THE ANONYMOUS

INSTITUTE

XI-XII
PHYSICS-I
PHYSICS-II
MATHEMATICS-I
MATHEMATICS-II
CHEMISTRY-I
CHEMISTRY-II
BIOLOGY-I
BIOLOGY-II
COMPUTER-I
COMPUTER-II
ENGLISH-I
ENGLISH-II
URDU-I
URDU-I
ISLAMIAT-I
PAKISTAN STUDIES-II
FOR EVERY SUBJECT SOLVED MODEL PAPER CONTACT AT: 03368089166

SCAN HERE FOLLOW OUR OFFICIAL

CHANNEL

SCAN THE QR CODE THROUGH YOUR WHATSAPP CAMERA &

FOLLOW OUR CHANNEL OR CLICK AT THE ICON
THE ANONYMOUS
INSTITUTE
THE PROJECT OF PAKISTAN EDUCATION NETWORK
OUR COMMUNITY:
ALL EDUCATIONAL UPDATES & NEWS ALL OVER THE
PAKISTAN.
IX-X-XI-XII SSC & HSC EXAMS PREPARATION GROUPS.
DISCUSSION GROUP
KARACHI UNIVERSITY STUDY GROUP.
SCAN HERE
MDCAT/ECAT GROUP
PUNJAB+FEDRAL BOARD GROUP
DAE (STBE)
ALL CLASSES (EXAM’S GROUP>3)

HOW TO GET STARTED?

JOIN OUR GROUP AND BE A PART OF A SUPPORTIVE
LEARNING COMMUNITY.
SHARE THIS WITH YOUR CLASSMATES, FRIENDS, AND
ANYONE WHO COULD BENEFIT.
ADD MORE STUDENTS TO OUR COMMUNITY TO MAXIMIZE
THE IMPACT.

FOLLOW OUR OFFICIAL OUR WEBSITE

CHANNEL

CLICK ON THE ICONS AND YOU WILL BE REDIRECTED

IF THE LINK DOES NOT WORK YOU CAN CONTACT ME
03368089166
MR.ANONYMOUS
‫ بڑھے گا پاکستان‬،‫پڑھے گا پاکستان‬#
Solved

Solved and Compiled by:

Farhan Aziz Abbasi
M. Phil (Nano Physics)
 Solved

SECTION B
(SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION) (36 – Marks)
NOTE: Answer any Nine part questions from this section. All questions carry equal marks. Draw
diagrams where necessary. Use of scientific calculator is allowed. All notations are used in their usual
meanings.
Q2
i. Describe the working of an AC generator.
Working of an AC Generator:
The working of an AC generator involves
several steps:
Rotation of the Armature coil: The coil or
rotor is mechanically rotated using an
external source of power, such as an engine,
a turbine, or any other energy source.

Generation of a Changing Magnetic

Field: As the rotor spins within the stator's
magnetic field, the magnetic field within the
rotor coil changes. This changing magnetic
field induces an electromotive force (emf) or
voltage in the coil.

Generation of Alternating Current: The induced voltage causes an electric current to flow
through the coil, and since the magnetic field's direction is changing, the current produced is
alternating in nature. This means the direction of the current constantly switches back and
forth, resulting in an AC output.

Collection of Output: The alternating current generated in the rotor coil is collected using
slip rings and brushes. The brushes maintain contact with the slip rings as they rotate, allowing
the generated AC to be drawn from the generator.

ii. What is the coefficient of performance (COP) of a refrigerator that

operates with Carnot efficiency between temperatures -3.00°C and +
27°C?
(Book Example No. 17.3)

iii. What is the flux density at a distance of 0.1m in air from a long straight
 Solved
conductor carrying a current of 6.5 A? Calculate the force per meter on a
similar parallel conductor at a distance of 0.1m from the first carrying a
current of 3 A. (𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇. 𝑚. 𝐴−1 )

Given Data:
𝐼 = 6.5 𝐴
𝑟 = 0.1 𝑚
𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇 · 𝑚/𝐴

Required:
a. Flux Density in air at 0.1m; B =?
b. Force per meter on a similar conductor placed at 0.1 m; F =?

Formula:
𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝐵= , 𝐹=
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑟

Solution:
a. Flux Density in air at 0.1m
Using Ampere’s Law we have

𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟

Substituting the values we get

4𝜋 × 10−7 𝑇 × 6.5
𝐵=
2𝜋 × 0.1

𝑩 = 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑻

b. Force per meter on a similar conductor placed at 0.1 m

The force per unit length between two parallel conductors carrying currents I1 and I2
separated by a distance 𝑟 is given by:

𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝐹=
2𝜋𝑟

Substituting the values we get

4𝜋 × 10−7 × 6.5 × 3
𝐹=
2𝜋 × 0.1

𝑭 = 𝟑. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝑵/𝒎

Solved and Compiled by:

Farhan Aziz Abbasi
M. Phil (Nano Physics)
 Solved
iv. A conductor of length 0.4m moves at a velocity of 5ms-1 perpendicular to a
magnetic field of 0.3T. Calculate the motional EMF induced in the
conductor.
Given Data:
𝑙 = 0.4 𝑚
𝑣 = 5 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝐵 = 0.3 𝑇
𝜃 = 90 °

Required:
Motional EMF induced in the conductor; ε =?

