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3
 22EC401 CONTROL ENGINEERING

Department : ECE
Batch/Year : 2023-2027/II
Created by : Mr. A. Sivakumar AP/ECE
Ms. K. Jeevitha AP/ECE

4
Table of Contents
S.No Title Page No

1 Course Objectives 6

2 Pre Requisites (Course Names with Code) 7

3 Syllabus (With Subject Code, Name, LTPC 8

details)
4 Course outcomes 10

5 CO - PO/PSO Mapping 11

6 Lecture Plan 12

7 Activity based learning 13

8 Lecture Notes 17

9 Assignments 83

10 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO) 86

11 Part B Q & A (with K level and CO) 90

12 Supportive online Certification courses 95

13 Real time Application in day to day life and 96

Industry
14 Contents beyond the Syllabus 97

15 Assessment Schedule 99

16 Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books 100

17 Mini Project suggestions 101

5
 1. Course Objectives

To understand the transfer function models of mechanical

and electrical systems.

To develop adequate knowledge in the time response of

systems and steady stat error analysis.

To analyse the open loop and closed loop frequency response

of linear systems.

To introduce stability analysis and design of compensators of

linear systems.

To introduce state variable representation of physical

systems.

6
 2.Pre Requisites
(Course Names with Code)

22MA201 Transforms and Numerical Methods

22EC201 Electron Devices and Circuit Theory

7
 3. SYLLABUS

22EC401 CONTROL ENGINEERING LTPC 3024

UNIT I MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

Basic elements in control systems: Open and closed loop systems –
Mathematical model and Electrical analogy of mechanical systems –
Transfer function – Block diagram reduction techniques – Signal flow
graphs - Applications of Control system.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Determine the transfer function of the given closed loop system
using MATLAB
2. Implement unity and non-unity feedback system using MATLAB.

UNIT II TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Time response: Time domain specifications – Types of test input – I and
II order system response – Error coefficients – Generalized error series –
Steady state error – Effects of P, PI, PID modes of feedback control
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
3. Estimate the unit step response of the given transfer function and
determine its time domain parameters using MATLAB.
4. Determine the steady state error of the given transfer function using
MATLAB.
5. Simulate P, PD, PI, PID controller and verify by using hardware
UNIT III FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS
Frequency response analysis – Bode plot – Polar plot. Determination of
closed loop response from open loop response –M and N circles.
Correlation between frequency domain and time domain specifications.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
6. Perform stability analysis of a given transfer function using gain and
phase margins estimated by the Bode plot using MATLAB.
7. Estimate the relative stability of a given transfer function using gain
and phase margins estimated by the Polar plot using MATLAB.

8
UNIT IV STABILITY AND COMPENSATOR DESIGN
Characteristics equation – Routh Hurwitz criterion- Root locus
construction – Effect of Lag, lead and lag-lead compensation on
frequency response - Design of Lag, lead and lag lead compensator
using bode plots.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
8. Sketch the root locus of the given transfer function and locate the
closed loop poles for different values of open loop gain (K) using
MATLAB.

UNIT V STATE VARIABLE AND STATE SPACE

MODELLING
Concept of state variables – State models for linear and time invariant
Systems – Solution of state and output equation in controllable canonical
form – Concepts of controllability and observability.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
9. Construct the State space model for the classical transfer function
using MATLAB.
10. Perform analytical study of water flow measurement using flow
meter

9
 4. Course outcomes

Upon completion of the course, the student should be able to:

CO1: Develop mathematical model of linear mechanical

and electrical systems

CO2: Model the time response analysis of first and second

order systems

CO3: Analyze the frequency response of open and closed

loop systems

CO4: Design the compensators for Linear Systems

CO5: Analyze stability methods for Linear Systems

CO6: Examine the state variables, controllability and

observability of linear and time invariant systems

10
CO
5.CO- PO/PSO Mapping

PROGRAMME OUTCOMES(PO) PSO*

PO10

PO11

PO12

PSO1

PSO2

PSO3
PO4
PO1

PO2

PO3

PO5

PO6

PO7

PO9
P08
CO6 CO5 CO4 CO3 CO2 CO1

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

*Program Specific Outcome

11
6.Lecture Plan
UNIT II TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Taxonomy
pertaining
Proposed

Delivery
Mode of
Periods

Actual
No. of

Date

level
S.No

date

CO
Topic

Time response: – Chalk

1 Time domain 1 CO2 K2 and
specifications Talk
Chalk
2 Types of test input 1 CO2 K2 and
Talk
Chalk
I and II order
3 1 CO2 K2 and
system response
Talk
Chalk
4 Error coefficients 2 CO2 K2 and
Talk
Chalk
Generalized error
5 1 CO2 K3 and
series Talk
Chalk
6 Steady state error 1 CO2 K3 and
Talk
Effects of P, PI, PID Chalk
7 modes of feedback 1 CO2 K3 and
control Talk
Chalk
Time response
8 1 CO2 K3 and
analysis
Talk
Effect of addition of
Chalk
poles and zeros in
9 1 CO2 K3 and
Second order
Talk
system

12
 7.Activity based learning
Activity 1

Person Moving in an Escalator

Imagine a person trying to move up an escalator steps while the escalator is moving
down. His goal is to keep a desired constant distance 𝑥𝑥𝑜 from the starting location
of the escalator see (Figure d). He is doing that by changing his own speed relative
to the escalator.

Figure d - Person Moving in an Escalator)

Clearly, if the desired location value 𝑥𝑥𝑜 is higher than his actual location x then he
speeds up, and if the desired location value is lower than his actual location, then he
slows down. At some point he becomes a better rider, and finds his “right” speed so
his location 𝑥𝑥 is very close to, or even equals 𝑥𝑥𝑜. The question is how to formulate
(model) this feedback system in terms of control systems. A simplified version of the
system is shown in Figure e. The actual location 𝑥𝑥 is continuously subtracted from
the desired location 𝑥𝑥𝑜 to generate an error signal. This error signal is translated to
the person’s speed (by a 𝐾𝐾 factor). Now to obtain the actual location 𝑥𝑥 of the
person, this speed value is integrated.
This is the example to understand the concept of negative feedback. It is important
to note that this feedback loop as shown in the Figure e tend to have a 0 steady
state error. This is due to the step input (𝑥𝑥𝑜)and the integrator in the loop.

Figure- e Diagram of a Person Moving in an Escalator

13
 7.Activity based learning –Crossword Puzzle
UNIT II
1. A conditionally stable system exhibits poor stability at
__________ values of open loop gain.(From Left to
Right)

2. An increase in gain, in most systems, leads to

____________ damping ratio. (From Top to Bottom)

3. The initial response when the output is not equal to

input is called _______________ response. (From Top to
Bottom)

4. The type 2 system has poles at the origin.(From Left

to Right)

5. Velocity error constant of a system is measured when the

input to the system is unit function. (From Right
to Left)

6. If a step function is applied to the input of a system and

the output remains below a certain level for all the time,
the system is not necessarily ___________ (From Right
to Left)

7. The type 0 system has _______ poles at the origin.

(From Right to Left)

8. The type 1 system has ______ at the origin. .(From

Left to Right)

9. The transfer function is applicable ________ time-in

variant systems. (From Left to Right)

10.The transient response, with feedback system

__________ quickly. (From Top to Bottom)

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7.Activity based learning –Crossword Puzzle
UNIT II

15
Unit II Crossword puzzle Answers

Questions Answers

1 Reduced

2 Smaller

3 Transient

4 Two

5 Ramp

6 Stable

7 No

8 Simple

9 Linear

10 Decays

16
 8.LECTURE NOTES

UNIT 2 TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS

2.INTRODUCTION
We can analyze the response of the control systems in both the time
domain and the frequency domain. Let us now discuss about the time response
analysis of control systems.
In control system, input varies from one instant to another instant. Based
on input, the system produces the output. The behavior of the system under such
condition is described by its dynamic response or time response
2.1 DEFINITION OF TIME RESPONSE
The time response of the system is the output of the system as a function
of time when subjected to a given input. In time response analysis basically system
is tested in time instead of frequency.
The time response of a system consists of two parts
Transient Response
Steady State Response
Therefore, Total Time Response = Transient Response + Steady State Response
Mathematically, we can write the time response C(t) as

𝐶 𝑡 = 𝐶𝑡𝑟 (𝑡) + 𝐶𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) ---(2.1)

Where,
𝐶𝑡𝑟 (𝑡)is the transient response
𝐶𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) is the steady state response
Transient Response
It is the portion of total time response during which output change from
one value to another value. In other words, it is the response before the output
reaches the steady state value.
Steady State Response
It is the response of the system for a given input after very long time. In
steady state, the output response settles to its final steady state value or steady
oscillations.

