patented in 1959, used silicon and a planar
process, which allowed for the creation of interconnected components on a flat surface. This
technique proved more practical for mass production and became the dominant technology.
Key Advantages of Integrated Circuits:
The adoption of integrated circuits revolutionized computer design, bringing about several key
advantages:
* Miniaturization: ICs allowed for the integration of hundreds or even thousands of transistors
onto a single chip, drastically reducing the size of computers.
* Increased Reliability: By eliminating many soldered connections, ICs significantly improved
the reliability of computer systems.
* Lower Cost: Mass production of ICs led to a dramatic decrease in the cost of electronic
components, making computers more affordable.
* Higher Speed: The shorter distances between components on an IC resulted in faster signal
propagation, leading to increased processing speeds.
* Reduced Power Consumption: ICs consumed less power than equivalent discrete transistor
circuits, leading to more energy-efficient computers.
Technological Developments and Advancements:
The third generation witnessed several significant technological developments that further
advanced the field of computing:
* Small-Scale Integration (SSI): The initial ICs contained only a few transistors per chip,
typically less than 10. This level of integration, known as SSI, was used in early third-generation
computers.
* Medium-Scale Integration (MSI): As manufacturing techniques improved, the number of
transistors per chip increased to between 10 and 100, a level known as MSI. This allowed for
the creation of more complex circuits on a single chip.
* Large-Scale Integration (LSI): Towards the end of the third generation, LSI emerged, allowing
for the integration of hundreds or thousands of transistors on a single chip. This technology
paved the way for the development of microprocessors in the next generation.
* Operating System Advancements: The third generation saw the development of more
sophisticated operating systems, such as IBM's OS/360, which supported multiprogramming
and time-sharing. These advancements allowed multiple users to share a single computer and
run multiple programs concurrently.
* High-Level Programming Languages: Languages like FORTRAN IV, COBOL, and ALGOL
became more widely used, simplifying the process of writing complex programs. The
development of BASIC (Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) in 1964 also made
programming more accessible to a wider audience.
* Data Storage Improvements: Magnetic disk storage became more prevalent, offering larger
storage capacities and faster access times compared to magnetic tape. This facilitated the
development of database management systems and online transaction processing.
* The Rise of Minicomputers: The availability of affordable ICs led to the development of
minicomputers, smaller and less expensive than mainframe computers. These systems, such as
the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP series, found applications in scientific research,
industrial automation, and business data processing.
Key Third-Generation Computer Systems:
Several iconic computer systems emerged during the third generation, shaping the future of
computing:
* IBM System/360: Introduced in 1964, the System/360 was a family of mainframe computers
that revolutionized the industry. It featured a modular design, allowing users to choose
configurations based on their needs. OS/360, its operating system, supported multiprogramming
and time-sharing.
* DEC PDP Series: Digital Equipment Corporation's Programmed Data Processor (PDP) series
of minicomputers gained popularity in scientific and engineering applications. The PDP-8,
introduced in 1965, was particularly successful due to its affordability and ease of use.
* Control Data Corporation (CDC) 6600: Designed by Seymour Cray, the CDC 6600 was
considered the fastest computer in the world when it was introduced in 1964. It was used
primarily for scientific and engineering applications.
* Burroughs B5500: Known for its innovative architecture and advanced operating system, the
B5500 was designed for business and scientific computing.
* Honeywell 200 Series: Competed with the IBM System/360, providing a range of systems for
business and scientific applications.
 * UNIVAC 1108: A powerful mainframe computer used for scientific and engineering
applications, it was an upgrade to the earlier UNIVAC 1107.
Impact and Legacy:
The third generation of computers had a profound impact on society, laying the foundation for
the digital age:
* Increased Accessibility: The reduced cost and size of computers made them more accessible
to businesses, organizations, and individuals.
* Expanded Applications: Computers found applications in a wider range of fields, including
business, science, engineering, education, and government.
* Development of Software Industry: The growth of high-level programming languages and
operating systems fueled the development of the software industry.
* Foundation for the Personal Computer: The advancements in IC technology paved the way
for the development of microprocessors and the personal computer revolution of the 1970s.
* Rise of Time-Sharing: Time-sharing systems allowed multiple users to access and utilize
computers simultaneously, increasing efficiency and productivity.
* Database Development: The development of magnetic disk storage and database
management systems enabled the storage and retrieval of large amounts of data,
revolutionizing data processing.
* Real Time Systems: Computers began to be used for real time systems, which allowed them
to respond to inputs without significant delay. This was important for applications like industrial
control and online transaction processing.
Challenges and Limitations:
While the third generation brought significant advancements, it also faced certain challenges
and limitations:
* Software Development Complexity: As computers became more powerful and complex,
software development became more challenging. Managing the complexity of operating
systems and application programs required new methodologies and tools.
* Compatibility Issues: Different computer manufacturers often used incompatible hardware and
software, making it difficult to share data and programs between systems.
* Cost of Mainframe Systems: While minicomputers were more affordable, mainframe systems
remained expensive, limiting their accessibility to large organizations.
* Limited User Interface: User interfaces were still relatively primitive, relying heavily on
command-line interfaces and punched cards.
* Dependence on Skilled Operators: Operating and maintaining mainframe systems required
skilled operators, limiting their ease of use.
Conclusion:
The third generation of computers, driven by the invention of the integrated circuit, marked a
pivotal moment in the history of computing. This era witnessed a transition from large,
expensive, and unreliable machines to more compact, affordable, and reliable systems. The
advancements in IC technology, operating systems, programming languages, and data storage
laid the foundation for the personal computer revolution and the digital age. While challenges
remained, the third generation's impact was undeniable, transforming the way we live, work, and
interact with technology. The technologies developed during this period served as the stepping
stones to the microprocessor and the fourth generation, which would bring about the
widespread adoption of computers in homes and offices, fundamentally changing the world.