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8. LINE SIZING

8.1 General

This guide presents pressure drop and velocity criteria for the sizing of lines on onshore and offshore
platforms and other similar facilities (eg. FPSO, semi-submersible, etc.). Engineers are expected to
use the criteria presented in this guide tempered with judgement when selecting line sizes.

Lines shall be sized such that process pressure drop requirements are satisfied. In general, when
both allowable pressure drop and allowable maximum velocity are shown, the more stringent of the
two should control.

Piping is to be sized for the controlling operating case determined by analysis of the flow rates,
operating pressures and temperatures for all identified operating modes according to the guidelines
below. Consideration is also given to start-up and shutdown conditions and other off-design
operations where these significantly impact on line sizing. For gas and two phase lines, particular
attention is to be given to the effects of changes in operating pressures, temperatures and gas
composition with time.

A 20% design margin is applied to pressure drops for the purposes of comparison with the guidelines
for pressure drop per 100 m (∆P/100 ft). If 1.2 times the calculated pressure drop only marginally
exceeds the guideline then engineering judgement is to be used in selecting the line size.

Sizing criteria is based on pressure drop, recommended velocity, erosion and noise constraints in
accordance with the guidelines given below. Critical lines, eg pump suctions, relief, vent and blow
down lines, are recorded as ‘critical’ on the line list. The Process Engineer will approve layout
isometrics of critical lines based on rigorous pressure drop calculations.

Long pipelines are excluded from the scope of this philosophy. These are to be sized rigorously.

8.1.1 Piping Sizes

A minimum line size of NB 1” shall be used for all main process and utility piping, except for
instrument connections.

Minimum connection sizes on piping shall be 1” for both hazardous and non-hazardous service.

Non-standard pipes sizes shall not be used except where equipment connections and drilling piping
systems require these sizes. Transition to standard commercial pipe sizes shall be made as close to
the equipment as practical.

The following non-standard line sizes will not be normally used:

1¼” , 2½”, 3½”, 5”, 7”, 9”, 22”.

The minimum nozzle size allowed on vessels and heat exchangers will be 2” NB (except for
thermowells which will be 1 ½” NB).

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8.1.2 Piping Valves and Fittings

For detailed piping calculations the resistance of all bends, fittings, and valves can be calculated as
equivalent length as per table of API RP 14E.

For initial calculations where the number and type of fittings are unknown, the equivalent length of
piping shall be obtained by multiplying the piping run obtained from a preliminary layout drawing by
the factors in Table 1.1.

Table 8.1.2
Multiplying Factor For Piping Length
Approximate Pipe Length, m (ft.) 30 (100 ft.) 60 (200 ft) 150 (500 ft.)
Pipe NB
3” and smaller 1.9 1.6 1.2
4” 2.2 1.8 1.3
6” 2.7 2.1 1.4
8” and greater 3.4 2.4 1.6

8.2 Design Criteria - LIQUIDS

8.2.1 Single Phase Liquid Lines

Guidelines for the recommended pressure drops and velocities in piping are given in Tables 2.1 and
2.2 for boiling and non-boiling liquids. For non-boiling liquids, the fluid temperature shall be at least
15 °C (27 oF) below the fluid bubble point. In systems where sand may be present, a minimum
velocity of 1 m/s is required to minimize sand deposition in the lines.

For all pump suction lines, available NPSH must be greater than the required NPSH for the pump by
a margin of 1 meter (3.3 feet) of liquid. The available NPSH will be calculated at the maximum pump
flow rate.

For pump suctions handling boiling fluid, lines shall be sized such that the total frictional pressure
drop does not exceed 0.6 m (2 ft.) of head of the fluid.

For reciprocating pumps, specific attention must be given to the sizing of suction and discharge
piping due to the effects of pulsation and acceleration head. The latter is directly proportional to pipe
length, velocity, pump speed and type of pump. In general, lines need to be sized for lower flowing
velocities than for centrifugal pumps.

Lines for potable water, fresh water and glycol/water mixtures shall be sized as per the criteria in
Table 2.1.
Salt water lines, including produced water, shall be sized according to Table 2.3. (Note: for super-
austenitic stainless steel piping in sea-water service, flow velocity is not constrained by an erosional
limit. For GRE piping the velocity limit is 5 m/s (16 ft/s) maximum).