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 Fig . 2.1 Response of a System

2.2 STANDARD TEST SIGNAL

For time domain analysis, the following standard test signal or input are
used for analysis.
Step signal
Ramp signal
Impulse signal
Parabolic signal
Step Input
A step is a signal whose values changes from zero level to another level A
in zero time and stays there forever.

Mathematically it is represented as,

U(t) = A t≥0
=0 t<0 ----(2.2)

Laplace transform of unit step signal u (t) is

𝐴
𝐿[𝑢(𝑡)] = 𝑠
Fig.2.2 Unit Step input
Ramp Input
The ramp signal which starts at a value of zero and increases linearly with time.

Mathematically it is represented as,

r(t) = At t≥0
=0 t<0 -----(2.3)
Laplace transform of unit step signal r(t) is
𝐴
𝐿[𝑟(𝑡)] = 𝑠2

Fig.2.3 Unit Ramp input

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Impulse Input
The impulse signal has zero amplitude everywhere except at the origin.
Mathematically it is represented as,
ᵟ(t) =1 t=0
=0 t≠0 -----(2.4)
Laplace transform of unit step signal ᵟ(t) is
L[ᵟ(t)] = 1
Parabolic Input Fig.2.4 Unit impulse
Signal
The instantaneous value of a parabolic signal varies a square of time from an initial
value of zero at t=0

Mathematically it is represented as,

r(t) = A𝑡 2 t≥0

=0 t<0 -----(2.5)

Laplace transform of parabolic input signal r(t) is

L[r(t)] = 𝐿[𝑡 2 ] =
1 Fig.2.5 Parabolic Signal
𝑠3

2.3 ORDER OF THE SYSTEM

System can be modeled in different ways. In that transfer function is one of the
methods.

The transfer function is obtained by differential equations governing the system. The
input-output relationship of linear time invariant system is defined by the transfer
function.

That is input-output relationship of control system can be expressed by nth order

differential equation is given by

𝑛 𝑚
𝑘
𝑑 𝑐 𝑡 𝑏𝑘 𝑑𝑘 𝑟 𝑡
෎ 𝑎𝑘 = ෎
𝑑𝑡𝑘 𝑑𝑡𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑘=0

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 𝑑𝑛 𝑐 𝑡 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑐 𝑡
𝑎𝑛 𝑛
+ 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑛−1
+ ⋯ + 𝑎1 + 𝑎0 𝑐(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚 𝑟 𝑡 𝑑 𝑚−1 𝑟 𝑡 𝑑𝑟 𝑡
= 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑏𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 + 𝑏0 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚−1 𝑑𝑡

Take Laplace Transform on both sides

𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 𝐶 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝐶 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 sC s + 𝑎0 𝐶 𝑠
= 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 𝑅(𝑠) + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑅(𝑠) + ⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑠𝑅(𝑠) + 𝑏0 𝑅(𝑠)

𝐶 𝑠 {𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 s + 𝑎0 } = 𝑅(𝑠){𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 𝑅 + 𝑏𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑠 + 𝑏0 }

𝐶(𝑠) 𝑏𝑚 𝑠𝑚 𝑅+𝑏𝑛−1 𝑠𝑛−1 +⋯+𝑏1 𝑠+𝑏0

Therefore = ------(2.6)
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑛 +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠𝑛−1 +⋯+𝑎1 s+𝑎0

The numerator is polynomial of degree m and the denominator is polynomial of

degree n.
The degree n of the denominator polynomial is known as order of the system.
The order of the system is defined as the maximum power of S in the denominator
polynomial.
Zeroth order System:
If n=0, then the system is said to be zero order system.
First order System:
If n=1, then the system is said to be first order system.
Second order System:
If n=2, then the system is said to be second order system.

2.4 TYPE NUMBER OF CONTROL SYSTEM

The type number is specified for loop transfer function G(s)H(s). The number of
poles of the loop transfer function lying at the origin decides the type number of the
system. In general, if N is the number of poles at the origin then the type number is
N.

20
The loop transfer function can be expressed as a ratio of two polynomials in s.

𝑃(𝑠) 𝑠+𝑧1 𝑠+𝑧2 𝑠+𝑧3 +⋯

G(s) H(s) = 𝐾 𝑄 𝑠
=𝐾 𝑆𝑁𝑠+𝑝1 𝑠+𝑝2 𝑆+𝑝3 +⋯
-------(2.7)

where, z1, z2, z3, ............. are zeros of transfer function

p1, p2, p3, .......... are poles of transfer function

K = Constant

N= Number of poles at the origin.

The value of N in the denominator polynomial of loop transfer function shown in

equation decides the type number of the system.

If N = 0, then the system is type - O system

If N = 1, then the system is type – 1 system

If N = 2, then the system is type - 2 system

If N = 3, then the system is type - 3 system and so on.

2.5 TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS OF THE FIRST ORDER

SYSTEM
Consider the following block diagram of the closed loop control system.
1
Here, an open loop transfer function, 𝑠𝑇 is connected with a unity negative feedback

Fig.2.6 First order system

21
We know that the transfer function of the closed loop control system has unity
negative feedback as
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
𝑅(𝑠)
= 1+𝐺(𝑠) ---(2.8)
1
Substitute G(s)= in equation (2.8)
𝑠𝑇
1
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑠𝑇 1
= =
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 1 𝑠𝑇 + 1
𝑠𝑇
The power of s is one in the denominator term. Hence, the above transfer
function is of the first order and the system is said to be the first order system.
Where,
C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output signal c(t),
R(s) is the Laplace transform of the input signal r(t), and
T is the time constant.
Consider the unit step signal as an input to first order system.
𝑠𝑜, r(t)=u(t)
Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.
1
𝑅(𝑠) = ---(2.9)
𝑠
1
Consider the equation, 𝐶(𝑠) = (𝑠𝑇+1)𝑅(𝑠) ---(2.10)
1
Substitute 𝑅(𝑠) = in equation(2.10)
𝑠
1 1 1
𝐶(𝑠) = ( )( ) =
𝑠𝑇 + 1 𝑠 𝑠(𝑠𝑇 + 1)
Do partial fractions of C(s).
1 𝐴 𝐵
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑠𝑇+1) = 𝑠 + 𝑠𝑇+1 ---(2.11)

1 𝐴(𝑠𝑇 + 1) + 𝐵𝑠
⇒ =
𝑠(𝑠𝑇 + 1) 𝑠(𝑠𝑇 + 1)

On both the sides, the denominator term is the same. So, they will get cancelled by
each other. Hence, equate the numerator terms.
1 = 𝐴(𝑠𝑇 + 1) + 𝐵𝑠

22
By equating the constant terms on both the sides, you will get A = 1.
Substitute, A = 1 and equate the coefficient of the s terms on both the sides.
0 = 𝑇 + 𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵 = −𝑇

Substitute, A = 1 and B = −T in partial fraction in equation (2.11)

1 𝑇 1 𝑇
𝐶(𝑠) = − = −
𝑠 𝑠𝑇 + 1 𝑠 𝑇(𝑠 + 1 )
𝑇
1 1
𝐶(𝑠) = −
𝑠 𝑠+1
𝑇
Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.
𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = (1 − 𝑒 −(𝑇) )𝑢(𝑡) ---(2.12)
When t=0, 𝑐(0) = (1 − 𝑒 −(0) ) = 0
When t=∞, 𝑐(∞) = (1 − 𝑒 −(∞) ) = 1
The following figure shows the unit step response.