Formula:
𝜀 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃

Solution:
Using formula for motional emf;

𝜀 = 𝐵𝑣𝑙 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃

Substituting the values we get

𝜀 = 0.3 × 5 × 0.4 × sin(90)

𝜺 = 𝟎. 𝟔 𝑽

v. In 9 days the number of radioactive nuclei decreases to one eighth present

initially. What is half-life (in days) of the material?
Given Data:
𝑡 = 9 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
1
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜
8

Required:
Half-life of the material; 𝑻𝟏 =?
𝟐
Formula:
0.693
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 , 𝜆=
𝑻𝟏
𝟐
Solution:
After some time “t” the remaining number of radioactive nuclei is given by
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

Substituting the values we get

1
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −9𝜆
8 𝑜
1
= 𝑒 −9𝜆
8
 Solved

Taking “ln” on both sides we get

1
𝑙𝑛 ( ) = ln 𝑒 −9𝜆
8
−2.07 = −9𝜆
2.07
𝜆=
9

𝜆 = 0.23 𝑠 −1 Solved and Compiled by:

Farhan Aziz Abbasi
M. Phil (Nano Physics)
Now to find the Half-Life of the sample we use
0.693
𝑇1 =
2 𝜆
0.693
𝑇1 =
2 0.23

𝑻𝟏 = 𝟑 𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝟐

vi. Define the terms heat and temperature with different scales. Describe the
triple point of water
Heat
Heat is a form of energy that is transferred between two bodies due to a temperature difference.
It is measured in Joules (J) in the SI system. Heat flows from a hotter body to a colder one until
thermal equilibrium is reached.

Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules in a
substance. It determines the direction of heat transfer. Temperature is measured in different
scales:

Celsius (°C): Water freezes (or ice melts) at 0°C and boils at 100°C at standard
atmospheric pressure.
Fahrenheit (°F): Water freezes at 32°F and boils at 212°F at standard atmospheric
pressure.
Kelvin (K): It is the SI unit of temperature. 0 K (absolute zero) is the lowest possible
temperature where molecular motion stops. Water freezes at 273.15 K and boils at 373.15
K.

Triple Point of Water

The triple point of water is the unique condition where water exists in
all three phases (solid, liquid, and gas) in thermal equilibrium.
 It occurs at 0.01°C (273.16 K) and 611.657 Pa.
 This is used as a fixed reference point for defining the Kelvin
scale and precisely calibrate a thermometer

In figure, the triple point is represented as a point where the lines

separating the solid, liquid, and gas phases meet. This diagram visually demonstrates the
relationship between temperature and pressure for the different phases of water.
 Solved
vii. What are logic gates? Describe the binary operation of OR gate or AND gate
for three inputs
Logic Gates
Logic gates are electronic circuits that perform logical operations on one or more binary inputs
to produce a single binary output. They are the basic building blocks of digital circuits and
follow Boolean algebra rules.

Each logic gate operates based on a truth table, which defines its output for all possible input
combinations.

Binary Operation of OR Gate (Three Inputs)

The OR gate performs the logical addition (OR operation), meaning it outputs 1 (HIGH) if at
least one of its inputs is 1 (HIGH). The OR gate follows the Boolean expression:
𝒀=𝑨+𝑩+𝑪

Binary Operation of AND Gate (Three Inputs)

The AND gate performs the logical multiplication (AND operation), meaning it outputs 1
(HIGH) only if all of its inputs are 1 (HIGH). The AND gate follows the Boolean expression:
𝒀 = 𝑨. 𝑩. 𝑪

Truth Table for a 3-Input OR and AND Gate:

A B C Y=A+B+C Y = A.B.C
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1

viii. State first law of thermodynamics. Describe isothermal process

First Law of Thermodynamics
First Law of thermodynamics states that:

“When heat is converted to other forms of energy or vice versa, the total energy of the system
before and after conversion remains same”.

