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Carribean Secondary Examination Council

2025
Integrated Science
School Based Assesment

Name of Candidate: David Navendranauth Rabindra Subnauth

Candidate Number: 0900071346

School: The Bishops’ High School

Center Number: 090007

Country: Guyana

Year of Examination: 2025

Teacher: Doranie Surajpaul-Harikishun

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Contents Skills

Lab Pg
TITLE ORR D MM AI PD C
# #

1 4 Osmosis In The Plant Cell

2 8 Structure Of A Hibiscus Flower

3 11 The Presence Of Starch In A Green Leaf

4 15 Drainage And Water Retention

5 19 Testing Foods For Nutrient Compositions

6 26 Chromatography

7 31 The Effect Of Exercise On The Pulse Rate

Effect Of Different Colors Of Light On Plant
8 36
Growth
9 40 Ph Of Substances

10 44 Composting Bioreactor

11 52 Bounce

12 58 Pitch Of Sound Waves

13 62 Conditions Needed For Rusting

Carbon Dioxide Production
14 68
Lab Proposal
Carbon Dioxide Production
15 72
Lab Implementation
16 77 Center Of Gravity

17 83 The Skin
Effectiveness Of Different Hand Sanitizers
18 87
On Bacterial Growth
Investigating The Electrical Conductivity Of
19 90
Different Materials
2 Of
Comparison Of Sinking And Floating
20 93 Different Materials In Fresh Water And Sea
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Osmosis In The Plant Cell

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Lab 1

Date: September 26th, 2023

Title: Osmosis in the Plant Cell

Topic: Transport in Plants

Aim: To investigate the Osmatic properties of a raw Potato

Materials/Apparatus:

 2 strips of raw potato

 Distilled water
 Salt solution
 Paper towel
 Knife
 Petri dishes
 Ruler
 Stopwatch

Method:

1. Potatoes were cut into strips of dimensions 1cm/1cm/5cm using a knife.

2. Two petri dishes were labeled, “DISTILLED WATER” and “SALT SOLUTION” 30 ml
of distilled water was poured in either petri dish and the one labelled “SALT
SOLUTION” also received 1tbsp of salt.
3. A potato strip was then placed in each petri dish. Over the period of 30 minutes 6
recordings were taken in the change of length of the potato strips to the nearest millimeter
at intervals of 5 minutes.
4. The results collected were then processed and represented on a graph.

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Images/Diagrams:

POTATO STRIP
IN THE BEAKER

Observations:

THE RESULTS OBSERVED IN THE DISTILLED WATER AND SALT WATER ARE SHOWN
IN THE TABLE BELOW:

Strips of
Length of Potato Strips
Potato
Time 5 mins 10 mins 15 mins 20 min 25 mins 30 mins
Distilled
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.5
Water
Salt
4.9 4.8 4.7 4.6 4.5 4.5
Solution

THE FOLLOWING TABLE SHOWS THE CHANGE IN TEXTURE OF THE POTATO

STRIPS IN THE DISTILLED WATER AND SALT WATER.

Solution Before After

Distilled Water Firm, smooth Stiff, Harder
Salt Solution Firm, smooth Soft, Flaccid

Graph: See on next page.

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Discussion:

After each interval of 5 minutes the potato strip in the hypertonic solution of distilled water the
increase in turgidity became visible, by the end of the 30 minutes period the potato strip grew by
5 millimeters in length and width. In the case of the potato strip placed in the hypertonic solution
of salt, at each 5 minutes interval a change in texture and increased flaccidity became gradually
visible. After the full 30 minutes the width of the potato strip placed in salt solution remained the
same however its length decreased by 5 millimeters. Osmosis is the movement of moisture from
a point of low concentration to a point of high concentration of moisture through a semi-
permeable membrane.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, the semi-permeable membrane is present in the potato which allows for the
process of osmosis to take place. This information was gathers through an experiment which was
conducted, and the outcomes recorded.

References

1. "Osmosis and Turgor Pressure in Plant Cells." Plant Physiology Textbook.

2. "Hypertonic and Hypotonic Solutions." Biology Online.

3. "Effects of Salt on Plant Cells." Botanical Studies Journal.

4. "Understanding Osmosis." Science Education Resource Center.

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The Structure Of A Hibiscus Flower

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Lab 2

Date: November 27th 2023

Topic: Reproduction in Plants

Title: Structure of a Hibiscus Flower

Aim: To examine an illustrate a Hibiscus Flower

Materials/Apparatus:

 Whole flower of a Hibiscus Plant

 Hands Lens
 Razor/Knife
 Pencil
 Eraser
 Paper

Method/Procedure:

1. A Hibiscus flower was placed at an angle and an illustration was created.

2. The flower was then dissected and a second illustration was made.
3. The parts of the flower were then labelled and annotated.

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Conclusion:

In conclusion the flower is the reproductive organ of the plant.

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The Presence Of Starch In A Green Leaf

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Lab 3

Date: January 15th, 2024

Topic: Photosynthesis
Title: The Presence of starch in a Green Leaf
Aim: To investigate weather starch is present in a green leaf.

Materials/Apparatus:
 A Green Leaf
 Water
 Ethanol
 Iodine Solution
 Tripod Stand
 Bunsen burner/ Hot plate
 Petri dish
 Beaker
 Stopwatch

Method/Procedure:

1. A green Leaf was placed in a Beaker of boiling water for 10 minutes.

2. The leaf was then placed into a test tube containing ethanol which was then placed into a
beaker of boiling water for 15 minutes.
3. After the 15 minutes the leaf was removed from the beaker and placed on a petri dish.
4. Using a pipette, iodine solution was dripped onto the leaf.
5. Observations were made of the reaction, results were recorded and interpreted.

Images/ Diagrams:

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a. Leaf boiling in ethanol b. Original Leaf c. Leaf with iodine

Observations:

THE FOLLOWING OBSERVATIONS WERE MADE DURING THE TEST FOR STARCH IN
A GREEN LEAF.

Before boiling in After boiling in After boiling in

water water. ethanol
Leaf Texture Firm, Hard Soft Stiff, Brittle

The following points were observed during the experiment:

i. The leaf became discolored after being boiled in ethanol.

ii. The ethanol became green as the leaf boiled.
iii. The discolored leaf turned black/dark orange after the iodine solution was
administered.

Discussion:

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants make food using sunlight, carbon-dioxide (Co2),
water (H2O), and a pigment called chlorophyl. The worded equation for photosynthesis is:

Carbon-dioxide + Water >>> Sunlight/Chlorophyl >>> = Glucose + Oxygen

By testing for chemical starches in leaves we can determine is photosynthesis had occurred or
not. We dip the leaf into boiling water to kill off any activity of the enzymes in the leaf. The leaf

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was then boiled in ethanol, this was to remove the chlorophyl. The leaf was then placed back in
boiling water to soften the lead as it had stiffened in during its time in the ethanol. The iodine
solution was then dripped onto the leaf to determine the presence of starch in the leaf. The iodine
interacts with certain molecules of starch in the leaf causing it to turn a bluish-black or dark
orange, proving the presence of starch.

The equation which shows the process of photosynthesis is; 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2.

Conclusion:

IT can now be concluded based on the experiment conducted and the results obtained, that the
original leaf was indeed creating food via photosynthesis and the leaf had a presence of starch in
it.

References
"Photosynthesis: The Process by Which Plants Make Food." Biology Textbook.
"Testing for Starch in Leaves." Science Lab Manual.
"Effect of Iodine on Starch in Leaves." Plant Physiology Journal.
"Chemical Equation of Photosynthesis." Chemistry Reference Guide.