Fig.2.7 Response of first order system

The value of the unit step response, c(t) is zero at t = 0 and for all negative values
of t. It is gradually increasing from zero value and finally reaches to one in steady
state. So, the steady state value depends on the magnitude of the input.

23
2.6 TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS OF SECOND ORDER
SYSTEM

Consider the following block diagram of closed loop control system. Here,
2
𝜔𝑛
an open loop transfer function, is connected with a unity negative
𝑠(𝑠+2𝛿𝜔𝑛 )
feedback.

Fig.2.8 Second order system

We know that the transfer function of the closed loop control system having unity
negative feedback as
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺(𝑠)
2
𝜔𝑛
Substitute 𝐺(𝑠) = in the above equation.
𝑠(𝑠+2𝛿𝜔𝑛 )

𝜔2𝑛
𝐶(𝑠) ( ) 𝜔2
----(2.13)
𝑠(𝑠+2𝛿𝜔𝑛 )
= 𝜔𝑛2 = 𝑠2 +2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠+𝜔2
𝑅(𝑠) 1+( ) 𝑛 𝑛
𝑠(𝑠+2𝛿𝜔𝑛 )

Where, δ- damping ratio

𝜔𝑛 —natural frequency

Damping ratio

It is defined as the ratio of actual damping to the critical damping.

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 ----(2.14)

The power of ‘s’ is two in the denominator term. Hence, the above transfer function
is of the second order and the system is said to be the second order system.

The characteristic equation is 𝑠 2 +2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 = 0 ----(2.15)

24
The roots of characteristic equation are -
−2𝜔𝛿𝑛 ± (2𝛿𝜔𝑛 )2 − 4𝜔𝑛2 −2(𝛿𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 𝛿 2 − 1)
𝑠= =
2 2

⇒ 𝑠 = −𝛿𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 𝛿 2 − 1 ---(2.16)

The two roots are imaginary when δ = 0.

The two roots are real and equal when δ = 1.
The two roots are real but not equal when δ > 1.
The two roots are complex conjugate when 0 < δ < 1.
We can write C(s) equation as,
𝜔𝑛2
𝐶(𝑠) = ( )𝑅(𝑠)
𝑠 2 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
Where,
C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output signal, c(t)
R(s) is the Laplace transform of the input signal, r(t)
ωn is the natural frequency
δ is the damping ratio.
Follow these steps to get the response (output) of the second order
system in the time domain.

(i)Take Laplace transform of the input signal, r(t).

𝜔2
(ii)Consider the equation, 𝐶(𝑠) = (𝑠2 +2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠+𝜔2 )𝑅(𝑠)
𝑛 𝑛

(iii)Substitute R(s) value in the above equation.

(iv)Do partial fractions of C(s) if required.

(v)Apply inverse Laplace transform to C(s).

25
2.6.1 RESPONSE OF UN-DAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM FOR
A UNIT STEP INPUT

Consider the unit step signal as an input to the second order system.
Laplace transform of the unit step signal is,
1
𝑅(𝑠) =
𝑠
We know the transfer function of the second order closed loop control system is,
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
Substitute, δ=0 in the transfer function.
𝐶(𝑠) 2
𝜔𝑛
= 2 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 +𝜔𝑛

1
Substitute, 𝑅(𝑠) = in above equation.
𝑠

𝜔𝑛2 1 𝜔𝑛2
𝐶(𝑠) = ( )( ) =
𝑠 2 + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑠 𝑠(𝑠 2 + 𝜔𝑛2 )
Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.
𝑐(𝑡) = (1 − cos(𝜔𝑛 𝑡))𝑢(𝑡) ---(2.17)
So, the unit step response of the second order system when δ = 0 will be a
continuous time signal with constant amplitude and frequency.

Fig.2.9 Response of a un-damped system for unit step input

2.6.2 RESPONSE OF CRITICALLY DAMPED SECOND ORDER
SYSTEM FOR A UNIT STEP INPUT.
Consider the transfer function of the second order closed loop control
system is,
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
𝜔2
⇒ 𝐶(𝑠) = ((𝑠+𝜔𝑛 )2 )𝑅(𝑠) ---(2.18)
𝑛

26
 1
Substitute, 𝑅 𝑠 = 𝑠 in the equation(2.18).
𝜔𝑛2 1 𝜔𝑛2
𝐶(𝑠) = ( )( ) =
(𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 )2 𝑠 𝑠(𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 )2
Do partial fractions of C(s).
𝜔2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑠+𝜔𝑛 2 = 𝑠 + 𝑠+𝜔 + (𝑠+𝜔 2 ---(2.19)
𝑛) 𝑛 𝑛)

𝜔𝑛2 = A(s + 𝜔𝑛 )2 +Bs s + 𝜔𝑛 + Cs

𝜔𝑛2 = A𝑠 2 + A2𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝐴𝜔𝑛2 + B𝑠 2 + Bs𝜔𝑛 + Cs

On equating the coefficients of constant term 𝐴𝜔𝑛2 = 𝜔𝑛2 , 𝐴 = 1
On equating the coefficients of 𝑠 2 term A + B = 0, 𝐵 = −1
On equating the coefficients of 𝑠 term A2𝜔𝑛 + B𝜔𝑛 + 𝐶 = 0 , 𝐶 =-𝜔𝑛
After simplifying, you will get the values of A, B and C as 1, −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝜔𝑛
respectively. Substitute these values in the equation (2.19)
Substitute these values in the above partial fraction expansion of C(s)
1 1 𝜔𝑛
𝐶(𝑠) = − −
𝑠 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 (𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 )2
Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides
𝑐(𝑡) = (1 − 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛 𝑡 − 𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑒 −𝜔𝑛 𝑡 )𝑢(𝑡) ---(2.20)
So, the unit step response of the second order system will try to reach the step
input in steady state.

Fig.2.10 Response of a critically damped system for unit step input

27
2.6.3 RESPONSE OF UNDER DAMPED SECOND ORDER SYSTEM FOR A
UNIT STEP INPUT.
Consider the transfer function of the second order closed loop control system is,
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2

𝜔2
⇒ 𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑠2 +2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠+𝜔2 𝑅(𝑠) ---(2.21)
𝑛 𝑛
1
Substitute, 𝑅 𝑠 = 𝑠 in the above equation.