Mathematically;

“The heat energy supplied to a system is equal to the increase in the internal energy of the
system plus the work done by the system on its surroundings”
∆𝑄 = ∆𝑊 + ∆𝑈
 Solved
Isothermal Process
An isothermal process is a thermodynamic process in which a
system undergoes changes while maintaining a constant
temperature. It occurs when heat is exchanged with a reservoir to
compensate for expansion or compression.
In a cylinder with a movable piston, as gas expands, it absorbs
heat to maintain its temperature, and when compressed, it
releases heat.
Since internal energy remains constant (ΔU=0), the heat supplied
is equal to the work done (ΔQ=ΔW).
The process is represented by a smooth curve called an isotherm
on a PV diagram.

ix. A photon with a wavelength of 6.0  10 12 m collides with an electron. After
the collision, the photon wavelength is found to have been changed by
exactly one Compton wavelength 2.43  1012 m. What is the photon’s
wavelength after collision?
Given Data:
𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝜆 = 6.0 × 10−12 𝑚
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = ∆𝜆 = 𝜆𝐶 = 2.43 × 10−12 𝑚

Required:
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝜆′ =?

Formula:
∆𝜆 = 𝜆′ − 𝜆
Solution:
The Compton shift in wavelength is given by;
∆𝜆 = 𝜆′ − 𝜆
𝜆𝐶 = 𝜆′ − 𝜆 Solved and Compiled by:
𝜆′ = 𝜆 + 𝜆𝐶 Farhan Aziz Abbasi
M. Phil (Nano Physics)

Substituting the values we get

𝜆′ = 6.0 × 10−12 + 2.43 × 10−12
𝝀′ = 𝟖. 𝟒𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝒎

x. Define valance band and conduction band, classify solids on the basis of
energy bands.
Valence Band
The valence band is the range of energy levels occupied by electrons that are bound to atoms
and participate in chemical bonding. It is the highest energy band that contains electrons under
normal conditions.
 Solved
Conduction Band
The conduction band is the range of energy levels where electrons are free to move throughout
the material, allowing electrical conduction. Electrons in the conduction band are not bound to
any particular atom and can carry electric current through the solid.

Classification of Solids on the basis of energy bands

Depending on the electrical conductivity solids are classified into three main categories:
conductors, semiconductors and insulators.

Insulators: These materials do not conduct electricity. The band gap between the valence band
and conduction band is very large. Even if a large amount of energy is provided to these solids,
they do not conduct electricity, such as wood, plastics etc.

Conductor: There is no gap between the conduction band and the valence band. Thus, electrons
can easily flow from the valence band to the conduction band under the influence of an electric
field, making them good conductors of electricity.

Semiconductor: The gap between the conduction band and the valence band is very less;
therefore, whenever sufficient energy is provided to the electrons in a semiconductor, electrons
jump from the valence band to the conduction band. The conductivity of the semiconductors
increases with an increase in temperature, for semiconductors, it lies in between 10 – 6 to 10 – 4
(Ωm)-1

xi. Calculate the wavelength of X-Rays, if the energy of one photon emitted by
the X-ray machine is 1.9878  1015 J

Given Data:
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝐸 = 1.9878 × 1015 𝐽
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑘 ′ 𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = ℎ = 6.625 × 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠

Required:
𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝜆 =?
 Solved
Formula:
ℎ𝐶 ℎ𝐶
𝐸= ⟹𝜆=
𝜆 𝐸

Solution:
ℎ𝐶
𝜆=
𝐸
Substituting the values we get

6.625 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

𝜆=
1.9878 × 1015

𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 𝒎 ⟹ 𝟎. 𝟏 𝒏𝒎

xii. In an RL circuit, the resistance (R) is 30 and the inductance (L) is 0.2H.
Calculate the total impedance at a frequency of 60Hz.
Given Data:
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑅 = 30 
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐿 = 0.2 𝐻
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑓 = 60 𝐻𝑧

Required:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡 = 𝑍 =?

Formula:
𝜒𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝜒𝐿 2

Solution:
First we find Inductive Reactance of Inductor using the formula

𝜒𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿
Substituting the values we get

𝜒𝐿 = 2𝜋 × 60 × 0.2
𝝌𝑳 = 𝟕𝟓. 𝟒 

Now using formula for total impedance of circuit

𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝜒𝐿 2

𝑍 = √(30)2 + (75.4)2

𝒁 = 𝟖𝟏. 𝟏𝟓 𝛀
 Solved
xiii. At what speed is a particle moving if the mass is equal to three times of
its rest mass?
Given Data:
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑚𝑜
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 𝑚 = 3𝑚𝑜

Required:
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑣 =?

Formula:
𝑚𝑜
𝑚=
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐
Solution:
𝑚𝑜
𝑚=
2
√1 − 𝑣 2
𝑐

Substituting the values we get

𝑚𝑜
3𝑚𝑜 =
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐

Solving for ‘v’

𝑣2 𝑚𝑜
√1 − =
𝑐 2 3𝑚𝑜

Squaring both sides

𝑣2 1
1− 2 =
𝑐 9
Solved and Compiled by:
𝑣2 1 Farhan Aziz Abbasi
M. Phil (Nano Physics)
2
=1−
𝑐 9

𝑣2 8
=
𝑐2 9
8 2
𝑣2 = 𝑐
9

𝟐√𝟐
𝒗= 𝒄 ⟹ 𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟒𝒄 𝑶𝑹 𝟗𝟒% 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
𝟑
 Solved
xiv. How much heat is required to raise the temperature of 1kg of lead from
25 °C to 100 °C? Specific heat of lead =0.128 J kg -1 C-1

Given Data:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝑚 = 1 𝑘𝑔
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑇1 = 25℃
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑇2 = 100℃
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝑐 = 0.128 𝑗 𝑘𝑔−1 𝐶 −1

Required:
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 = ∆𝑄 =?