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Drainage And Water Retention

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Lab 4

Date: February 5th, 2024

Topic: Soil Properties

Title: Drainage and Water Retention
Aim: To compare the drainage and water retention capacity of different soil samples

Materials/Apparatus:

 Samples of soil (sand, clay, loam)

 Water
 Filter paper
 Filter funnels
 Measuring cylinders
 Balance
 Beaker
 Spatula

Method/Procedure:

1. The neck of the filter funnels was moistened and a filter paper was placed in each.
2. Each funnel was the put in a measuring cylinder and each apparatus was given an
appropriate label. (A-Clay, B-Loam, C-Sand).
3. 30g of each soil sample was then placed into its corresponding funnel apparatus.
4. 40ml of water was then poured into each apparatus.
5. After 1 hour the volume of drained water was recorded.

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Images/Diagrams:

Results:
THE FOLLOWING RESULTS WERE OBTAINED FROM THE EXPERIMENT
CONDUCTED.

Soil Samples Quantity of water Water Drained ( ) Water retained ( )

poured ( )
A-Clay 40 16 24
B-Loam 40 22 18
C-Sand 40 36 4

Discussion:

In the experiment, we examined how well different soil types, namely clay, loam, and sand,
allow the drainage and retention of water. It was observed that after 1 hour, clay exhibited the
slowest drainage, followed by loam and then sand. This aligns with the understanding that
different soils have differing particle sizes, textures, and compactness. Drainage refers to the
soil's ability to allow water to move through it and exit the root zone, while water holding
capacity is the soil's ability to retain water within its pore spaces and provide it to plants over
time. Both of these factors are significant because proper drainage ensures that roots do not
suffocate from excess water, promoting healthy root development. Adequate water holding
capacity provides a steady water supply to plants between rainfalls or irrigation, ensuring growth
and nutrient uptake. Clay particles are minute and tightly packed, forming small pores that grip

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onto water and hinder its flow. This results in slower drainage because water moves more slowly
through these minute spaces. In contrast, sand particles are large and loosely packed, creating
large air pores that facilitate the rapid movement of water through the soil, allowing it to drain
quickly. Loam is uniquely a combination of different particle sizes and textures, striking a
balance between drainage and water retention. Loam soil can hold water for plant use while also
allowing excess water to drain away, making it an ideal medium for plant growth. This resulted
in intermediate drainage compared to clay and sand. The findings underscore the significance of
considering soil texture in the maintenance of plant health, as both water availability and
drainage are vital factors for root respiration and nutrient absorption.

Sources of Error:

Ensure the water doesn’t flow over the filter paper

Conclusion:

In conclusion the differing pore sizes in the soil resulted in the sample of sand to drain the best,
this was followed by loam which with its combination of properties from both sand and clay
allowed it to have an intermediate water drainage, and lastly clay which due to its small particle
size and compactness allowed for very little drainage compared to the other samples.

References

1. Soil Science Principles

2. Plant-Soil Interactions

3. Soil Texture and Water Movement

4. Agricultural Soil Management

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Testing Foods For Nutrient Compositions

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Lab 5

Date: March 12th, 2024

Topic: Food Tests

Title: Testing foods for nutrient compositions

Aim: To test kidney beans for the presence of starch, protein, fats, and reducing sugars.

Materials/Apparatus:

 Beakers
 Petri Dish
 Test tubes
 Spatula
 Droppers
 Mortar/Pestle
 Clamp
 Water bath
 Heat Source (Hot Plate)
 Tong
 Iodine solution
 Benedict’s solution
 Sodium hydroxide
 Copper sulphate solution
 Ethanol
 Distilled Water
 pH Paper
 Baking Soda
 Food Sample – parboiled kidney beans

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Method/Procedures:

To Test for Starch

1. Solid food materials were crushed finely using a mortar and pestle.
2. A portion of the crushed sample was transferred to a petri dish using a spatula.
3. A few drops of iodine solution were added directly onto the crushed food sample.
4. All observations were recorded and tabulated.

To Test for Protein

1. Solid food materials were crushed finely using a mortar and pestle.
2. A sample of the crushed material was placed in a test tube using a spatula.
3. Sodium hydroxide solution was added to the test tube using a dropper until the
food sample was completely covered.
4. Four drops of copper sulphate solution were then added to each test tube.
5. The mixture was shaken vigorously for approximately 30 seconds.
6. All observations were recorded and tabulated.

To Test for Fats

1. Solid food materials were crushed finely using a mortar and pestle.
2. A sample of the crushed material was placed in a separate test tube using a
spatula.
3. Ethanol was added to the test tube using a dropper until the food sample was
completely covered.
4. The test tube was shaken vigorously for approximately 30 seconds.
5. Five drops of water were added to the test tube, and the mixture was shaken again
vigorously for approximately 30 seconds.
6. All observations were recorded and tabulated.

To Test for Reducing Sugars

1. Solid food materials were crushed finely using a mortar and pestle.
2. A sample of the crushed material was placed in a separate test tube using a
spatula.

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3. Benedict's solution was added to the test tube using a dropper until the food
sample was completely covered.
4. The test tubes were placed in a hot water bath for exactly 5 minutes and then
removed using tongs.
5. Color changes and the formation of any precipitates were observed and recorded
in a table.

Images/ Diagrams:

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Observations:

TABLE SHOWING OBSERVATIONS MADE DURING THE FOOD TESTS

CONDUCTED.
KEY:

 Positive (the nutrient was present in the food sample)

× Negative (the nutrient was not present in the food sample)

Foods Tests

Starch (S) Fats (F) Protein (P) Red Sugar (RS) Inferences

S present, F, P,
Rice  × × ×
RS absent
S, F, P, absent,
Glucose × × × 
RS present
S present, F, P,
Potato  × × ×
RS absent
S, P present, F,
Blackeye  ×  ×
RS absent
P present, S, F,
Egg-White × ×  ×
RS absent
F, P present, S,
Milk ×   ×
RS absent
F present, S, P,
Butter ×  × ×
RS absent
S,F and P
Peanut    × present and RS
absent

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Discussion:

The four biological macromolecules are, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. A
macromolecule refers to any large molecule which is created or formed from smaller repeated
subunits. Polysacharrides are referred to as carbohydrates and provide short term energy. Lipids
are commonly known as fats which provide short term energy. Lipids are commonly known as
fats which provide long term energy. Nucleic acids are commonly known as DNA (deoxy ribbon
nucleic acid) or RNA (Ribonucleic acids) are instructional molecules i.e. they tell the body how
to do something. Proteins are the molecules which do many jobs in the body, such as repair
muscle tissue. The blue-black coloration observed during test one showed the presence of starch.
The starch reacted with the iodine to produce the colour change. In the second test, if the test
tube had a cloudy appearance, that means that proteins were present. If the test tube in the final
test tube had a change in colour to arrange red then sugar was present in the sample.

Sources of Error:

- contamination of chemicals or food samples

- beans were preboiled

Conclusion:

Via various tests were performed we were able to determine the presence, or absence of certain
macronutrients in food, i.e.:

- Rice tested positive for starch and negative for fats, proteins and reducing sugar
- Glucose tested negative for proteins fats and starch and positive for reducing sugar
- Potato tested positive for starch and negative for protein, fat and reducing sugar
- Blackeye tested positive for starch and protein and negative for starch, fat and reducing
sugar
- Egg white tested positive for protein and negative for starch, fat and reducing sugar
- Milk tested positive for protein and fat and negative for starch and reducing sugar
- Butter tested positive for fat and negative for starch, protein and reducing sugar
- Peanut tested positive for starch, fat and protein but negative for reducing sugar

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References

1. Principles of Biochemistry

2. Biological Macromolecules: Structure and Function

3. Biochemical Testing Procedures Manual

4. Journal of Biochemistry Research

5. Introduction to Biological Macromolecules: Online Resource

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Chromatography

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Lab 6

Date: April 8th, 2024

Title: Chromatography

Topic: Mixtures and their separation

Aim: To determine the components, present in a sample of green, blue and red food coloring
using paper chromatography.