𝜔𝑛2 1 𝜔𝑛2
𝐶 𝑠 = =
(𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛 )2 + 𝜔𝑛2 (1 − 𝛿 2 ) 𝑠 𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 )
Do partial fractions of C(s)
𝜔2 𝐴 𝐵𝑠+𝐶
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑠2 +2𝛿𝜔𝑛 2 = 𝑠 + 𝑠2 +2𝛿𝜔 2 ---(2.22)
𝑛 𝑠+𝜔𝑛 ) 𝑛 𝑠+𝜔𝑛

𝜔𝑛2 = A(𝑠 2 +2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 ) + s(Bs + C)

𝜔𝑛2 = 𝐴𝑠 2 + A2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝐴𝜔𝑛2 + B𝑠 2 + Cs

On equating the coefficients of constant term 𝐴𝜔𝑛2 = 𝜔𝑛2 , 𝐴 = 1

On equating the coefficients of 𝑠 2 term A + B = 0, 𝐵 = −1
On equating the coefficients of 𝑠 term A2𝛿𝜔𝑛 + 𝐶 = 0 , 𝐶 = −2𝛿𝜔𝑛
Substitute A,B,C in equation (2.22)

1 𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛
𝐶 𝑠 = − 2
𝑠 𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
1 𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 1 𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛
𝐶 𝑠 = − 2 2 = −
2
𝑠 𝑠 + 2𝑠𝛿𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛 + (𝛿𝜔𝑛 ) − (𝛿𝜔𝑛 ) 2 𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛 )2 + 𝜔𝑛2 (1 − 𝛿 2 )

1 (𝑠+𝛿𝜔𝑛 ) 𝛿 𝜔𝑛 1−𝛿 2
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑠 − − ( ) ---(2.23)
(𝑠+𝛿𝜔𝑛 )2 +(𝜔𝑛 1−𝛿 2 )2 1−𝛿 2 (𝑠+𝛿𝜔𝑛 )2 +(𝜔𝑛 1−𝛿 2 )2

Substitute, 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝛿 2 as 𝜔𝑑 in the equation(2.23).

1 (𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛 ) 𝛿 𝜔𝑑
𝐶(𝑠) = − 2 2 − ( 2)
𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛 ) + 𝜔𝑑 1 − 𝛿 2 (𝑠 + 𝛿𝜔𝑛 )2 + 𝜔𝑑

28
Apply inverse Laplace transform on both the sides.
𝛿
𝑐(𝑡) = (1 − 𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡) − 𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡))𝑢(𝑡)
1− 𝛿2
𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = (1 − (( 1 − 𝛿 2 )cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡) + 𝛿sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡)))𝑢(𝑡)
1− 𝛿2

If 1 − 𝛿 2 = sin 𝜃 then ‘δ’ will be cos(θ). Substitute these values in the above
equation.
𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑐 𝑡 = 1− sin 𝜃 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + cos 𝜃 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 𝑢 𝑡
1 − 𝛿2
𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = (1 − ( )sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃))𝑢(𝑡) ---(2.24)
1−𝛿 2

1−𝛿 2
Where 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝛿

So, the unit step response of the second order system is having damped oscillations
(decreasing amplitude) when ‘δ’ lies between zero and one.

Fig. 2.11 Response of a under damped system for unit step input

29
Problems on Second order System

1.Obtain the response of unity feedback system whose transfer function is G s =

4
and when the input is unit step.
𝑠(𝑠+5)

Solution :
4
Given that G s = 𝑠(𝑠+5) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 𝑠 = 1
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
The closed loop transfer function, =
𝑅(𝑠) 1+𝐺 𝑠
4
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠+5) 4 4
= 4 = 𝑠2 +5𝑠+4 =
𝑅(𝑠) 1+ 𝑠+4 (𝑠+1)
𝑠(𝑠+5)

4
The response in s-domain,𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠+4 (𝑠+1)
1
Since the input is step input , 𝑅 𝑠 = 𝑠

1 4
Then 𝐶 𝑠 = ×
𝑠 𝑠+4 (𝑠+1)
4 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
By partial fraction expansion, we can write 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑠 = 𝑠 + 𝑠+4 + 𝑠+1
𝑠+4 (𝑠+1)

A(s + 4)(s + 1) + Bs(s + 1) + Cs(s + 4) = 4

Put s=0,A=1
−4
Put s=-1, −C(−1+4)=4 ,C= 3
1
Put s=-4, −4B(−4+1)=4 ,B= 3

The response in the time domain c(t) is obtained by taking inverse Laplace
transform of C(s).
1 −4
1
Response in time domain 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐿−1 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐿−1 3
+ 𝑠+4 3
+ 𝑠+1
𝑠
1 4
𝑐 𝑡 = 1 + 𝑒 −4𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑡
3 3
Result:
1 4
The Response in time domain , 𝑐 𝑡 = 1 + 𝑒 −4𝑡 − 𝑒 −𝑡
3 3

30
2. A Positional control system with velocity feedback is shown in fig. What is the
response of the system for unit step input.
Solution:
100
Given that G s = 𝑠(𝑠+2) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐻 𝑠 = 0.1𝑠 + 1

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
The closed loop transfer function,𝑅(𝑠) = 1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)

100 100
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠 + 2) 𝑠(𝑠 + 2) 100
= = = 2
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 100 𝑠 𝑠 + 2 + 100(0.1𝑠 + 1) 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 10𝑠 + 100
(0.1𝑠 + 1)
𝑠(𝑠 + 2) 𝑠(𝑠 + 2)
100
=
𝑠 2 + 12𝑠 + 100
Here, 𝑠 2 + 12𝑠 + 100 is the characteristic polynomial.
The roots of the characteristics polynomial are,
−12± 144−400 12±𝑗16
s1,s2 = =− = −6 ± 𝑗8.
2 2

The roots are complex conjugate. The system is under damped and so the response
of the system has damped oscillations.
100
The response in s-domain,𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠2 +12𝑠+100
1
Since the input is step input , 𝑅 𝑠 = 𝑠

1 100 100
Then 𝐶 𝑠 = × =
𝑠 𝑠2 +12𝑠+100 𝑠(𝑠2 +12𝑠+100)

By partial fraction expansion, we can write

100 𝐴 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶
𝐶 𝑠 = = +
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 12𝑠 + 100) 𝑠 (𝑠 2 +12𝑠 + 100)

100 𝐴 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶
= +
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 12𝑠 + 100) 𝑠 (𝑠 2 +12𝑠 + 100)

100 = 𝐴(𝑠 2 + 12𝑠 + 100) + 𝑠(𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶)

100 = 𝐴𝑠 2 + 𝐴12𝑠 + 𝐴100 + 𝐵𝑠 2 + 𝐶𝑠

31
On equating the coefficients of constant term 𝐴100 = 100 , 𝐴 = 1
On equating the coefficients of 𝑠 2 term 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 0 , 𝐵 = −1
On equating the coefficients of 𝑠 term 12𝐴 + 𝐶 = 0 , 𝐶 = −12

1 −𝑠−12 1 𝑠+12 1 𝑠+6+6

Response in s-domain 𝐶 𝑠 = + 𝑠2 +12𝑠+100 = 𝑠 − 𝑠2 +12𝑠+36+64 = 𝑠 − (𝑠+6)2 +82
𝑠

1 𝑠+6 6 1 𝑠+6 6 8
= − − = − −
𝑠 (𝑠 + 6)2 +82 (𝑠 + 6)2 +82 𝑠 (𝑠 + 6)2 +82 8 (𝑠 + 6)2 +82

The response in the time domain 𝑐(𝑡) is obtained by taking inverse Laplace
transform of 𝐶(𝑠).
1 𝑠+6 6 8
Response in time domain 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐿−1 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐿−1 − (𝑠+6)2 +82 − 8 (𝑠+6)2 +82
𝑠
6
𝑐 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 −6𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠8𝑡 − 𝑒 −6𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛8𝑡
8
6
𝑐 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 −6𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑠8𝑡 + 𝑒 −6𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛8𝑡)
8
Result:
6
The response in time domain𝑐 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 −6𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑠8𝑡 + 𝑒 −6𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛8𝑡)
8
3. The response of the servomechanism is 𝑐 𝑡 = 1 + 0.2𝑒 −60𝑡 − 1.2𝑒 −10𝑡 when
subjected to a unit step input. Obtain an expression for closed loop transfer
function. Determine the un-damped natural frequency and damping ratio.
Solution:
Given that 𝑐 𝑡 = 1 + 0.2𝑒 −60𝑡 − 1.2𝑒 −10𝑡
On taking Laplace transform of c(t) we get,