Formula:
∆𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇

Solution:
∆𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
Substituting the values we get
∆𝑄 = 1 × 0.128 × (100 − 25)
∆𝑄 = 1 × 0.128 × 75
∆𝑸 = 𝟗. 𝟔 𝑱
 Solved

SECTION C
(SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION) (32 – Marks)
NOTE: Answer any two questions from this section. All questions carry equal marks. Draw
diagrams where necessary. Use of scientific calculator is allowed. All notations are used in their
usual meanings.
Q3
a) State Ampere’s law. Using Ampere’s law derive the expression for the
magnetic field of Induction inside a current carrying Solenoid or
Toroid.

Ampere’s law
Ampere’s Circuital Law states the relationship between the current and the magnetic field
created by it.

Statement
“Sum of the products of the tangential components of magnetic field of induction and
the length elements of a closed curve taken in the magnetic field is o” times the
current which passes through the area bounded by this curve”
Mathematically;
∑(𝑩 ⃗⃗ . ∆𝒍) = 𝝁𝒐 (𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅)
𝑵
𝑵

Solenoid
A long insulated wire wound in a close-packed helix and carrying a current is called
solenoid.
When a current is passed through a solenoid, a magnetic field is produced. The lines of
induction are parallel and closely packed inside the solenoid indicating strong uniform
field. Outside the solenoid field is weak.

Magnetic field of Induction inside a current carrying

Solenoid
The value of magnetic field B can be easily determined
by applying Ampere’s Circuital Law. Consider a
rectangular loop abcda as show in figure.

Divide it into four elements of length;

ab = l1, bc = l2, cd = l3, da = l4

Applying Ampere’s law, we have;

4
⃗ . 𝛥𝑙 ) = 𝜇𝜊 (𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑)
∑(𝐵 𝑁
𝑁=1

⃗ . 𝛥𝑙 )1 + (𝐵
(𝐵 ⃗ . 𝛥𝑙 )2 + (𝐵
⃗ . 𝛥𝑙 )3 + (𝐵
⃗ . 𝛥𝑙 )4 = 𝜇𝜊 (𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑) ⟶ (1)
 Solved
Now we will calculate the value of 𝐁 ⃗⃗ . 𝚫𝐥 for each of the elements. First we will consider
the element ab = l1 that lies inside the solenoid. Field inside the solenoid is uniform. So,
(𝐵⃗ . 𝛥𝑙 )1 = 𝐵𝑙1 𝑐𝑜𝑠(0)
⃗⃗ . 𝜟𝒍)𝟏 = 𝑩𝒍𝟏
(𝑩

The element cd = l3 lies outside the solenoid, the field B is zero, so ;

⃗⃗ . 𝜟𝒍)𝟑 = 𝟎
(𝑩

Also B is perpendicular to bc = l2 and da = l4 inside the solenoid and is zero outside, so

⃗⃗ . 𝜟𝒍)𝟐 = 𝟎
(𝑩
⃗⃗ . 𝜟𝒍)𝟒 = 𝟎
(𝑩

Putting the above values for each product in equation (1) we get;
𝐵𝑙1 + 0 + 0 + 0 = 𝜇𝜊 (𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑)
𝑩𝒍𝟏 = 𝝁𝝄 (𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅)

To find the current enclosed, consider the rectangular surface bounded by the loop abcda

If n is the number of turns of per unit length of the solenoid, the rectangular surface will
intercept nl1 turns, each carrying a current I. So the total current enclosed by the loop is
nl1I. The above equation can now be written as

𝐵𝑙1 = 𝜇𝜊 (𝑛𝑙1 𝐼)

𝑩 = 𝝁𝝄 𝒏𝑰

The field B is along the axis of the solenoid and its direction is given by the right and rule
which states “hold the solenoid in the right hand with fingers curling in the direction
of the current, the thumb will point in the direction of the magnetic field

Toroid
A toroid is a long solenoid which is bend into circular form. So,
toroid is equivalent to the solenoid having infinite length but it
has finite no. of circular turns.