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Table 8.2.1
Recommended Velocity and Maximum ∆P for Carbon Steel Liquid Lines
HYDROCARBONS
Type of Service Velocity m/s Maximum ∆P bar/100m
General Recommendation
Liquid Density, kg/m3 (lb/ft3)
1600 1.5-2.4 1.1
800 2-3 0.9
320 3-5 0.3
Pump Suction See Table 2.2 See Table 2.2
Pump Discharge See Table 2.2 See Table 2.2
Liquid from condenser 1-2 0.1
Refrigeration Lines 0.6-1.2 0.09
Gravity Rundown Lines 1-2.5 0.033
Liquid Feed to Towers 1.2-2 0.06 - 0.1
Liquids to Reboilers 0.9 - 1.8 0.02 - 0.06
WATER LINES
General Recommendation 0.6-4.8 0.06-0.45
Service Diameter
1” 0.6-1
2” 1-1.5
4” 1.5-2.1
6” 2.1-2.7
8” 2.5-3
10” 3-3.7
12” 3.7-4.3
16” 3.7-4.6
20”+ 3.7-4.9
Pump Suction See Table 2.2 See Table 2.2
Pump Discharge 1.5-3, refer also to Table 2.2 See Table 2.2
Boiler Feed 2.5-4.5
Cooling Water 3.6-4.8 0.45

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Table 8.2.2
Allowable Pressure Drops and Velocities in Piping for Centrifugal Pumps

Maximum Velocity m/s Allowable ∆P bar/100m

Pipe Pump Suction Pump Suction
NB
Pump Pump Boiling Sub-cooled Pump
Suction Discharge Liquid Liquid Discharge
<4” 1.0 1.8 0.01-0.05 0.05-0.14 0.23-0.35
4” 1.4 2.5 0.01-0.05 0.05-0.14 0.23-0.35
6” 1.5 3.0 0.01-0.06 0.05-0.14 0.23-0.35
8” 1.8 4.3 0.02-0.06 0.11-0.23 0.35-0.45
> 8” 1.8 5.0 0.02-0.07 0.11-0.23 0.35-0.45

Table 8.2.3
Allowable Velocities in Piping for Salt and Produced Water

Pipe NB Maximum Velocity

m/s
1” 1.2
2” 1.8
3” 2.5
>4” 3.0

8.2.2 Liquids Flowing By Pressure (Pressure Letdown)

These lines will generally be sized using the guidelines in Table 2.1. These guidelines may be
exceeded where there is sufficient pressure drop available, subject to the following:

a. The maximum allowable velocity is not to be exceeded. Two phase lines are considered in
4.0.
b. Lines upstream of pressure letdown valves shall be sized to prevent vapour flash ahead of
the valve.
c. Lines containing boiling fluids with flow meters shall be sized as for pump suction lines in
Table 2.2. The positive head available over the fluid vapour pressure at the meter inlet shall be in
excess of the meter range. The requirements of the particular installation shall be reviewed with the
Lead Instrument Engineer.
d. Where pressure drop is critical the line should be sized such that the actual pipe frictional
pressure drop does not exceed 50% of the available pressure drop.

8.2.3 Gravity Flow lines

Gravity flow lines shall be sized using a maximum pressure drop of 0.03 bar/100m equivalent length
(based on 1:100 slope). This may be exceeded for sub-cooled liquids with large available heads.
Caution should be taken to prevent flashing in barometric legs. Pipes with a diameter below 200 mm
shall be designed for 50% full of liquid, while pipes with a diameter of 200 mm and greater shall be
designed for 75% full of liquid.
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8.2.4 Vertical Down flow (Liquids from Drain Boxes)

In addition to the sizing criteria given for gravity flow lines (section 2.3), the Froude Number for
vertical down flow service shall be less than 0.3 to avoid air entrainment (self-venting downflow). For
fully flooded vertical down flow, the Froude number shall be greater than 0.6.
FR = V
(gu D) ½
Where FR = Froude Number
V = Velocity (m/s)
 ρ l− ρ g 
gu = g  
 ρl 
ρl = density of liquid (kg/m3)
ρg = density of gas or vapour (kg/m3)
g = 9.81 m/s2
D = internal pipe diameter (m)