Materials/ Apparatus:

 Beaker (400ml)
 Water
 Green, Blue and Red Food coloring.
 Filter paper
 Glass rod
 Dropper
 Sticky tape / Stapler
 Scissors
 Ruler

Method / Procedure:

1. The filter paper was cut into a rectangle focused

2. A pencil was used to draw a line about 2CM from the base.
3. A sample of red green and blue food coloring was placed along the line using a dropper
and allowed to dry.
4. The paper was attached to a glass rod using sticky tape.
5. A beaker was filled with enough water to immerse the edge of the filter paper.
6. The paper was then dipped into the water ensuring that the dye spot does not touch the
paper.
7. The Dye was observed and results were taken.

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Images/Diagrams:

Observations:

TABLE SHOWING OBSERVATIONS TAKEN DORM THE CHROMATOGRAPHY

EXPERIMENT.

Distance
Substance Solvent Front Components Retention Factor
Travelled
Green food Blue dye 5.1 cm 0.89
6.3 cm
coloring Yellow dye 3.3 cm 0.523
Blue food
6.3 cm Blue dye 4.3 cm 0.682
coloring
Red food
6.3 cm Red dye 3.3 cm 0.523
coloring

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Discussion:

The method of chromatography is based on the principle that molecules placed onto a solid
surface and a fluid or solvent (stationary or stable phase) separate from each other while moving
via the mobile phase. The process of chromatography involves the continuous exchange of solute
molecules between phases. If a molecule prefers the mobile phase, it will move away from
molecules that stay stable longer in the solvent. This behavior is quantified using the partition
coefficient, which measures the time spent in the moving and stationary areas. Chromatography
uses differential migration, initially from a narrow zone, to separate solutes based on their
preference for the stable phase. The group of primary colors consists of pigments that can be
combined in varying amounts to form a spectrum of colors. The primary colors are blue, yellow,
and red. Primary colors are pure pigments that contain a single wavelength of light. When these
colors are separated, there isn’t a rainbow-like spectrum because they do not break down into
further colors. These colors don’t change as they are at the ends of the color spectrum, and no
other colors lie beyond them. Due to this, the primary colors red and blue used in the experiment
remained unchanged. A secondary color is a color created by mixing any two of the primary
colors in even proportions. These three secondary colors are purple, green, and orange. The
green dye used in the experiment separated into blue and yellow since the two dye molecules
reacted differently to the stationary phase (filter paper), causing a difference in movement. This
allowed us to see the distinct blue and yellow dyes in the experiment. Retention factors are the
ratios of the distance traveled by a solute molecule to the distance the solvent moves. A low
retention factor suggests that the solute interacted more with the stationary phase (filter paper)
and remained closer to the baseline.

Sources of errors:

 Letting the dye sample (food coloring) touch the water.

 Excess of blue food coloring sample.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the components present in the green thigh sample (food coloring) are yellow and
blue, whereas the blue and red samples were pure colors and had no further components.

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References:

1. "Principles of Chromatography." Analytical Chemistry Textbook.

2. "Chromatography Techniques and Applications." Biochemical Journal.
3. "Primary and Secondary Colors." Color Science Manual.
4. "Retention Factors in Chromatography." Chemical Analysis Guide.

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The Effect Of Exercise On The Pulse Rate

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Lab 7

Date: May 3rd, 2024

Title: The Effect of Exercise on The Pulse Rate

Topic: Respiration and Circulation

Aim: To Investigate the effect of exercise on the pulse rate.

Materials/Apparatus:

 Timer
 Pulse monitor (optional)

Method/ Procedure:

1. Two students were selected and identified as Student A and Student B. The focus was
first on Student A.
2. Student A was allowed to sit down comfortably on a chair and take 5 minutes to settle.
Their pulse was located.
3. The number of pulses per minute was counted and recorded.
4. Student A then:
a) Stood up. The pulse rate was immediately measured and recorded.
b) Walked gently for 5 minutes. The pulse rate was immediately measured and recorded.
c) Walked briskly for 5 minutes. The pulse rate was immediately measured and recorded.
d) Ran for 5 minutes. The pulse rate was immediately measured and recorded.
5. Steps 1 to 4 were then repeated for Student B.
6. The pulse rates after the different levels of exercise were compared.
7. A line graph of the results was drawn.

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Results:

TABLE SHOWING PULSE RATE OF STUDENTS GATHERED IN EXPERIMENT.

Pulse Rate Student A Student B

At Rest 72 88
Standing 73 94
Gentle Walk 76 97
Brisk Walk 90 104
Running 106 133

Graph: See on next page.

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Discussion:

Pulse rate, the number of times one’s heart beats in a minute, is a key indicator of one’s heart
health. During exercise, the body demands more oxygen for working muscles. To meet this
demand, your heart responds by pumping blood faster, which increases your pulse rate. Even
after exercise is finished, one’s breathing remains elevated for a while. This is because the body
is still working to replenish oxygen stores and return to its resting state, called homeostasis. The
findings from this experiment showcase a clear link between exercise intensity and heart pulse
rate. This also emphasizes the importance of regular physical activity in promoting
cardiovascular health. By analyzing the graphs, we may determine which student has a higher
fitness level. The student with a consistently lower heart rate is likely to be more physically fit.
By this logic, Student A seems to be more physically fit. The reason behind this is that a fitter
heart pumps blood more efficiently, delivering enough oxygen with fewer beats per minute.

Precautions:

It is important to consider the following:

 It is difficult to control all variables in relation to the students being tested e.g. fitness and
food consumption prior to the exercise

Solution: Ensure students are similar size, general fitness, age, gender and provide each with the
same meal before exercise

 Activity is hard to replicate exactly for each student.

Solution: Give students an exercise type where intensity is easier to control e.g. running at a
certain speed on a treadmill or cycling with a specific power output on a watt bike

 Breathing rate can vary substantially and changes quickly after exercise finishes

Solution: Begin counting the breathing rate as soon as the time interval begins and only measure
for 15s (or less) then multiply up to calculate breaths per minute

 Students may become more fatigued throughout the duration of the investigation
(especially with repeats)

Solution: Allow significant rest breaks in between exercises and ensure that periods of exercise

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are not prolonged

Conclusion:

In conclusion, pulse rate increases with increasing exercise.

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Effect Of Different Colors Of Light On Plant

Growth

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Lab 8

Date: May 20th, 2024

Title: Effect of different colors of light on plant growth

Background Information:

Light is an important factor in the growth and development of plants. It is known that different
colors of light can affect the rate of photosynthesis in plants, but the specific effects of different
colors of light on plant growth are not fully understood.

Hypothesis:

If a plant is exposed to blue light, then it will grow taller than a plant exposed to red light.

Aim:

To investigate the effect of different colors of light on plant growth.

Theory:

Plants use light energy to carry out photosynthesis, a process that produces glucose and oxygen
from carbon dioxide and water. Chlorophyll, the pigment that gives plants their green color, is
most efficient at absorbing red and blue light. Red light is known to stimulate the production of
chlorophyll, while blue light is known to promote stem and leaf growth.

Materials/Apparatus:

 Two identical plant pots with soil

 Two grow lights (one emitting red light and one emitting blue light)
 Ruler or measuring tape
 Watering can or spray bottle
 Timer or clock

Diagram:

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Method:

1. Plant two identical seeds in two identical pots filled with soil.
2. Place one pot under a grow light emitting red light and one pot under a grow light
emitting blue light.
3. Ensure that both plants receive the same amount of water and are in similar
environmental conditions (e.g. temperature, humidity).
4. Measure the height of each plant every 3-4 days using a ruler or measuring tape.
5. Record the plant height data in a table.
6. Analyze the data to determine if there is a difference in plant growth between the red and
blue light conditions.

Variables:

- Manipulative/Independent Variable: Color of light (red or blue)

- Responding/Dependent Variable: Plant height

- Controlled/Constant Variable: Type of plant, amount of soil, pot size, amount of water,
environmental conditions

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Treatment of Data:

TABLE OF PLANT HEIGHT MEASUREMENTS FOR EACH PLANT AT DIFFERENT TIME

POINTS:

Time (days) Plant under Red Light Plant under Blue Light

12

15

Expected Results:

We expect to observe a difference in plant height between the red and blue light conditions, with
the plant under blue light growing taller than the plant under red light.