To calculate ‘B’ inside the toroid, consider an Amperian loop in

the form of circle of radius ‘r’ concentric with toroid. Divide the
loop into small elements, each of length ∆l and calculate the
product of ⃗𝑩
⃗ and 𝜟𝒍 for each element

⃗⃗ . 𝜟𝒍 = 𝑩𝜟𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝑩 ⟶ (𝟏)
𝑎𝑠 𝛥𝑙 → 0, ⃗ & 𝛥𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙,
𝐵 ∵𝜃=0

Equation (1) may be written as :

⃗ . 𝛥𝑙 = 𝐵𝛥𝑙
𝐵
 Solved

Sum of all the products will be:

∑(𝐵 ⃗ . 𝛥𝑙 )𝑁 = 𝐵 ∑ 𝛥𝑙𝑁
𝑁 𝑁
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∑ 𝛥𝑙𝑁 = 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 2𝜋𝑟
𝑁
⃗⃗ . 𝜟𝒍)𝑵 = 𝑩(𝟐𝝅𝒓)
∑(𝑩 ⟶ (𝟐)
𝑵

If total number of turns is N and I current is flowing from each turn then the total current
enclosed by the Amperian loop will be NI

From Amperes’s Law

⃗ . 𝛥𝑙𝑁 = 𝜇𝜊 (𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑)

∑ 𝐵
𝑁

⃗ . 𝛥𝑙𝑁 = 𝜇𝜊 (𝑁𝐼)
∑ 𝐵 ⟶ (3)
𝑁
Solved and Compiled by:
Farhan Aziz Abbasi
Comparing 1 and 3 we get M. Phil (Nano Physics)
𝐵(2𝜋𝑟) = 𝜇𝜊 (𝑁𝐼)

𝝁𝝄 𝑵𝑰
𝑩=
𝟐𝝅𝒓

b) What is Carnot Engine? Describe the Carnot cycle and also derive the
expression for the efficiency of Carnot engine in terms of absolute
temperature

Carnot Engine
A Carnot engine is a theoretical heat engine that operates on the Carnot cycle. This is an
ideal engine, conceived by a French engineer and scientist N.L. Sadi Carnot in 1824. It's
considered the most efficient heat engine possible, providing a benchmark for real-world
engines.

Parts of Engine
The Carnot engine may consist the following basic parts which are given below.
i. Source: It is the source of heat maintained at constant high temperature TH. Any
amount of heat can be extracted from it, without changing its temperature.
ii. Sink: It is a cold body maintained at a constant low temperature T L. It can absorb
any amount of heat.
iii. Insulating stand: It is made of perfectly non-conducting material. Heat is not
conducted through this stand.
iv. Working substance: It is an ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder with perfectly non-
conducting walls and perfectly conducting bottom. A non-conducting and
frictionless piston is fitted in it.
 Solved

The Carnot’s Cycle

The properties of the system of Carnot’s engine are repeated after four steps. This four-
step operating cycle of Carnot’s engine is called Carnot’s cycle.
These four steps are described below

Isothermal Expansion: In this process, cylinder is placed on a heat source at temperature

T1. By gradually decreasing the pressure on this piston, gas is allowed to expand so
volume increases from V1 to V2. The temperature of the gas tends to fall but reservoir
supplies heat ‘Q1’ so the temperature T1 remains constant.

Adiabatic Expansion: Now the cylinder is placed on an insulator. By lowering the

pressure on the piston, gas is allowed to expand so volume increases from V2 to V3 &
temperature falls to T2. No heat is exchanged so ∆𝑄 = 0.

Isothermal Compression: Then the cylinder is placed on heat sink at temperature T2.
By gradually increasing the pressure on the pistons, gas is compressed and volume
decreases from V3 to V4. The temperature of the gas tends to rise but gas rejects heat ‘Q2’
to sink so the temperature T2 remains constant.

Adiabatic Compression: Finally the cylinder is again placed on an insulator. By

increasing the pressure on pistons, gas is compressed so the volume decreases from V4 to
V1 & temperature rises to T1. No heat is exchanged so ∆𝑄 = 0. In this process, the gas
attains its initial state.

If Q1 is the heat absorbed by the working substance from the body in the isothermal
expansion AB and Q2 is the heat rejected to the cold body during the isothermal
compression CD. In this cycle, the system comes back to its initial state and hence, there
is no change in its energy. W is the external work done by the engine in one cycle; then
from the 1st law of thermodynamics.
𝑾 = 𝑸𝟏 − 𝑸𝟐
Solved and Compiled by:
Farhan Aziz Abbasi
M. Phil (Nano Physics)
 Solved
Graph:
If a graph is plotted between volume and
pressure of the gas for above processes, a loop
is obtained which is known as ‘Carnot Cycle’.
The area enclosed by the graph is equal to the
work done by the engine.

Efficiency of Carnot Engine

Thermal efficiency (ƞ) of a heat engine is the ratio of output to input.
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑄1 − 𝑄2 𝑄2
𝜂 = ⟹1−
𝑄1 𝑄1
𝑄2
𝜂 = 1− ⟶1
𝑄1
𝑄2
The above equation shows that the efficiency of Carnot engine increases as the ratio 𝑄1
decreases.