1 0.2 1.2 𝑠 + 60 𝑠 + 10 + 0.2𝑠 𝑠 + 10 − 1.2𝑠(𝑠 + 60)

𝐶 𝑠 = + − =
𝑠 𝑠 + 60 𝑠 + 10 𝑠 𝑠 + 60 (𝑠 + 10)

𝑠 2 + 70𝑠 + 600 + 0.2𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 − 12𝑠 2 − 72𝑠 600

= =
𝑠 𝑠 + 60 (𝑠 + 10) 𝑠 𝑠 + 60 (𝑠 + 10)

1 600
=
𝑠 𝑠 + 60 (𝑠 + 10)

32
 1
Since the step input R(s)= 𝑠 ,
600 600
𝐶 𝑠 =𝑅 𝑠 = 𝑅(𝑠) 2
𝑠 + 60 𝑠 + 10 𝑠 + 70𝑠 + 600
Therefore, the closed loop transfer function of the system is given by
𝐶(𝑠) 600
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 70𝑠 + 600
The damping ratio and natural frequency is obtained by comparing the system
transfer function with standard form of second order transfer function.
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2 600
= 2 2 = 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 70𝑠 + 600
On comparing we get,
𝜔𝑛2
= 600
𝜔𝑛 = 600
𝜔𝑛 = 24.49 rad/sec

2𝛿𝜔𝑛 = 70
70 70
𝛿 = 2𝜔 = 2×24.49 = 1.43
𝑛

Result:
𝐶(𝑠) 600
The closed loop transfer function of the system is given by =
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠2 +70𝑠+600
𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑠𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 , 𝜔𝑛 = 24.49 rad/sec
𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝛿 = 1.43
4. Determine the unit step response of a the control system shown in figure.
Solution:
10 𝑠
Given that 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑠(𝑠+3)
H(s)= 10 +1
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
The closed loop transfer function,𝑅(𝑠) = 1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
10
𝐶(𝑠) 10 10
Therefore
𝑠(𝑠+3)
= = =
𝑅(𝑠) 1+
10
( +1)
𝑠
𝑠(𝑠+3) 10
𝑠 𝑠+3 +1)
+10(
𝑠
10
𝑠2 +3𝑠+𝑠+10
𝐶(𝑠) 10
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 10
10
The response in s-domain 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠2 +4𝑠+10

33
 1
For the step input 𝑅 𝑠 =
𝑠

1 10 10
𝐶 𝑠 = =
𝑠 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 10 𝑠( 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 10)

10 𝐴 𝐵𝑠+𝐶
By partial fraction expansion, we can write 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑠 (𝑠2 +4𝑠+10) = 𝑠 + (𝑠2 +4𝑠+10)

10 𝐴 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶
= + 2
𝑠2
𝑠( + 4𝑠 + 10) 𝑠 (𝑠 +4𝑠 + 10)
10 = 𝐴(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 10) + 𝑠(𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶)
10 = 𝐴𝑠 2 + 𝐴4𝑠 + 𝐴10 + 𝐵𝑠 2 + 𝐶𝑠

On equating the coefficients of constant term 𝐴10 = 10, 𝐴 = 1

On equating the coefficients of 𝑠 2 term 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 0 , 𝐵 = −1
On equating the coefficients of 𝑠 term 4𝐴 + 𝐶 = 0 , 𝐶 = −4

1 −𝑠−4 1 𝑠+4 1 𝑠+2+2

Response in s-domain 𝐶 𝑠 = + 𝑠2 +4𝑠+10 = 𝑠 − 𝑠2 +4𝑠+4+6 = 𝑠 − (𝑠+2)2 +6
𝑠
1 𝑠+2 2 1 𝑠+2 2 6
= − − = − −
𝑠 (𝑠 + 2)2 +6 (𝑠 + 2)2 +6 𝑠 (𝑠 + 2)2 +6 6 (𝑠 + 2)2 +6

The response in the time domain c(t) is obtained by taking inverse Laplace
transform of C(s).

1 𝑠+2 2 6
Response in time domain 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐿−1 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐿−1 − (𝑠+2)2 +6 −
𝑠 6 (𝑠+2)2 +6
2
𝑐 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 6𝑡
6
2
𝑐 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 6𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
6
Result:
2
The response in time domain , 𝑐 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 6𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 6𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
6

34
2.7 TIME DOMAIN SPECIFICATIONS

The desired performance, characteristics of control systems are specified

in terms of time domain specifications. Systems with energy storage elements
cannot respond instantaneously and will exhibit transient responses, whenever they
are subjected to inputs or disturbances.
The desired performance characteristics of a system of any order may be
specified in terms of the transient response to a unit step input signal.
The transient response of a system to a unit step input depends on the
initial conditions. Therefore to compare the time response of various systems it is
necessary to start with standard initial conditions. The most practical standard is to
start with the system at rest and so output and all time derivatives before t=0 will
be zero. The transient response of a practical control system often exhibits damped
oscillation before reaching steady state.
The transient response characteristics of a control system to a unit step input are
specified in terms of the following time domain specifications.
1. Delay time, td
2. Rise time, tr
3. Peak time, tp
4. Maximum overshoot, Mp
5. Settling time ts.
All the time domain specifications are represented in this figure. The response up to
the settling time is known as transient response and the response after the settling
time is known as steady state response.

Fig.2.12 Damped oscillatory response of second order system for unit step input

35
Delay Time

It is the time required for the response to reach half of its final value from
the zero instant. It is denoted by td.

Consider the step response of the second order system for t ≥ 0, when ‘δ’ lies
between zero and one.
𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = 1 − ( )sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)
1 − 𝛿2
The final value of the step response is one.

Therefore, at t=td , the value of the step response will be 0.5. Substitute, these
values in the above equation.
𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑑
𝑐 𝑡𝑑 = 0.5 = 1 − sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑑 + 𝜃
1 − 𝛿2
𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑑
⇒ sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑑 + 𝜃 = 0.5
1 − 𝛿2

By using linear approximation, you will get the delay time td as

1+0.7𝛿
𝑡𝑑 = ---(2.25)
𝜔𝑛

Rise Time

It is the time required for the response to rise from 0% to 100% of its
final value. This is applicable for the under-damped systems. For the over-damped
systems, consider the duration from 10% to 90% of the final value. Rise time is
denoted by tr.

At t = t1 = 0, c(t) = 0.

The unit step response of a second order system for under damped is
𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑐(𝑡) = 1 − ( )sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)
1 − 𝛿2
At 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑟 , 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑐 𝑡𝑟 = 1
𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑟
𝑐(𝑡𝑟 ) = 1 = 1 − ( )sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑟 + 𝜃)
1 − 𝛿2

36
 𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑟
⇒( )sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑟 + 𝜃) = 0
1 − 𝛿2
𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑟
Since ⇒ ≠ 0 the term sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑟 + 𝜃) = 0
1−𝛿 2
sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑟 + 𝜃) = 0
When 𝜃 = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋, 3𝜋 …,sin 𝜃 = 0
𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑟 + 𝜃 = 𝜋
𝜋−𝜃
⇒ 𝑡𝑟 = ---(2.26)
𝜔𝑑
1 − 𝛿2
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝛿 2
𝛿
From above equation, we can conclude that the rise time 𝑡𝑟 and the damped
frequency 𝜔𝑑 are inversely proportional to each other.
Peak Time
It is the time required for the response to reach the peak value for the
first time. It is denoted by tp. At t=tp, the first derivate of the response is zero.
We know the step response of second order system for under-damped case is
𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑐 𝑡 =1− sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃
1 − 𝛿2
Differentiate c(t) with respect to ‘t’.
d𝑐(𝑡) 𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡
= −( 2
)𝜔𝑑 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃) − ( )sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃) ---(2.27)
d𝑡 1−𝛿 1−𝛿 2
d𝑐(𝑡)
Substitute,𝑡 = 𝑡𝑝 and = 0 in the equation(2.27)
d𝑡

𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑝
0 = −( )[𝜔𝑑 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃) − 𝛿𝜔𝑛 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃)] ---(2.28)
1−𝛿 2

𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝛿 2 in equation (2.28)

𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝛿 2 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃) − 𝛿𝜔𝑛 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃) = 0

1 − 𝛿 2 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃) − 𝛿sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃) = 0

⇒ sin(𝜃)cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃) − cos(𝜃)sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃) = 0

⇒ sin(𝜃 − 𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 − 𝜃) = 0

⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(−𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 ) = 0 ⇒ −sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 ) = 0 ⇒ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 ) = 0

37
When 𝜃 = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋, 3𝜋 …,sin 𝜃 = 0
⇒ 𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 = 𝜋
𝜋
𝑡𝑝 = 𝜔 ---(2.29)
𝑑

From the above equation, we can conclude that the peak time 𝑡𝑝 and the damped
frequency 𝜔𝑑 are inversely proportional to each other.
Peak Overshoot
Peak overshoot Mp is defined as the deviation of the response at peak
time from the final value of response. It is also called the maximum overshoot.
Mathematically, we can write it as
𝑐(𝑡𝑝 )−𝑐(∞)
%𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑡 , %𝑀𝑝 = × 100 ---(2.30)
𝑐(∞)

Where, 𝑐(𝑡𝑝 )is the peak value of the response.

𝑐(∞) is the final (steady state) value of the response.
At 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑝 , the response c(t) is
𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑝
𝑐(𝑡𝑝 ) = 1 − ( )sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡𝑝 + 𝜃) ---(2.31)
1−𝛿 2
𝜋
Substitute, 𝑡𝑝 = 𝜔 in equation (2.31).
𝑑
𝜋
−𝛿𝜔𝑛
𝑒 𝜔𝑑 𝜋
𝑐 𝑡𝑃 = 1 − sin 𝜔𝑑 +𝜃
1 − 𝛿2 𝜔𝑑
𝜋
−𝛿𝜔𝑛
𝑒 𝜔𝑑
𝑐 𝑡𝑃 = 1 − sin 𝜋 + 𝜃
1 − 𝛿2
Where sin 𝜋 + 𝜃 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝛿𝜋
−( )
𝑒 1−𝛿 2
⇒ 𝑐(𝑡𝑝 ) = 1 − ( )(−sin(𝜃))
1 − 𝛿2

We know that sin 𝜃 = 1 − 𝛿 2

So, we will get 𝑐(𝑡𝑝 ) as

𝛿𝜋
−( )
𝑐(𝑡𝑝 ) = 1 + 𝑒 1−𝛿 2

Substitute the values of 𝑐(𝑡𝑝 ) and 𝑐(∞) in the equation(2.30)

𝑐(𝑡𝑝 ) − 𝑐(∞)
%𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑡 , %𝑀𝑝 = × 100
𝑐(∞)

38
 𝛿𝜋
−
𝑀𝑝 = 1 + 𝑒 1−𝛿 2 −1
𝛿𝜋
−
⇒ 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 1−𝛿2 × 100
𝛿𝜋
−
Percentage peak overshoot %𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 1−𝛿2 × 100% ----(2.32)

From the above equation, we can conclude that the percentage of peak
overshoot %Mp will decrease if the damping ratio δ increases.

Settling time
It is the time required for the response to reach the steady state and stay
within the specified tolerance bands around the final value. In general, the tolerance
bands are 2% and 5%. The settling time is denoted by ts.
The response of the second order system has two components. They are
𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡
Decaying exponential component,
1−𝛿 2
Sinusoidal component,sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜃)

In this the decaying exponential term dampens (or) reduces the oscillations
produced by sinusoidal component. Hence the settling time is decided by
exponential component.
𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑠
The settling time for 2% tolerance band, at 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑠 , = 0.02
1−𝛿 2

For least value of 𝛿, 𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑠 = 0.02

On taking natural Logarithms, we get 𝑙𝑛 (𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑠 ) = 𝑙𝑛 0.02
𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑠 = 4
4
𝑡𝑠 = 𝛿𝜔 ---(2.33)
𝑛

𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑠
The settling time for 5% tolerance band, at 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑠 , = 0.05
1−𝛿 2

For least value of 𝛿, 𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑠 = 0.05

On taking natural Logarithms, we get ln(𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑠 ) = 𝑙𝑛 0.05

𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑡𝑠 = 3
3
𝑡𝑠 = 𝛿𝜔 ----(2.34)
𝑛

39
The settling time for 5% tolerance band is –
3
𝑡𝑠 = = 3𝜏
𝛿𝜔𝑛
The settling time for 2% tolerance band is –
4
𝑡𝑠 = = 4𝜏
𝛿𝜔𝑛
1
Where, τ is the time constant and is equal to .
𝛿𝜔𝑛

Both the settling time ts and the time constant τ are inversely proportional to the
damping ratio δ.
Both the settling time ts and the time constant τ are independent of the system
gain. That means even the system gain changes, the settling time ts and time
constant τ will never change.
Problems on time domain specifications
1.The open loop transfer function of servo system with unity feedback is given by
10
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑠+2 (𝑠+5) .Determine damping ratio, un-damped natural frequency of
oscillation. What is the percentage overshoot of the response to a unit step input?
Solution :
10
Given that 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑠+2 (𝑠+5)

H(s)=1
Characteristic equation is given as 1+G(s)H(s)=0
Substitute G(s) and H(s) in above equation
10
1+ =0
𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 5)
𝑠 + 2 𝑠 + 5 + 10
=0
𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 5)
𝑠 2 + 7𝑠 + 20 = 0
Comparing the above equation with 𝑠 2 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 = 0, we get
𝜔𝑛2 = 20

Natural frequency, 𝜔𝑛 = 4.472 rad/sec

2𝛿𝜔𝑛 = 7
7 7
𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝛿 = 2𝜔 = 2×4.4.72 = 0.7826
𝑛

40
 𝛿𝜋
−
Percentage overshhot %𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 1−𝛿 2 × 100%
0.7826𝜋
−
= 𝑒 1−0.78262
× 100%
%𝑀𝑝 = 1.92%
Result:
Natural frequency, 𝜔𝑛 = 4.472 rad/sec
𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜, 𝛿 = 0.7826
Percentage overshhot %𝑀𝑝 = 1.92%
2.The feedback system is described by the following transfer function 𝐺(𝑠) =
12
and H(s)=Ks. The damping factor of the system is 0.8.Determine the
𝑠2 +4𝑠+16
overshoot of the system and the value of K.
Solution :
12
Given that 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑠2 +4𝑠+16

H(s)=Ks
Characteristic equation is given as 1+G(s)H(s)=0
Substitute G(s) and H(s) in above equation
12
1+ 2 Ks=0
𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 16
𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 16 + 12𝐾𝑠
=0
𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 16
𝑠 2 + (4 + 12𝐾)𝑠 + 16 = 0
Comparing the above equation with 𝑠 2 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 = 0, we get
𝜔𝑛2 = 16
𝜔𝑛 = 4rad/sec
2𝛿𝜔𝑛 = 4 + 12K
Substitute 𝛿 = 0.8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔𝑛 = 4rad/sec in above equation
2 × 0.8 × 4 = 4 + 12K
K=0.15
𝛿𝜋
−
Percentage overshhot %𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 1−𝛿 2 × 100%
0.8𝜋
−
= 𝑒 1−0.82
× 100%
%𝑀𝑝 = 1.5%
Result:
K=0.15
Percentage overshhot %𝑀𝑝 = 1.5%

41
3.The unity feedback system is characterized by an open loop transfer function
𝐾
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑠(𝑠+10). Determine the gain K, so that the system will have a damping ratio
0.5 for this value of K. Determine peak overshoot and time at peak overshoot for a
unit step input.
Solution:
𝐾
Given that 𝐺 𝑠 = , H(s)=1
𝑠(𝑠+10)

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
The closed loop transfer function,𝑅(𝑠) = 1+𝐺 𝑠
𝐾
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐾 𝐾
Therefore
𝑠(𝑠+10)
= 𝐾 = = 𝑠2 +10𝑠+𝐾
𝑅(𝑠) 1+ 𝑠 𝑠+10 +𝐾
𝑠(𝑠+10)

The value of K can be evaluated by comparing the system transfer function with
standard form of second order transfer function.

𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2 𝐾
= 2 2 = 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 10𝑠 + 𝐾
On comparing we get,
𝜔𝑛2 = K
𝜔𝑛 = 𝐾
2𝛿𝜔𝑛 = 10
Put 𝛿 = 0.5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔𝑛 = 𝐾, 2 × 0.5 × 𝐾 = 10
𝐾 = 10
The value of gain , K =100 , 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜔𝑛 = 10rad/sec

𝛿𝜋
−
Percentage overshhot %𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 1−𝛿 2 × 100%
0.5𝜋
−
= 𝑒 1−0.52 × 100%
%𝑀𝑝 = 16.3%
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑝 = = = = 0.363sec
𝜔𝑑 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝛿 2 10 1 − 0.52
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑝 = 0.363sec
Result :
Percentage overshhot %𝑀𝑝 = 16.3%
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑝 = 0.363sec

42
4. The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is given by 𝐺(𝑠) =
𝐾
, where K and T are positive constant. By what factor should the amplifier
𝑠(𝑠𝑇+1)
gain K be reduced, so that the peak overshoot of unit step response of the system
reduced from 75% to 25%.
Solution:
𝐾
Given that 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑠(𝑠𝑇+1)

H(s) = 1
𝐶 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠
The closed loop transfer function,𝑅 = 1+𝐺
𝑠 𝑠

𝐾 𝐾
𝐶 𝑠 𝑠(𝑠𝑇+1) 𝐾 𝐾 𝑇
= 𝐾 =𝑠 = 𝑠2 𝑇+𝑠+𝐾 = 1 𝐾
𝑅 𝑠 1+ 𝑠𝑇+1 +𝐾 𝑠2 + 𝑠+
𝑠(𝑠𝑇+1) 𝑇 𝑇

Expression for 𝛿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔𝑛 can be obtained by comparing the transfer function with the
standard from of second order equation
𝐾
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2 𝑇
= 2 =
2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 1 𝐾
𝑠2 + 𝑇 𝑠 + 𝑇

𝐾 𝐾
𝜔𝑛2 = , then 𝜔𝑛 =
𝑇 𝑇

1 1
2𝛿𝜔𝑛 = 𝑇, then 𝛿 = 2 𝐾𝑇

The peak overshoot is reduced by increasing the damping ratio and the damping
ratio is increased by reducing the gain.
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑀𝑝 = 0.75, 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝛿 = 𝛿1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 = 𝐾1
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑀𝑝 = 0.25, 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝛿 = 𝛿2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 = 𝐾2
𝛿𝜋
−
Peak overshoot , 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 1−𝛿 2

𝛿𝜋
Taking natural logarithm on both sides ln 𝑀𝑝 =
1−𝛿 2

(𝛿𝜋)2
On squaring on both sides we get, (ln 𝑀𝑝)2 = 1−𝛿 2

1
Substituting the value of 𝛿 = 2 𝐾𝑇
in above expression
1 2
𝜋 𝜋2
2
(ln 𝑀𝑝) = 4KT =
1 4KT − 1
1 − 4KT

43
 𝜋2 𝜋2
4KT − 1 = , 4KT = +1
(ln 𝑀𝑝)2 (ln 𝑀𝑝)2
1 𝜋2
K= +1
4𝑇 ln 𝑀𝑝 2
1 𝜋 2 + ln 𝑀𝑝 2
K=
4𝑇 ln 𝑀𝑝 2
1 𝜋 2 + ln 𝑀𝑝 2
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑀𝑝 = 0.75, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 = 𝐾1, 𝐾1 =
4𝑇 ln 𝑀𝑝 2
1 𝜋2 + ln 0.75 2
𝐾1 = 4𝑇 ln 0.75 2

9.952 30.06
𝐾1 = 0.331𝑇 = 𝑇

1 𝜋 2 + ln 𝑀𝑝 2
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑀𝑝 = 0.25, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 = 𝐾2, 𝐾2 =
4𝑇 ln 𝑀𝑝 2
1 𝜋2 + ln 0.25 2
𝐾2 = 4𝑇 ln 0.25 2

11.79 1.53
𝐾2 = 7.68𝑇 = 𝑇
30.06
𝐾1
= 𝑇 = 19.6
𝐾2 1.53
𝑇
𝐾1 = 19.6𝐾2
To reduce the peak overshoot from 0.75 to 0.25, K should be reduced by 19.6 times
approximately.
Result:
The value of gain, K should be reduced approximately 20 times to reduce the peak
overshoot from 0.75 to 0.25

44
 10
5. A unity feedback control system has an open loop transfer function 𝐺(𝑠) = .
𝑠 𝑠+2
Find the rise time, percentage overshoot, peak time, and settling time for a step
input of 12 units.
Solution:
10
Given that 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑠(𝑠+2)

H(s) = 1
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
The closed loop transfer function,𝑅(𝑠) = 1+𝐺 𝑠
10
𝐶(𝑠) 10 10
Therefore
𝑠(𝑠+2)
= 10 = =
𝑅(𝑠) 1+ 𝑠 𝑠+2 +10 𝑠2 +2𝑠+10
𝑠(𝑠+2)

By comparing the system transfer function with standard form of second order
transfer function.
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2 10
= 2 =
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 10
On comparing we get,
𝜔𝑛2 = 10
𝜔𝑛 = 10 = 3.16𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝛿𝜔𝑛 = 2
Put 𝜔𝑛 = 3.16,
2 × 𝛿 × 3.16 = 2
2
𝛿= = 0.316
2 × 3.16
𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝛿 2 = 3.16 1 − 0.3162 = 3rad/sec
1 − 𝛿2 1 − 0.3162
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 1.249𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝛿 0.316
𝜋 − 𝜃 𝜋 − 1.249
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑟 = = = 0.63sec
𝜔𝑑 3
𝛿𝜋
−
Percentage overshhot %𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 1−𝛿 2 × 100%
0.316𝜋
−
= 𝑒 1−0.3162 × 100%
%𝑀𝑝 = 35.12%
35.12
Percentage overshhot %𝑀𝑝 = × 12units = 4.2144units
100
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑝 = = = = 1.047sec
𝜔𝑑 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝛿 2 3

45
 3 3
𝐹𝑜𝑟 5% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡𝑠 = = = 3sec
𝛿𝜔𝑛 0.316 × 3.16
4 4
𝐹𝑜𝑟 2% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡𝑠 = = = 4sec
𝛿𝜔𝑛 0.316 × 3.16
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕:
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑟 = 0.63sec
Percentage overshhot %𝑀𝑝 = 35.12%
Percentage overshhot %𝑀𝑝 = 4.2144units (for a input of 12 units)
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑝 = 1.047sec
𝐹𝑜𝑟 5% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡𝑠 = 3sec
𝐹𝑜𝑟 2% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡𝑠 = 4sec
6. A Positional control system with velocity feedback is shown in fig. what is the
response c(t) to the unit step input. Given that 𝛿 = 0.5. Also calculate rise time , peak
time, maximum overshoot and settling time.
Solution:
16
Given that 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑠(𝑠+0.8)