Assumptions:

Seeds are of the same type and quality, plants receive the same amount of water, plants are in
similar environmental conditions

Precautions:

Plants are monitored regularly for signs of stress or disease, grow lights are positioned at the
same distance from the plants, measurements are taken at the same time of day

Sources of Error:

Individual variability in plant growth, experimental conditions affecting plant growth (e.g.
temperature, humidity), measurement error.

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pH of Substances

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Lab 9

Date: June 8th, 2024

Topic: Acids, Bases, and Salts

Title: pH of Substances

Aim: To determine the pH value of various substances using universal indicator paper.

Materials/apparatus:

 Universal indicator paper and chart

 Distilled water
 HCL
 H 2 SO 4
 NaOH
 KOH
 Na 2 CO 3
 Lime juice
 Soft drink
 Ammonia
 Saliva
 Alcohol
 Acetone
 Sodium chloride
 Toothpaste

Method/Procedure:

1. A piece of universal indicator paper was dipped in each solution, the color was matched
to the pH chart, and the pH was deduced.

2. The results were tabulated.

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Images/Diagrams:

Observation:

TABLE SHOWING OBSERVATIONS OBTAINED FROM THE EXPERIMENT

Substance Colour pH

Distilled water Green (neutral) 7

HCL Dark red (strong acid) 1

H2SO4 Dark red (strong acid) 1

NaOH Violet (strong alkali) 14

KOH Violet (strong alkali) 14

Na2CO3 Dark blue (strong alkali) 12

Lime juice Orange/green/yellow (weak acid) 5

Soft drink Orange (weak acid) 4

Ammonia Dark green (weak alkali) 9

Saliva Green (neutral) 7

Alcohol Green (neutral) 7

Acetone Green (neutral) 7

Sodium chloride Green (neutral) 7

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Toothpaste Green (neutral) 7

Discussion:

The pH stands for the potential of hydrogen; this is a measure for showing how basic or acidic a
substance is. It measures the amount of hydrogen ions in a solution. The pH scale spans from 0
to 14, with seven being neutral. Mixtures with a pH of less than seven are considered acidic.
Such acidic mixtures may include lemon juice, vinegar, hydrochloric acid, etc. Neutral
substances like pure water have a pH of seven. Solutions with a pH above seven are considered
alkaline or basic. Examples of such substances include baking soda, ammonia, and soap. While
an acidic pH has more H⁺ ions, a neutral pH has a balance of H⁺ and OH⁻ ions, and a basic pH
has more OH⁻ ions. An image of this pH scale may be observed below.

Precautions:

Care was taken to ensure that the solutions were not cross contaminated in the experiment.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, the universal indicator paper is effective to be used to detect the acidic or basic
nature of a substance.

References:

 Chemistry Learner: Chemistrylearner.com.

 BBC bite size: bbc.co.com
 Wikipedia: PH: en.wikepedia.com
 Science buddies: Science buddies.com

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Composting Bioreactor

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Lab 10

Date: September 12th, 2024

Topic: Recycling and Biogas Production

Title: Composting Bioreactor

Aim: To investigate the effect of factors such as type, particle size and moisture content of
compost materials on compost temperature.

Materials/apparatus:

 2-litre soda bottles

 Small plastic container about 4 cm high

 Styrofoam plate

 Nails for making holes

 Clear packaging tape

 Cutter

 Scissors

 Insulating materials such as sheets of foam rubber

 Fine-meshed screen or nylon stocking

 Long-stem dial / digital thermometer

 Vegetable/fruit scraps such as lettuce leaves, carrot or potato peelings, and apple cores or
banana peels

 Bulking agent such as wood shavings, paper egg cartons, cardboard, and small wood
chips

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Method/Procedure:

A. Constructing a composting bioreactor

1. A cutter and a pair of scissors were used to cut off the top of the soda bottles along the
dotted lines as shown in Fig. 1. A bioreactor was assembled by fitting the larger top piece
(A’) tightly over the larger bottom piece (B) as shown in Fig. 2.

2. A disc of the diameter of the bottle was cut from a Styrofoam plate. A nail was used to
make holes through the disc.

3. The disc was fitted into the bottle, roughly 4-5 cm from the bottom, to hold the compost
materials. (If the soda bottle was not indented at the bottom, a support for the Styrofoam
disc was made by making holes in the sides and bottom of a small container and placing
it upside down in the bottle. This formed the support for the disc.)

4. Air holes were made in the side of the bottle in the area below the disc. Holes were
avoided in the very bottom of the bottle.

5. The bioreactor pieces were assembled, ensuring there were sufficient air holes to allow
aeration of the system.

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B. Filling the bioreactor with compost materials

1. The bioreactor was filled with vegetable/fruit scraps to provide nutrients for the
microbes, and a bulking agent to enhance aeration. Some examples of vegetable/fruit
scraps and bulking agents are given in the table below:

Bottle Nitrogen-rich materials (as nutrients for Carbon-rich materials (as bulking
s microbes) agents)

A Lettuce scraps Wood shavings

B Carrot peelings Small wood chips

C Potato peelings Paper egg cartons

D Apple cores Cardboard

E Banana peels Chopped straw

2. The vegetable/fruit scraps and bulking agent were cut into roughly 1 cm pieces. The
bulking agent was soaked in water until thoroughly moist, then the excess water was
drained off.
3. Roughly equal amounts of vegetable/fruit scraps and bulking agent were mixed, then
loosely filled the bioreactor. To ensure sufficient aeration, the mixture was kept light and
fluffy.
4. The top piece of the bottle was put on and sealed in place with tape.
5. The bottle mouth was covered with a piece of screen or nylon stocking held in place with
a rubber band.
6. The bioreactor was insulated by wrapping the bottle with a sheet of foam rubber, making
sure not to block the ventilation holes

C. Monitoring the composting process

1. Temperature readings of the central part of the compost mixture were taken daily for 10
days. The ambient temperature was also recorded.

2. Any change in volume and appearance of the compost materials was observed.
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3. A graph of compost temperature (and ambient temperature) against time was plotted to
obtain the temperature profile for the composting process.

Images/Diagrams:

CONSTRUCTION OF THE COMPOSTER

Results:

TABLE SHOWING RESULTS GATHERED FROM THE BIO-REACTOR OVER 10 DAYS

COMPOST TEMPERATURE ( C) O

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
TIME (days)
( C)
O

A B C D E

1 24 24 24 24 24 25

2 27 28 24 25 25 27

3 28 29 25 26 27 29

4 29 31 25 27 28 31

5 31 33 26 27 29 32

6 32 35 27 28 30 33

7 35 38 28 29 31 32

8 37 39 28 30 33 30

9 38 41 29 30 33 28

10 40 42 29 31 35 27

Graph:

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Discussion:

Composting is a remarkable method to transform kitchen, farm, and general organic waste into
usable soil. To successfully reduce and recycle waste into compost, several factors must be
considered, such as the carbon to nitrogen ratio, moisture, oxygen and aeration, and temperature.
Proper variation of these elements allows for optimal aerobic microbial activity to break down
the materials completely. As a result of the microorganisms working and breaking down the
organic material, the temperature increases. If the temperature is not monitored, the composting
process may not occur optimally. Completed compost can be identified when the original matter
is no longer identifiable, and when it stops producing heat; it will have a dark and soft
appearance with a floral or earthy odor. Composting food scraps and garden waste creates
several benefits, such as reducing waste, improving soil quality and strength, decreasing erosion,
reducing methane emissions from landfills, and reducing personal food waste. However,
problems and social issues surrounding the creation of large-scale community composting
projects include difficulties in acquiring funding and resources, and challenges in rallying
support from residents, as there may not be full consensus on the project in the community.

Sources of error:

 Unbalanced ratio of organic material to bulking material in the compost.

Precautions:

 Handle the cutter, scissors and nail with great care.