It can also be proved that the heat transferred to or from a Carnot engine is directly
proportional to the temperature of the hot or cold body 𝑄 ∝ 𝑇 i.e

𝑄2 𝑇2
=
𝑄1 𝑇1
𝑇2
𝜂 = 1− ⟶2
𝑇1

The efficiency is usually taken in percentage

𝑻𝟐
%𝜼 = (𝟏 − ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑻𝟏
The above equation shows that the efficiency of Carnot engine can only be 100% if the low
temperature reservoir is at 0 K, which is practically impossible to achieve.

Q4
a) Define Self or Mutual Induction. Describe working of Transformer and
derive relative expression.

Self-Induction
“A phenomenon in which a changing current in a conductor induces an emf in itself is
called self-induction”.
According to Lenz’ law “the emf opposes the change that has induced it therefore self-
induction is also known as back emf”.

Mutual-Induction
““A phenomenon in which a changing current in one coil induces an emf in other is known
as mutual induction”.
The coil in which current is changed is called primary coil & the other one is called secondary
coil.
 Solved
Transformer
A transformer is a device used to raise or lower the alternating voltage in a circuit.

Principle
It works on the principle of mutual induction i.e. a changing
current in one coil induces an emf in the other.

Circuit Symbol
In electrical circuits, a transformer is
represented by symbol

Construction
A transformer consists of following parts.

1. Core
A rectangular core of soft iron or special alloy in the form of laminated sheets.

2. Two Coils
Two coils of insulated copper wire are wound one over the top of the other. There is no
electrical connection between coils, they are only linked magnetically.

Primary Coil: The primary coil is connected to the input voltage Vp source. It consists of a
specific number of turns of wire wound around one section of the core denoted as Np.

Secondary Coil: The secondary coil is connected to the load or the device that needs the
transformed voltage. It has a different number of turns of wire wound around another section
of the core denoted by Ns.

Working of Transformer
Suppose an alternating emf is applied to the primary coil that produces a varying flux in iron
∆𝜙
core. If Np is number of turns in primary coil & ∆𝑡𝑚 is rate of change of flux through it then
the varying flux induces a back emf V𝑝, given by faraday’s law.
∆𝜙𝑚
𝑉𝑃 = −𝑁𝑃 ⟶ (1) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁𝑃 𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
∆𝑡

As the two coils are magnetically linked, the rate of change of magnetic flux in the secondary
∆𝜙
coil will also be ∆𝑡𝑚 and the magnitude of the induced emf across the secondary coil can be
expressed as:

∆𝜙𝑚
𝑉𝑆 = −𝑁𝑆 ⟶ (2) 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁𝑆 𝑖𝑠 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙
∆𝑡

Dividing equation 2 by 1 we get

∆𝜙𝑚
𝑉𝑆 −𝑁𝑆 ∆𝑡
=
𝑉𝑃 −𝑁 ∆𝜙𝑚
𝑃 ∆𝑡
𝑽 𝑺 𝑵𝑺
=
𝑽𝑷 𝑵𝑷
 Solved

b) What is photoelectric effect? Define threshold frequency, stopping

potential and work function. Derive Einstein’s photoelectric equation.

Photoelectric Effect
“The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal
surface when it is exposed to light of suitable frequency is
called photoelectric effect”

Threshold Frequency
The minimum frequency of incident light required to eject electron from metal surface without
any K.E. is called threshold frequency “νo”. This is the frequency below which no
photoelectric effect takes place.
It depends upon the nature of the metal surface.

Stopping Potential
The minimum negative potential on collector with respect to emitter required to stop
photoelectrons, is called stopping potential. At this potential, photoelectric current drops to
zero. This potential (difference) multiplied by e, gives K.E. of the most energetic
photoelectrons.

Work Function
The minimum energy required to pull an electron out from metal surface i.e. to overcome the
binding force of the surface is called work function “φ”
It depends upon the nature of the metal surface.

Einstein's explanation on the basis of Quantum theory

Einstein explained photoelectric effect on the basis of Planck’s quantum theory in 1905.
Einstein proposed that light beam behaves like a stream of particles with its energy
concentrated into bundles, later called photons.

According to Einstein's explanation of photoelectric emission,

a photon of energy 'E' performs two operations:
i. Removes the electron from the surface of metal
ii. Supplies some part of energy to move photo electron
towards anode

Since minimum amount of energy to remove electron from a

surface is equal to work function, we can write Einstein
equation as:

(Energy of incident photon) = (Work function) + (K.E maximum of photoelectrons)

𝐸 = 𝜙 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
1
∵ 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈, 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣 2 , 𝜈 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
2
1
ℎ𝜈 = 𝜙 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2
𝟏
𝒎𝒗𝟐 = 𝒉𝝂 − 𝝓
𝟐
 Solved
Q5
a) On the basis of Kinetic Theory of Gases, show that pressure of a gas is
proportional to the mean square velocity of molecules.
Proof:
In order to calculate the pressure of an ideal gas from Kinetic
Theory, let us consider a cube having side length L whose walls
are perfectly elastic contains N number of molecules of an ideal
gas each of mass m. The area of each face is L2 and the volume
of the container is L3

Now, let us consider a molecule moving towards face A along x-

axis with x-components of velocity ‘𝑣𝑥’. On striking the face A,
the molecule rebounds with its x-components of velocity reversed
(- 𝑣𝑥).