At Froude numbers less than 0.3 vapour bubbles will rise and the pipe will be self venting.
Gravity flow lines shall be sized to avoid the formation of syphons and to avoid pulsation and
vibration. One of the following methods can be adopted dependent on the individual engineering
circumstances:
• Install a syphon breaker at the system high point.
• Size the line for all expected flow rates such that frictional forces offset gravitational forces thus
avoiding sub-atmospheric pressures at the top of the pipe.
• Install a back-pressure control near the base of the line.
• Size the line as self venting as above.

8.2.5 Static Accumulation

The maximum velocity in lines entering/leaving tanks containing hydrocarbons, and not installed with
a gas blanket will be limited to 1 m/s in the first 10m of line to/from the tank in order to reduce the
accumulation of static charge. This criterion applies to tanks containing flammable fluids such as
diesel, jet fuel etc.

8.2.6 Seawater / Firewater

If the design of seawater and firewater piping systems is based on the use of copper nickel pipes
then the following criteria will apply:
• For constant duty systems (i.e. the seawater system) the maximum velocity shall not exceed 3
m/s.
• For intermittent duty systems (i.e. the firewater system) a maximum velocity of 7.5 m/s shall be
used.
For alternative materials of construction (eg. GRP, FRP) the maximum velocity is 5 m/s subject to
vendor confirmation.

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8.2.7 Drains

To avoid deposits of solid particles sewage, closed and open drains shall be designed for the
minimum fluid velocities given below:

Table 8.2.4

Minimum Velocities for Drain Lines

Service Min Velocity (m/s)

Sanitary Drains 0.8
Oily Water Drains (Open Drains) 0.9
Other Drains 1.1

However a minimum size of NB 4” shall be used for the header and NB 2” for the sub-headers.

8.2.8 Tank Overflows

Overflows are sized for the maximum net inflow to the tank taking full advantage of the available head
above the overflow.
For overflows through vertical internal pipes, use the Francis formula,

Q = K * D * H 1.5
Q = flow rate (m3/hr)
D = pipe internal diameter (mm)
H = liquid height above top of overflow pipe (mm)
K = constant = 6.575 x 10-4 (for above units)

8.3 Design Criteria - SINGLE PHASE VAPOUR LINES

For lines in which it is required to maintain ‘low’ pressure drops, eg main gas path lines, refer to the
recommended fluid pressure drops in Table 3.1 below. Additional criteria are applied to compressor
lines to limit noise and vibration. Pressure drop may be calculated using methods for incompressible
flow if the pressure drop does not exceed 10% of the upstream absolute pressure. Process lines that
are subject to greater pressure losses are anticipated to be short lines and should be sized on a case
by case basis.

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Table 8.3.1

Recommended Velocity and Pressure Drop for Single Phase Vapour Lines (excluding Vent
lines)

Operating Pressure Bara Maximum Velocity m/s Pressure Drop bar / 100m
General Recommendation
<3.5 0.01-0.03
3.5-10 0.04-0.07
10-40 0.07-0.11
40-150 0.11-0.27
Over 150 0.2% of operating pressure
Compressor Lines
0-5 .034
5-10 .068
10-15 .113
15-35 .113
> 35 .113
Suction 20
Discharge 30
Anti-surge recycle 75

Notes:
1. Reciprocating compressor lines should be sized on a conservative basis with maximum velocities
of 12 m/s.
2. The velocity of gases containing wet carbon dioxide is not to exceed 18 m/s where film-forming
corrosion inhibitor is being used. At velocities above this limit corrosion inhibitor loses its
effectiveness.
3. For continuous flow (including lines in flare systems) the vapour velocity should not exceed the
erosional velocity as calculated in section 4.0 below. The calculated velocity shall not exceed either
the maximum recommended velocity or the erosional velocity. For intermittent flow where pressure
drop is not a consideration (eg. Compressor recycle lines) the velocity should not exceed 40 m/s.
In addition to the velocity and pressure drop criteria, the maximum allowable vapour velocity relating
to the acceptable noise levels should not normally be exceeded. This velocity is calculated by the
formula:

Vmax = 198.5 ( )-0.506

where Vmax = Maximum allowable vapour velocity (m/s) based on
a noise limit of 85 dBA @ 1m
= Gas density at flowing conditions (kg/m3)

When the vapour velocity exceeds Vmax for noise limits, consideration should be given to the routing
of the pipework, and addition of insulation on the piping, before significantly increasing the line size.