 Wear gloves when handling compost materials.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, using a combination of high nitrogen-rich materials, such as food scraps and grass
clippings, with effective carbon-rich bulking agents like wood chips, chopped straw, and
cardboard can lead to significant temperature increases in composting.

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References:

1. Composting: Fundamentals and Practices

2. Organic Waste Management and Recycling

3. Microbial Activity in Composting Processes

4. Soil Improvement through Composting

5. Environmental Benefits of Composting

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Bounce

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Lab 11

Date: September 5th, 2024

Topic: Frictional Forces

Title: Bounce

Aim: To investigate the bounce produced by various types of surfaces.

Materials/apparatus:

 Metre rule

 Ping pong ball

 Tennis ball

 Golf ball

 Basket ball

 Wooden table

 Wooden floor

 Concrete floor

 Grass lawn

 Soil (un-grassed area of earth)

Method/Procedure:

1. A metre rule was set up in a fixed vertical position so that one end touched the surface
under consideration.
2. A ball and a particular type of surface were selected.
3. The ball was held at the one metre mark and dropped for a free fall to the surface. When
the ball rebounded, the maximum height achieved on the first bounce was noted.
4. Similar experiments were repeated with the various combinations of balls and surfaces.
5. The group's data was used to find the average bounce for the ball on that particular
surface.
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6. The results were tabulated, and a graph was plotted to compare the bounce of the various
types of ball on the different surfaces.

Images/Diagrams:

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Results:

TABLE 1: THE BOUNCE OF VARIOUS TYPES OF BALL ON THE DIFFERENT

SURFACES

Height of Balls

(cm)
Surfaces
Ping pong Tennis Golf Cricket Basket
ball ball ball ball ball

Wooden table 70 60 50 5 60

Wooden floor 65 67 35 6 74

Concrete floor 70 55 72 30 80

Grass lawn 2 35 8 4 46

Soil (ungrassed area of

0.5 55 0 0 45
earth)

Graph: Attached behind.

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Discussion:

Bounce refers to an object’s deflection as it collides with a surface and rebounds. A ball’s bounce
will be greater on a hard or rigid surface, such as wooden or concrete floors, compared to a soft
surface, such as a rug or lawn. This is because a rigid surface absorbs less energy when the ball
hits it, leaving more kinetic energy to be rebounded away from the surface as bounce. In the case
of soft surfaces, less kinetic energy is left to rebound as bounce, as a soft surface absorbs a lot of
the ball’s kinetic energy. An object's bounce is affected by several primary factors. Material: A
ball made of an elastic material, such as rubber, often has a faster and more efficient transfer of
energy, resulting in a higher bounce. Conversely, a ball made of a hard or rigid material has a
lower bounce. Surface texture: If a surface is rough, there will be increased friction with the
surface of impact, causing a lower bounce due to higher energy loss. A smooth surface allows for
efficient energy transfer and a higher bounce. Hardness of surface: A softer surface, such as
carpet or grass, absorbs more of the ball's kinetic energy, resulting in a lower bounce. A hard
surface, such as concrete, absorbs less energy, resulting in a higher bounce. Internal pressure of
object: Hollow objects (balls) require proper inflation for optimal rebound force. If a ball is over-
or under-inflated, its capacity for storing energy will be affected. Velocity of object on impact: A
higher velocity at impact means more energy is transferred between the ball and the surface,
leading to a higher bounce. This works in reverse for low velocity at impact. A crucial
relationship between a particular ball and a particular surface is the elasticity and energy transfer
between them. Each type of ball has a different level of elasticity, which determines how well the
ball deforms and bounces upon impact. For example, a rigid ball, such as a cricket or cork ball, is
inelastic and has a less efficient energy transfer, resulting in a lower bounce. In contrast, a highly
elastic ball, such as a rubber ball, has a more efficient energy transfer and hence a higher bounce.

Sources Of Error:

Inaccurate readings of bounce height from the meter ruler.

Precautions:

Ensure that balls are bounced in an open and safe area away from crowds or fertile objects.

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Conclusion: A hard surface, such as concrete, absorbs less energy compared with a soft surface,
such as a grassed lawn. The more energy absorbed by the surface, the less that remains in the ball
for it to bounce.

References

1. Physics of Sports Balls

2. Dynamics of Elastic Materials

3. Energy Transfer in Collisions

4. Surface Interactions and Friction

5. Impact Mechanics and Material Properties

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Pitch Of Sound Waves

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Lab 12

Date: September 25th, 2024

Topic: Sense Organs and Coordination

Title: Pitch of Sound Waves.

Aim: To investigate how length can affect the pitch of sound waves.

Materials/apparatus:

 9 or more straws (can be paper or plastic straws)

 Scissors
 Clear tape

Method/Procedure:

1. The straws were lined up side-by-side so that all of the ends were aligned.
2. The straws were cut at an angle on one side using scissors. Each straw was cut to a
different length.
3. The straws were taped together with clear tape to create a straw pan flute.
4. The straws were blown through to identify which ones made higher or lower pitches.
5. The lengths of each straw were measured and recorded in centimeters in the table.
6. The pitch of each straw was identified after blowing through them, noting whether it was
high, medium, or low.
7. Comments were added to the table, including observations about how the length affected
the pitch, such as if shorter straws consistently created higher pitches compared to longer
straws.

Images/Diagrams:

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Results:

TABLE 1: THE PITCH PRODUCED BY STRAWS WITH DIFFERENT LENGTHS

Straw Straw Length

Pitch Comments
Number (cm)

1 14.1 High This straw should have been longer.

2 13.4 High This straw should have been shorter.

Moderately This straw should’ve been shorter for a shriller

3 13.2
high sound.

This straw had a perfect length and angle for a

4 12.2 Medium
prefect shrill sound.

5 11.9 High This straw should have been longer.

Discussion:

Pitch refers to the perceived frequency of a sound. It determines how high or low a sound is; a
higher frequency sound has a higher pitch, while a lower frequency sound has a lower pitch. The
length of the straw in this experiment will directly affect how the sound is produced and its pitch.
A longer straw results in a lower pitch because it produces a lower frequency sound wave.
Conversely, a shorter straw produces a higher pitch due to a higher frequency sound wave. This
difference is caused because the sound waves have to travel a longer distance in a longer straw,
leading to a slower vibration rate, thus a lower pitch. The opposite occurs in a short straw,
leading to a faster vibration rate and hence a higher pitched sound. Factors such as the material
of the straw, diameter, and force of air will affect the sound produced. The material of the straw
can affect the sound and resonance, which can influence pitch. For example, a metal straw may
produce a sharper, cleaner sound compared to a plastic straw. The diameter of the straw affects
the airflow and thus the movement of sound waves. A wider straw may allow for a lower pitched
sound compared to a narrow straw, as it allows for slower vibrations of sound waves, while a

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narrow straw would allow for faster vibrations and thus higher pitched sounds. The force of air
blown into the straw will affect the vibration and thus the pitch of the sound produced. Increased
air pressure will cause the tension inside the straw to increase, leading to faster movement of
sound waves and a higher pitch. Conversely, slower airflow leads to a lower sound. This
experiment is closely related to the principles behind many real-world instruments. For instance,
the length, material, and other characteristics of the straw in the experiment can be compared to
similar features in musical instruments. Instruments such as flutes, trumpets, and clarinets
operate on similar principles to this straw experiment. The length and material of these
instruments determine resonance and sound, with the manipulation of airflow through the length
of the instrument causing pitch changes, allowing these instruments to play various notes and
tunes. In an even closer example, the pipe organ uses different lengths and diameters of metal
pipes to create different pitches of sound or notes by pumping air through the pipes. Such
examples portray the principles observed in the experiment as used in real-world instruments to
produce different pitches of sound.

Conclusion:

The experiment demonstrated that shorter straws produce higher-pitched sounds, while longer
straws generate lower-pitched sounds, illustrating the direct relationship between the length of
the straw and the frequency of sound waves.