Therefore;
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑝𝑥𝑖 = 𝑚𝑣𝑥
𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑝𝑥𝑓 = −𝑚𝑣𝑥
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = ∆𝒑𝒙 = −𝒎𝒗𝒙 −𝒎𝒗𝒙 = −𝟐𝒎𝒗𝒙

For the molecule moving from face A to face B then back to face A, the distance travelled by
molecule is
𝑆 = 𝐿 + 𝐿 = 2𝐿

If t be the time taken by a molecule to cover this round trip then;

𝑠 𝟐𝑳
𝑆 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 ⟹ 𝑡= ⟹ 𝒕=
𝑣𝑥 𝒗𝒙
According to Newton’s second, law of motion, Force acting on molecule = rate of change of
momentum of one molecule, i.e.,
−2𝑚𝑣1𝑥 𝒎𝒗𝟏𝒙 𝟐
𝐹1𝑥 = ⟹ 𝑭𝟏𝒙 = −
2𝐿 𝑳
𝑣1𝑥

This is the force experienced by the molecule due to the wall. The force imparted by molecule
on the wall will be same in magnitude by opposite in direction, i.e.
𝑚𝑣1𝑥 2 𝒎𝒗𝟏𝒙 𝟐
𝐹1𝑥 = − (− ) ⟹ 𝑭𝟏𝒙 =
𝐿 𝑳

Similarly, the forces due to all other molecules can be determined. Thus, the total x directed
Fx due to N number of molecules of the gas moving with velocities 𝑣1𝑥 , 𝑣2𝑥 , … 𝑣𝑁𝑥 will be
given as;

𝐹 = 𝐹1𝑥 + 𝐹2𝑥 … + 𝐹𝑁𝑥

𝑚𝑣1𝑥 2 𝑚𝑣2𝑥 2 𝑚𝑣𝑁𝑥 2

𝐹= + …+
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
Or
𝒎
𝑭= (𝒗 𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐𝒙 𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒗𝑵𝒙 𝟐 )
𝑳 𝟏𝒙
 Solved

As pressure is the normal force per unit area, hence the pressure P on the face perpendicular
to x-axis is given by;
𝑭
𝑷=
𝑨
𝑚
(𝑣1𝑥 2 + 𝑣2𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁𝑥 2 )
𝑷= 𝐿
𝐿2
𝒎
𝑷 = 𝟑 (𝒗𝟏𝒙 𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐𝒙 𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒗𝑵𝒙 𝟐 ) ⟶𝟏
𝑳

Now let
𝑁
𝑛𝑉 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 =
𝑉
𝑁 𝑁
𝑛𝑉 = 3 ⟹ 𝐿3 =
𝐿 𝑛𝑉

Putting this value in equation 1 we get;

𝑚
𝑃= (𝑣 2 + 𝑣2𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁𝑥 2 )
𝑁 1𝑥
𝑛𝑉
𝑚𝑛𝑉
𝑃= (𝑣1𝑥 2 + 𝑣2𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁𝑥 2 )
𝑁
(𝒗𝟏𝒙 𝟐 + 𝒗𝟐𝒙 𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒗𝑵𝒙 𝟐 )
𝑷 = 𝒎𝒏𝑽 ⟶𝟐
𝑵
Here
𝑚𝑛𝑉 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = 𝜌,
(𝑣1𝑥 2 + 𝑣2𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑁𝑥 2 )
= 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 − 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥 2
𝑁

Equation 2 then can be written as;

𝑷 = 𝝆𝒗 ̅̅̅̅̅
𝟐 ⟶𝟑
𝒙

As molecules move randomly, the mean square of all the component velocities will be equal
i.e.
̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥 2 = ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑦 2 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑧 2

For any particle moving in three dimensions

̅̅̅
𝑣 2 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥 2 + ̅̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑦 2 + ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑧 2
or
̅̅̅
𝑣 2 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥 2 + ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥 2 + ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥 2
̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅ 1 ̅̅̅2
𝑣 2 = 3𝑣𝑥
2 ⟹ 𝑣𝑥 2 = 𝑣
3

Putting this value in equation 3 we get;

1 2
𝑃 = 𝜌 ̅̅̅ 𝑣
3
1
As the density of gas is uniform throughout the given volume, the term 𝜌 is constant. i.e.
3
𝑃 = (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)𝑣 ̅̅̅2
𝑷 ∝ ̅̅̅
𝒗𝟐
 Solved
b) Describe the terms optical pumping, metastable state, population inversion
and stimulated emission. Write the construction and working of Helium-
Neon Laser.