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8.4 Design Criteria - GAS/LIQUID TWO PHASE LINES

8.4.1 Flow Patterns

Two phase flow in pipes can be classified by flow patterns which describe the type of flow exhibited,
with different flow patterns identified for horizontal and vertical flow. The flow patterns are determined
from standard flow pattern maps.

8.4.2 Erosion

High velocities in 2 phase lines can cause rapid wear by erosion. The velocity at which erosion may
occur is calculated by the formula given in API RP14E, i.e.
C
Ve =
ρm
Ve = erosional velocity (m/s)
C = constant (empirical)
= 100 for carbon steel lines in continuous service
= 125 for carbon steel lines in intermittent services
= 250 for duplex and stainless steel lines
= 400-450 for duplex/stainless steel in intermittent services
ρm = mixture density (kg/m3) at operating pressure and temp.
(gas density should be used for single phase gas lines).
ρm can be calculated from the equation in API RP14E, or estimated by the following:
ρm = ρg (1-λ) + λ ρl

Where λ = liquid volume fraction

ρg = gas density (kg/m3)
ρl = liquid density (kg/m3)
Alternatively the mixture density can be determined from the HYSYS simulation program.

8.4.3 Line Sizing

The following criteria can be used to size two phase lines on platforms. Subsea and long flow lines
are excluded from this procedure and should be sized using proprietary software eg. PIPESIM.
a. Calculate the erosional velocity and determine the minimum pipe size required to avoid fluid
erosion.
b. Check the flow pattern to ensure that slug flow is avoided - annular mist flow is preferred.
However, if slug flow cannot be avoided due to erosional velocity constraints, then the slug flow
regime has to be accepted.
c. Calculate the pressure drop either using the method outlined in API RP14E or by use of
proprietary software (ESI, HYSYS, PIPESIM).
Production manifolds and other lines transporting gas and liquid in two phase flow where significant
pressure drop is available, are generally sized on the basis of flowline velocity. This velocity shall not
exceed the erosional velocity as calculated in Section 4.2.
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Calculation of static head resistance in two phase systems should consider the fluid to be all liquid
since this is likely to occur at some stage of facility operation. Static gain should be treated with
caution since flashed vapour present may not necessarily recondense in the downcomer pipe.

Slug flow with resultant pressure pulsation and vibration is to be avoided. Problems are most likely in
lines from exchangers where partial vapourization or condensation has occurred. In comparison,
equilibrium fluids which are continuously flashing with vapour expansion are usually relatively stable.
Where slug flow is expected to be a problem, consideration should be given to equipment layout, e.g.
locate exchanger near terminus so that the liquid vapour line is as short as possible. In all cases
however it is good engineering practice to layout piping so that it is self venting to the terminus (i.e.
no pockets).

8.5 Design Criteria - RELIEF AND DEPRESSURING LINES

Vapour flow in relief and depressuring lines is treated as adiabatic compressible flow. The size of
flare headers, subheaders and individual relief valves may be estimated by the method of Lapple
(refer API RP521) or by more rigorous proven computer methods. For the preliminary engineering
phase of a project the guidelines given below should be followed. A detailed network analysis shall
be undertaken during the detailed engineering phase for all controlling relieving/depressuring cases
in order to ensure that the maximum allowable back pressure at each individual relieving device is not
exceeded.

Calculations will be performed in accordance with API RP520/521, or by use of recognized software
eg. FLARENET or equivalent.

8.5.1 Relief Valve Inlet Lines

The inlet line pressure drop is to be less than 3% of set pressure calculated at set pressure
conditions assuming flow based on installed relief valve area. The inlet line shall not be smaller than
the inlet flange of the relief valve.