References

1. Principles of Sound and Acoustics

2. Physics of Musical Instruments

3. Sound Wave Behavior and Properties

4. Acoustic Resonance and Materials

5. Scientific Studies on Pitch and Frequency

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Conditions Needed For Rusting

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Lab 13

Date: September 28th, 2024

Topic: Metals and Non-Metals

Title: Conditions needed for Rusting

Aim: To determine the conditions needed for rusting.

Materials/apparatus:

 6 nails
 Cotton
 Oil
 Distilled water
 Boiled water
 Salt water
 Dilute HCL
 Drying agent (calcium chloride or silica gel)
 6 test tubes and rack

Method/Procedure:

1. A nail was put in each test tube and the tubes were labeled 1-6.
2. In test tube 1, the drying agent and cotton/cork were added. Air was present but water
was absent.
3. In test tube 2, boiled water was added to cover the nail, and a little oil was added to form
a layer on top. Air was absent but water was present.
4. In test tube 3, distilled water was added to cover half of the nail. Both air and water were
present.
5. In test tube 4, salt water was added to cover half of the nail. Air, water, and salt were
present.
6. In test tube 5, dilute hydrochloric acid was added to partially cover the nail. Air, water,
and acid were present.
7. In test tube 6, oil was added to cover the nail. No water and no air were present.

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8. The nails were observed for a week, and it was recorded which rusted first and the most.

Images/Diagrams:

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Results:

TABLE 1 SHOWS THE DEGREE OF RUSTING OF IRON NAILS PRODUCED IN

DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

Test Conditions Present Rusting Observations Degree of

Tube Rusting

1 Drying agent, air (no water) No rust observed None

2 Boiled water, oil (no air) No rust observed None

3 Distilled water, air Slight rust observed Minimal

4 Salt water, air Moderate rust observed Moderate

5 Dilute hydrochloric acid, water, Significant rust High

air observed

6 Oil (no air, no water) No rust observed None

Discussion:

Rusting is the process where iron reacts with oxygen and moisture to form iron oxide, commonly
known as rust. This is a type of corrosion that occurs on iron and its alloys. Rusting, which is the
formation of iron oxide, requires three primary conditions: the presence of iron, oxygen, and
water (moisture). Without any one of these components, rusting cannot take place. The main
chemical reactions that lead to rusting start with the oxidation of iron. In this process, iron (Fe)
loses electrons to form iron ions (Fe²⁺):

Fe(s)→Fe2+(aq)+2e−

Next, these electrons reduce oxygen in the presence of water:

½ O₂(g)+H2O(l)+2e−→2OH−(aq)

Finally, the iron ions (Fe²⁺) react with hydroxide ions (OH⁻) to form iron(II) hydroxide:

Fe2+(aq)+2OH−(aq)→Fe(OH)2(s)

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This iron(II) hydroxide further reacts with oxygen to form iron(III) oxide-hydrate, commonly
known as rust:

4Fe(OH)2(s)+O2(g)→2Fe2O3⋅H2O(s)

The nail in Test Tube 5, which was subjected to dilute hydrochloric acid, water, and air, rusted
first. The acidic environment greatly accelerates the oxidation process, leading to a quicker
formation of rust. Furthermore, this same nail rusted the most among all the test tubes. The
hydrochloric acid provides a highly reactive medium, significantly speeding up the oxidation of
iron, resulting in a greater degree of rusting compared to the other nails. This highlights how an
acidic environment can enhance the rusting process both in terms of speed and extent.

In Test Tube 1, which contained a drying agent and air, no rust was observed. The drying agent
effectively removed moisture from the air. Since rusting requires both oxygen and moisture, the
absence of water completely prevented the rusting process.

For Test Tube 2, which had boiled water and was covered with oil, no rust was observed either.
Boiling the water removed the dissolved oxygen, and the oil layer acted as a barrier, preventing
additional oxygen from contacting the water. Without oxygen, rusting could not occur, even
though water was present.

In Test Tube 3, where distilled water and air were present, slight rusting was observed. Distilled
water, being free from impurities and dissolved salts, slows down the rusting process. However,
the presence of both air (which provides oxygen) and water allowed minimal rust formation.

Test Tube 4, containing salt water and air, showed moderate rusting. The salt water increased the
conductivity of the solution, which facilitated the transfer of electrons and accelerated the rusting
process. The combination of air and salt water created an ideal environment for moderate rust
formation.

Significant rusting was observed in Test Tube 5, which contained dilute hydrochloric acid, water,
and air. The acidic environment significantly sped up the rusting process as acids provide a
highly reactive medium that promotes the oxidation of iron. The presence of air and water further
accelerated rust formation, resulting in a high degree of rusting.

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Finally, in Test Tube 6, which was covered with oil, no rust was observed. The oil acted as a
barrier, preventing both water and oxygen from contacting the nail. Without either of these
essential components, the rusting process could not occur.

Conclusion:

The experiment concluded that rusting requires both moisture and oxygen, with the most rust
observed in the test tube with dilute hydrochloric acid, while conditions without water or air
showed no rusting.

References:

 Rusting." Encyclopedia Britannica.

 Corrosion and rusting." BBC Bitesize.
 Rust Chemistry." Science Learning Hub.
 The chemical reactions of rusting." Chemistry Libre Texts.
 Factors Affecting the Rusting of Iron." Boundless Chemistry.
 Corrosion of Metals." Royal Society of Chemistry.

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Carbon Dioxide Production

Lab Proposal

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Lab 14

Date: November 20th, 2024

Title: Carbon dioxide production in yeast fermentation with differing sugar content.

Background Information:

Yeast, specifically saccharomyces cerevisiae, metabolizes sugar through glycoses and

subsequent fermentation pathways.

Hypothesis:

The rate of carbon dioxide production in yeast fermentation will vary depending on the type
of sugar used, with simple sugars (like glucose and fructose) producing carbon dioxide at a
higher rate compared to complex sugars (like sucrose and tactiles) due to their simpler
molecular structure and ease of metabolism by yeast.

Aim:

Show to investigate the rate of carbon dioxide production during yeast fermentation with
varying sugar content.

Materials/Apparatus:

 Water
 Sugar
 Bottles
 Ballons
 Yeast
 Spoons

Method:

1. One measure 50 milliliters of water and pour into three different bakers will stop
2. Heat each beaker full of water for two minutes or until it reaches a temperature of 45
degrees.
3. Prepare three empty bottles and label each A comma B and C.
4. Pour water into each bottle.
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5. To bottle A, add one tablespoon of yeast to one tablespoon of sugar.

6. To bottle B, and one tablespoon of yeast to two tablespoons of sugar.
7. To bottle C, and one tablespoon of yeast to three tablespoons of sugar.
8. Attach a balloon to each bottle’s neck and then gently swirl each for 30 seconds.
9. Measure the balloons. Diameters to observe changes in the amount of carbon dioxide in
the balloons for a period of three hours.
10. Obtain and compare data.
11. Prepare a table and insert the data.

Variables:

 Manipulated variables: concentration of sugar; high, medium and low.

 Responding variables: amount of carbon dioxide.
 Control variables, yeast, size and volume of bottle.

Expected Results:

 Glucose and circles are expected to produce hydrates of CO 2 due to. Ease of
fermentation. Fructose is also expected to produce high rates of CO2. Lactose and
complex sugars are expected to produce lower rates of CO2 on less enzymes or
pretreatment are used to break them down.

Assumptions:

 It is assumed that the yeast cells are viable and capable of fermenting the sugars
throughout the duration of the experimental stuff.
 The sugars used in the experiment are pure and free from contaminants that could affect
the fermentation process.
 The yeast and sugar solutions are roughly mixed to ensure that the yeast has equal access
to these sugars for fermentation.

Precautions:

 Possible change in temperature. (as boiled water will have to be used).

 Possible burns can be sustained.

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Sources of Error:

 Inaccurate measurement of water.

 Accurate measurement of sugar.