Optical Pumping
Optical pumping is a process in which an external energy source, such as a flashlamp or
another laser, is used to excite electrons in atoms or molecules to a higher energy state. This
is essential for achieving population inversion, a necessary condition for laser action.

Metastable State
A metastable state is a higher energy state in which electrons stay longer than usual before
transitioning to a lower energy level. This delayed transition increases the chances of
stimulated emission and is crucial for laser operation.

Population Inversion
Population inversion occurs when more atoms or molecules are in the excited state than in
the lower energy state. This is necessary for stimulated emission to dominate over absorption,
allowing the laser to amplify light.

Stimulated Emission
Stimulated emission is the process by which an excited electron, when struck by an incoming
photon, releases an identical photon and returns to a lower energy state. This results in the
amplification of light, which is the fundamental principle of laser operation.

Helium-Neon Laser
The Helium-Neon (He-Ne) laser is a type of gas laser that has been widely used for various
applications due to its coherent and monochromatic output.

Construction of He-Ne Laser

The Helium-Neon (He-Ne) laser is a type of gas laser that operates on the principle of
population inversion and stimulated emission. It consists of the following main components:

Pump Source (High Voltage Power Supply)

 A high voltage (several hundred volts) is applied across a glass discharge tube.
 This voltage creates an electric field that ionizes the gas inside the tube, exciting the
helium atoms.
 A typical operating current is 5–100 mA.

Gain Medium (Laser Bore Tube or Discharge Glass Tube)

 The laser tube contains a low-pressure mixture of helium (He) and neon (Ne) gases.
 The ratio of helium to neon is usually 5:1 or 20:1.
 The partial pressure of helium is about 1 mbar, while for neon it is 0.1 mbar.
 Solved
Optical Resonator (Resonating Cavity)
 The laser tube is enclosed between two parallel mirrors.
 One mirror is fully silvered (acts as a high reflector) and the other is partially silvered
(acts as an output coupler).
 The fully silvered mirror reflects almost all the light back into the laser cavity.
 The partially silvered mirror allows some of the light to escape as a coherent laser
beam.

Working of He-Ne Laser

Excitation of Helium Atoms

 The electric discharge excites helium atoms to a higher energy state (meta-stable
state).

Energy Transfer to Neon Atoms

 Excited helium atoms collide with neon atoms and transfer their energy.
 This excites neon atoms to a meta-stable state (higher energy level).
 The energy difference between helium and neon is 0.05 eV, which facilitates efficient
energy transfer.

Population Inversion
 A large number of neon atoms accumulate in the excited state.
 This results in population inversion, where more atoms are in the excited state than
in the ground state.

Stimulated Emission and Laser Light Production

 When a neon atom in the excited state is stimulated by an incoming photon, it emits
coherent light of wavelength 632.82 nm (red light).
 This emitted photon stimulates other excited neon atoms to emit photons of the same
phase, frequency, and direction, amplifying the laser light.

Amplification and Output of Laser Beam

 The laser beam bounces between the two mirrors multiple times, further amplifying
the light.
 The partially silvered mirror allows some of the laser light to escape, forming the
laser output.

Solved and Compiled by:

Farhan Aziz Abbasi
M. Phil (Nano Physics)
THE ANONYMOUS
INSTITUTE
THE PROJECT OF PAKISTAN EDUCATION NETWORK
OUR COMMUNITY:
ALL EDUCATIONAL UPDATES & NEWS ALL OVER THE
PAKISTAN.
IX-X-XI-XII SSC & HSC EXAMS PREPARATION GROUPS.
DISCUSSION GROUP
KARACHI UNIVERSITY STUDY GROUP.
SCAN HERE
MDCAT/ECAT GROUP
PUNJAB+FEDRAL BOARD GROUP
DAE (STBE)
ALL CLASSES (EXAM’S GROUP>3)

HOW TO GET STARTED?

JOIN OUR GROUP AND BE A PART OF A SUPPORTIVE
LEARNING COMMUNITY.
SHARE THIS WITH YOUR CLASSMATES, FRIENDS, AND
ANYONE WHO COULD BENEFIT.
ADD MORE STUDENTS TO OUR COMMUNITY TO MAXIMIZE
THE IMPACT.

FOLLOW OUR OFFICIAL OUR WEBSITE

CHANNEL

CLICK ON THE ICONS AND YOU WILL BE REDIRECTED

IF THE LINK DOES NOT WORK YOU CAN CONTACT ME
03368089166
MR.ANONYMOUS
‫ بڑھے گا پاکستان‬،‫پڑھے گا پاکستان‬#