8.5.2 Relief Valve Outlet Lines

The discharge line shall not be smaller than the outlet flange of the relief valve. The computation of
the allowable pressure drop using the required relief capacity is as follows:

8.5.3 Conventional Valves

Size the discharge line from conventional valves to limit the pressure drop to less than 10% of the set
pressure (gauge).

8.5.4 Balanced Valves

Higher pressure drops may be used to effect considerable cost savings. Limit the pressure drop to
50% of the set pressure (gauge) and to no more than the rating of the internal bellows. Where there
are a number of valves discharging into the same manifold, caution should be exercised to ensure
that the backpressure in the manifold allows all relief valves to discharge properly.

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The recommended maximum Mach number range is 0.5-0.75 calculated at rated flowrate and
downstream end of header conditions. Back pressure based on installed critical area shall be
checked to confirm it is below the system design pressure.

Mach number for vapour lines is calculated based on the equation presented on API 521 Section
5.4.3

8.5.5 Flare Headers and Sub-Headers

The equivalent length of headers and sub-headers should be determined as per section 6.0.
The maximum Mach number range is 0.5-0.75 calculated at rated flowrate at the downstream end of
line conditions.

8.5.6 Flare Stacks

Flare Stack Diameter is generally sized on a velocity basis although pressure drop should be
checked. For stable flare burning in pipe flares, API 521 recommends 0.5 Mach for a peak short term
infrequent flow, with 0.2 Mach maintained for the more normal and possibly more frequent conditions.
Requirements for pipe flares and other proprietary designs should be discussed with the vendor.

8.5.7 Blowdown Inlet Lines

The maximum velocity should be limited to 60 m/s.

8.5.8 Blowdown Outlet Lines and High Pressure Vents

Vent stack diameter is generally sized on a velocity basis although pressure drop should be checked.
Since there is no requirement to maintain a stable flame, the vent tip can be sized for sonic velocity.
This minimizes the size and provides gas dispersion. An allowance must be made in the pressure
drop calculation for the pressure discontinuity that occurs at the tip when sonic velocity is established.

8.5.9 Atmospheric Tank Vents

Non-refrigerated atmospheric tank vents are sized on the basis of maintaining an operating pressure
that the tank can safely withstand. Flowrates are determined by consideration of thermal inbreathing
and outbreathing, maximum fluid inflow or outflow, and vapour production resulting from fire
exposure. Refer to API RP 2000 Venting Atmospheric and Low Pressure Storage Tanks for design
details.

8.6 CALCULATION METHODS

For the purposes of calculating line sizes and pressure drops the following calculation methods shall
be used:
Single Phase Lines - In-house validated spreadsheets
- PIPECALC Software or equivalent
Two Phase Lines - In-house validated spreadsheets
- PIPECALC Software or equivalent
- PIPESIM where applicable
Firewater Systems - HYDRONICS or equivalent
Flare Networks - FLARENET or equivalent

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Valves and Fittings Equivalent Lengths

Equivalent lengths shall be determined either from Crane, Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings
and Pipes, Technical Publication 410M. Roughness factors for pipe are detailed in Table 6.1.

Table 8.6.1: Roughness Values

Material/Application Roughness, mm (in.)

Carbon Steel 0.0457 (0.0018”)
Carbon Steel Flare/Vent Headers (Heavily Corroded) 0.457 (0.018”)
Stainless Steel Flare Headers (Hot Rolled, Longitudinally 0.0457 (0.0018”)
Welded)
Stainless Steel (New Seamless, Cold Drawn) 0.0406 (0.0016”)
Duplex Stainless Steel 0.0406 (0.0016”)
Galvanized Carbon Steel 0.1524 (0.006”)
Epoxy Lined Pipe 0.1524 (0.0016”)
Glass Reinforced Epoxy (GRE) 0.0053 (0.00021”)

Copper-Nickel lines will be sized using the Hazen-Williams formula. In this case, a Hazen-Williams
‘C’ value of 140 is used in calculations as recommended in the NFPA Handbook.
The roughness of Coflexip flexible pipes is calculated as follows:
E = D
250 D in mm - for roughbore flexible pipe with a stainless steel carcass.
For smooth flexible pipe (thermoplastic lined) E = 0.0048 mm. (0.00019”)

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