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Carbon Dioxide Production

Lab Implementation

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Lab 15

Date: November 24th, 2024

Title: Rate Of Carbon Dioxide Production in Yeast Fermentation with Different Sugar Contents.

Theory:

Yeast, particularly saccharomyces cerevisiae, is a single celled fungus widely used in baking,
brewing and biotechnology. During fermentation, yeast metabolizes sugars anaerobically
(without oxygen, producing carbon dioxide efficiently up to a certain point). If the sugar
concentration is too low the rate of fermentation and CO2 production is reduced because there is
insufficient substrate for the yeast to metabolize therefore, extremely high sugar concentrations
can inhibit yeast activity due to osmotic pressure, which can dehydrate the yeast cells and this
will result in a slower fermentation rate and reduced CO2 production.

Method:

1. 50 ml of water were measured and poured into three different beakers.

2. Each beaker full of water was heated until it reached a temperature of 30 degrees.

3. Three empty bottles were prepared and labeled A, B, and C.

4. The boiled water was poured into each bottle.

5. To bottle A, one tablespoon of yeast and one tablespoon of sugar were added.

6. To bottle B, one tablespoon of yeast and two tablespoons of sugar were added.

7. To bottle C, one tablespoon of yeast and three tablespoons of sugar were added.

8. A balloon was attached to each bottle’s neck and each was gently swirled for 30 seconds.

9. The diameters of the balloons were measured to observe changes in the amount of carbon
dioxide in the balloons for a period of three hours.

10. Data was obtained and compared.

11. A table was prepared, and the data was inserted.

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Images/Diagrams:

Results:

THE TABLE BELOW SHOWS THE RATE OF CARBON DIOXIDE PRODUCTION IN

YEAST FERMENTATION WITH THREE DIFFERENT SUGAR CONTENTS.

Sugar Content Diameter (cm)

Bottle A 1 Tablespoon 3
Bottle B 2 Tablespoons 7
Bottle C 3 Tablespoons 9

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Discussion:

Yeast fermentation is a biological process through which yeast converts sugars into alcohol and
carbon dioxide. This occurs when yeast cells metabolize sugar anaerobically (without oxygen).
The process involves glycolysis, where glucose is broken down into pyruvate, followed by
alcohol fermentation, where pyruvate is converted into ethanol and CO₂. The concentration of
sugar is crucial because it directly affects the speed and rate of fermentation. Yeast requires sugar
to produce energy; therefore, a higher sugar concentration provides more substrate for the yeast
to convert, leading to increased fermentation activity. However, there is an optimal range, as too
much sugar can create a hypertonic environment that inhibits yeast activity. In the experiment,
the balloon attached to the bottle with the lowest sugar concentration did not grow much because
there was less sugar available for the yeast to ferment, resulting in limited production of carbon
dioxide and less gas captured in the balloon. Conversely, the balloon attached to the bottle with
the highest sugar concentration grew more due to the greater amount of sugar for the yeast to
metabolize and ferment. This increased the rate of fermentation, producing more carbon dioxide
and causing the balloon to inflate more.

Sources of Error:

 Inaccurate measurement of sugar and water.

Reflections:

This experiment relates to real life in multiple ways:

 When making bread, adjusting sugar content in the recipe can change the dough’s ‘rise’.
Bread with higher sure content will generally. Rise more quickly and result in a softer
texture.
 Different beer styles have varying levels of sugar, affecting the flavor, alcohol content,
and fizziness. Higher sugar concentrations can lead to stronger beers with more
carbonation.
 In a bioethanol plant, optimizing sugar concentration in the feedstock such as corn or
sugarcane, can enhance ethanol output and reduce costs, making the process more
sustainable and economically viable.

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Conclusion:

This experiment concluded that higher sugar concentrations, as observed with Bottle C, result in
higher rates of carbon dioxide production. Conversely, lower sugar concentrations, as seen with
Bottle A, result in lower rates of carbon dioxide production. This demonstrates the direct
relationship between sugar concentration and the rate of fermentation, where more sugar
provides more substrate for the yeast to metabolize, leading to increased CO₂ production.

References:

1. "Fermentation." Britannica.
2. "Yeast Fermentation Process." Science Learning Hub.
3. "Alcoholic Fermentation." Khan Academy.
4. "Fermentation Basics." Wine Science.
5. "Effect of Sugar Concentration on Yeast Fermentation." Journal of Biological Chemistry.

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Center of Gravity

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Lab 16

Date: November 19th, 2024

Topic: Forces and Equilibrium.

Title: Center of Gravity

Aim: To determine the position of the center of gravity of an irregularly shaped lamina.

Materials/apparatus:

 One irregularly shaped lamina (Bristol board).

 Optical pin.
 Retort stand and clamp.
 Two wooden blocks.
 A plumb line (pendulum bob on string).

Method/Procedure:

1. Three holes were made on the irregularly shaped lamina, positioning them far apart from
each other but fairly close to the edge of the lamina.
2. The holes were labeled A, B, and C as shown in the diagram.
3. The lamina was suspended from hole A on an optical pin, which was held horizontally by
wooden blocks in the clamp of the retort stand.
4. A plumb line was attached in front of the lamina.
5. The lamina and plumb line were displaced, then allowed to come to rest.
6. A straight line was drawn from the point of support to the bottom of the lamina along the
string of the plumb line.
7. Steps 1 to 6 were repeated for holes B and C.
8. The point of intersection of the three lines (labeled CG) gave the center of gravity of the
lamina.

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Images/Diagrams:

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Result:

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Discussion:

The plumb line, guided by the force of gravity, points directly downward towards the Earth's
center, showing the direction of gravitational pull. By drawing several lines from different points,
you can accurately locate the center of gravity. The intersection of these lines reveals the precise
point where the object's weight is evenly distributed in all directions. To verify the center of
gravity, you can balance the shape on a pointed object, such as a pencil tip, at the intersection
point. If the shape balances perfectly without tipping over, you have accurately found the center
of gravity. This point is where the object's mass is balanced and can be considered the average
location of the object's weight. It's important to note that the center of gravity is not always at the
geometric center of the shape. It depends on the mass distribution of the object. For a uniformly
dense and symmetrical object, the center of gravity may coincide with the geometric center.
However, for objects with irregular shapes or non-uniform density, the center of gravity may be
located away from the geometric center. When an object is "balanced," its center of gravity is
aligned with the supporting base, resulting in no net torque acting on it. In simpler terms, the
object remains stable and doesn't tip over due to the even weight distribution.

Sources of Error:

 Difficulty in keeping plumb line and lamina steady.

Precautions:

 Make sure the holes made on the lamina are far way from the edge of the lamina so as to
avoid cutting through the edge.

Conclusion:

Within the limits of experimental errors, it may be concluded that the point of interaction of all
three.

References:

 "Center of Gravity." Physics Classroom.

 "Finding the Center of Gravity." Science Buddies.

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 "Balance and Center of Gravity." HyperPhysics.

 "What is Center of Gravity?" Live Science.
 "Center of Gravity." National Geographic.

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The Skin

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Lab: 17

Date: January 6th, 2025

Topic: Sections Through the Skin

Title: Anatomical Drawing of Skin Sections

Aim: To accurately draw and label the different layers of the skin to understand its structure and
function.

Materials/Apparatus:

 Pencil and eraser

 Ruler

 Plain drawing paper

 Reference images of skin sections

Method/Procedure:

1. Study the structure of the skin, including its main layers: epidermis, dermis, and
subcutaneous tissue.

2. Using a ruler, lightly draw a rectangular shape on your paper to represent the area of skin
which will be illustrated.

3. Divide the rectangle into three horizontal sections to represent the different layers of the
skin.

4. In the top section, draw the epidermis.

5. Include details like skin cells and any relevant structures (e.g., hair follicles, sweat
glands).

6. In the middle section, illustrate the dermis.

7. Add features like blood vessels, nerve endings, and connective tissue.

8. In the bottom section, depict the subcutaneous layer.

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9. Include adipose (fat) tissue and larger blood vessels.

10. Label Each Layer: Clearly label each section (Epidermis, Dermis, Subcutaneous) and any
specific structures you have drawn.

Drawing:

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Conclusion:

In this lab, the anatomical sections of the skin were successfully illustrated, highlighting the
interrelationships between the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous tissue.

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Effectiveness Of Different Hand Sanitizers On

Bacterial Growth

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Lab 18
Date: January 8th, 2025
Topic: Health and Sanitation
Title: Effectiveness of Different Hand Sanitizers on Bacterial Growth
Observation & Background Information:
Hand sanitizers are commonly used to reduce bacteria on the skin. The effectiveness of various
types (alcohol-based, non-alcohol-based) can vary.
Hypothesis:
Alcohol-based hand sanitizers will be more effective at reducing bacterial growth compared to
non-alcohol-based sanitizers.
Aim:
To compare the antibacterial effectiveness of different types of hand sanitizers.
Material/Apparatus:
 petri dishes
 agar plates
 bacterial culture
 hand sanitizers (alcohol-based and non-alcohol-based)
 pipettes
 ruler
 marker
Method/Procedures:
1. Prepare agar plates and inoculate with bacteria.
2. Apply different hand sanitizers on separate sections of the agar.
3. Incubate for 24-48 hours.
4. Measure the zones of inhibition.
Variables:
Controlling Variable:
- Temperature, number of bacteria, incubation time.
Manipulating Variable:

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- Type of hand sanitizer used.

Responding Variable:
- Size of the zone of inhibition around each sanitizer.

Expected Results:
- Alcohol-based sanitizers will show larger zones of inhibition compared to non-alcohol-
based sanitizers.
Assumptions/Precautions/Possible Sources Of Errors:
- Ensure sterile technique to avoid contamination.
- Errors could arise from uneven application of sanitizer or variations in bacterial culture.

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Investigating The Electrical Conductivity Of

Different Materials

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Lab 19
Date: January 10th, 2025
Topic: Electricity and Lighting
Title: Investigating the Electrical Conductivity of Different Materials
Aim: To compare the brightness of bulbs when connected through three different materials: a
metal (e.g., copper), a non-metal (e.g., rubber), and a semiconductor (e.g., graphite).
Material/Apparatus:
 Electrical circuit setup (1.5 V battery, wires, switch, and crocodile clips)
 Three different materials (copper wire, rubber piece, graphite rod)
 Light bulbs (same wattage)
 Ruler (for measuring dimensions if needed)
 Sandpaper (for cleaning materials if necessary)

Method/Procedure:
1. An electrical circuit was set up by connecting the battery, switch, and a light bulb in series
as in the diagram below.
2. The first material (copper wire) was used to connect with crocodile clips into the circuit,
and the switch was turned on. The brightness of the bulb was observed and recorded.
3. The copper wire was replaced with the rubber piece, and the process was repeated, noting
the bulb's brightness.
4. Finally, the rubber was replaced with the graphite rod, and the brightness was observed.
5. The same voltage was applied to each material for consistency.

Images/ Diagram:

DIAGRAM OF AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

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Results/Observations:
TABLE SHOWING THE BRIGHTNESS OF DIFFERENT BULBS CONNECTED TO
DIFFERENT MATERIALS
Material Bulb Brightness Inference
Copper wire Bright High Conductivity
Rubber Piece Off Insulator
Graphite Rod Dim Moderate Conductivity

Discussion:
Electric current refers to the movement of electric charge through a conductor, measured in
amperes (A), and assessed using an instrument called an ammeter. Copper, known for its
excellent conductivity, allows electric current to flow with minimal resistance, causing a bulb to
shine brightly. In contrast, rubber, an insulator, resists the flow of electric current, resulting in
little to no brightness from the bulb. The efficiency of electrical conduction hinges on the
presence of free electrons. Conductive materials like copper have numerous free electrons that
facilitate the flow of current, hence the bright illumination. Conversely, insulating materials like
rubber have very few free electrons, leading to minimal or no light emission. Graphite possesses
a unique structure where each carbon atom bonds with three others in a hexagonal pattern,
leaving one free electron. These free electrons can move between the graphite layers, allowing it
to conduct electricity, though not as efficiently as metals like copper. This results in moderate
brightness when graphite is used as a conductor.
Assumptions/Precautions/Possible Sources of Errors:
 Ensure all connections are secure to prevent resistance from loose connections.
 Use bulbs of the same wattage to ensure fair comparison.
 Conduct the experiment under the same lighting conditions to avoid visual
discrepancies.
 Clean materials thoroughly to avoid contamination affecting results.
Conclusion:
The experiment successfully demonstrated the differences in bulb brightness when connected
through various materials proving that the type of material affects how easily they allow
electricity to pass through them.
References:
1. "Electric Current and Its Effects." Physics Textbook.
2. "Conductors and Insulators." Electrical Engineering Handbook.
3. "Properties of Graphite." Materials Science Journal.

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Comparison Of Sinking And Floating Of Different

Materials In Fresh Water And Sea Water

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Lab 20
Date: January 10th, 2025
Topic: Water and the Aquatic Environment
Title: Comparison of Sinking and Floating of Different Materials in Fresh Water and Sea Water
Aim: To investigate the behavior of different materials when placed in fresh water and sea water,
and to compare their densities.
Material/Apparatus:
 Beakers (2)
 Fresh water
 Sea water
 Objects of similar materials (e.g., a piece of wood, a plastic block, and a metal ball)
 Ruler (for measuring dimensions)
 Scale/balance (for measuring mass)
 Thermometer (to check water temperature)
Diagram:
APPARATUS SET UP OF OBJECTS IN FRESH WATER

Method/Procedures:
1. Measured and recorded the mass of each object using the scale.
2. Measured the dimensions of each object to calculate their volume (length × width ×
height for rectangular objects).
3. Calculated the density of each object using the formula: Density = Mass/Volume.
4. Filled one beaker with fresh water and another with sea water.
5. Carefully placed each object in both types of water, one at a time, and observed whether
it sank or floated.

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6. Recorded the observations for each object in both fresh and sea water.
Results/Observations:
TABLE SHOWING OBSERVATIONS OBTAINED FROM THE EXPERIMENT

Object Fresh Water Sea Water Density (g/cm3)

Wooden cork Floats Floats 0.6

Plastic Block Floats Floats 1.2

Metal Ball Sinks Sinks 7.8

Discussion:
Density measures how much mass is contained within a given volume of a substance, calculated
as mass divided by volume (density = mass/volume). The buoyancy of an object is influenced by
its density relative to the fluid it is in. If an object is less dense than the fluid, it floats because the
upward buoyant force is greater than the downward gravitational force. Conversely, if an object
is denser than the fluid, it sinks due to the stronger gravitational force. Wood floats in both fresh
and saltwater because it is less dense than both. The buoyant force exerted by the water exceeds
the gravitational force on the wood, causing it to float. In contrast, most metals are denser than
both fresh and saltwater, leading to a stronger gravitational force that causes them to sink. The
density of an object directly determines its ability to float or sink. Less dense objects float, while
denser objects sink. This is because the fluid's buoyant force must be greater than the
gravitational force for the object to float. Salinity increases the density of seawater due to
dissolved salts, making saltwater denser than freshwater. This increased density results in a
greater buoyant force, allowing objects that might sink in freshwater to float in saltwater.
Assumptions/Precautions/Possible Sources of Errors:
 Ensure that the measurements of mass and dimensions are accurate to avoid calculation
errors in density.
 Use consistent water temperatures, as temperature can affect water density.
 Ensure that the objects are clean and free from any additional substances that may affect
buoyancy.
Conclusion:
The experiment demonstrated that the ability of an object to float or sink is primarily determined
by its density relative to the density of the fluid.

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References:
1. "Density and Buoyancy." Physics Classroom
2. "Buoyancy and Archimedes' Principle." HyperPhysics
3. "Why Do Objects Float in Saltwater?" Sciencing
4. "What Is Density?" National Geographic

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