H(s) = Ks+1
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
The closed loop transfer function,𝑅(𝑠) = 1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
16
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠+0.8) 16 16
Therefore 𝑅(𝑠) = 16 = = 𝑠2 +0.8𝑠+16𝐾𝑠+16
1+
𝑠(𝑠+0.8)
(Ks+1) 𝑠 𝑠+0.8 +16(𝐾𝑠+1)

𝐶(𝑠) 16
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + (0.8 + 16𝐾)𝑠 + 16

The value of K and 𝜔𝑛 can be evaluated by comparing the system transfer function with
standard form of second order transfer function.
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2 16
= 2 2 = 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + (0.8 + 16𝐾)𝑠 + 16

On comparing we get,
𝜔𝑛2 = 16
𝜔𝑛 = 4 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝛿𝜔𝑛 = 0.8 + 16K

46
Put 𝛿 = 0.5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔𝑛 = 4𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐, 2 × 0.5 × 4 = 0.8 + 16K
2 × 0.5 × 4 − 0.8
K=
16
𝐾 = 0.2
𝐶 𝑠 16
Substitute the value of 𝐾 = 0.2 in 𝑅 𝑠 = 𝑠2 + 0.8+16𝐾 𝑠+16
𝐶(𝑠) 16 16
Therefore = 2 = 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + (0.8 + 16 × 0.2)𝑠 + 16 𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 16

16
The response in s-domain 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠2 +4𝑠+16
1
For the step input 𝑅 𝑠 = 𝑠
1 16 16
𝐶 𝑠 = =
𝑠 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 16 𝑠 (𝑠 2 +4𝑠 + 16)
16 𝐴 𝐵𝑠+𝐶
By partial fraction expansion, we can write 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑠 (𝑠2 +4𝑠+16) = 𝑠 + (𝑠2 +4𝑠+16)

16 𝐴 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶
= + 2
𝑠 (𝑠 2 +4𝑠 + 16) 𝑠 (𝑠 +4𝑠 + 16)

16 = 𝐴(𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 16) + 𝑠(𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶)

16 = 𝐴𝑠 2 + 𝐴4𝑠 + 𝐴16 + 𝐵𝑠 2 + 𝐶𝑠
On equating the coefficients of constant term 𝐴16 = 16 , 𝐴 = 1
On equating the coefficients of 𝑠 2 term 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 0 , 𝐵 = −1
On equating the coefficients of 𝑠 term 4𝐴 + 𝐶 = 0 , 𝐶 = −4

1 −𝑠−4 1 𝑠+4 1 𝑠+2+2

Response in s-domain 𝐶 𝑠 = + 𝑠2 +4𝑠+16 = 𝑠 − 𝑠2 +4𝑠+4+12 = 𝑠 − (𝑠+2)2 +12
𝑠

1 𝑠+2 2 1 𝑠+2 2 12
= − 2
− 2
= − 2
−
𝑠 (𝑠 + 2) +12 (𝑠 + 2) +12 𝑠 (𝑠 + 2) +12 12 (𝑠 + 2)2 +12

The response in the time domain 𝑐(𝑡) is obtained by taking inverse Laplace
transform of 𝐶(𝑠).
1 𝑠+2 2 12
Response in time domain 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐿−1 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐿−1 − (𝑠+2)2 +12 −
𝑠 12 (𝑠+2)2 +12

2
𝑐 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 12𝑡 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛 12𝑡
12

47
 2
𝑐 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 12𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 12𝑡)
12
1
𝑐 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑠 12𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 12𝑡)
3

Damped frequency of oscillation 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝛿 2 =4 1 − 0.52 =3.464𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐

1 − 𝛿2 1 − 0.52
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 1.047𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝛿 0.5

𝜋 − 𝜃 𝜋 − 1.047
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑟 = = = 0.6046sec
𝜔𝑑 3.464

𝛿𝜋
−
Percentage overshhot %𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 1−𝛿 2 × 100%
0.5𝜋
−
= 𝑒 1−0.52 × 100%
%𝑀𝑝 = 16.3%

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑝 = = = = 0.907sec
𝜔𝑑 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝛿 2 3.464

3 3
𝐹𝑜𝑟 5% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡𝑠 = = = 1.5sec
𝛿𝜔𝑛 0.5 × 4
4 4
𝐹𝑜𝑟 2% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡𝑠 = = = 2sec
𝛿𝜔𝑛 0.5 × 4
Result:
1
The response in time domain , 𝑐 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠 12𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 12𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
3
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑟 = 0.6046sec
Percentage overshhot %𝑀𝑝 = 16.3%
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑝 = 0.907sec
𝐹𝑜𝑟 5% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡𝑠 = 1.5sec
𝐹𝑜𝑟 2% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡𝑠 = 2sec

48
2.8 STEADY STATE ERROR
The steady state error is the value of error signal e(t), when t tends to
infinity. The steady state error is a measure of system accuracy. These errors rise
from the nature of inputs, type of system and from non linearity of system
components. The steady state performance of a stable control system is generally
judged by its steady state error to step, ramp, and parabolic inputs.
Consider the following block diagram of closed loop control system, which
is having unity negative feedback.

Let R(s)= Input Signal

E(s) = Error Signal
Fig.2.13 Block diagram of Closed loop
C(s) = Output Signal or Response
system
The error signal, E(s) = R(s) – C(s)H(s) ---(2.35)
The Output signal, C(s) =E(s)G(s) ---(2.36)
Substitute C(s) in equation (2.36)
E(s)= R(s)−E(s)G(s)H(s)

E(s)+E(s)G(s)H(s) =R(s)
𝑅(𝑠)
𝐸(𝑠) = 1+𝐺 ---(2.37)
𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)

Let e(t), =error signal in time domain

𝑅 𝑠
e(t) =𝐿− 𝐸 𝑠 = 𝐿− {1+𝐺 }
𝑠 𝐻 𝑠

Let ess, steady state error.

The steady state error is defined as the value of e(t) when t tends to infinity.
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lime(t) ---(2.38)
𝑡→∞

The Final value theorem of Laplace Transform state that

𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim s E s ,
𝑠→0
𝑠𝑅(𝑠)
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) ---(2.39)
𝑠→0

49
2.9 STATIC ERROR CONSTANT
When a control system is excited with standard input signal, the steady
state error may be zero, constant or infinity. The value of steady state error depends
upon on the type number and the input signal .Type-0 system will have a constant
steady state error when the input is step signal. Type-1 system will have a constant
steady state error when the input is ramp signal or velocity signal. Type-2 system
will have a constant steady state error when the input is parabolic signal or
acceleration signal. For the above three cases mentioned above the steady state
error associated with one of the constant is defined as follows,

Positional error constant, 𝐾𝑝 = lim G s H(s) ---(2.40)

𝑠→0

Velocity error constant, 𝐾𝑣 = lim sG s H(s) ---(2.41)

𝑠→0

Acceleration error constant, 𝐾𝑎 = lim s2 G s H(s) ---(2.42)

𝑠→0
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐾𝑝 , 𝐾𝑣 , and 𝐾𝑎 are in general called static error constant.
2.10 STEADY STATE ERROR WHEN THE INPUT IS UNIT STEP
(POSITIONAL) SIGNAL.
𝑠𝑅(𝑠)
Steady state error ,𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim s E s , 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 1+𝐺
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)

When the input is unit step, 𝑟 (𝑡) = 1. 𝑢(𝑡)

1
Laplace Transform of r(t) is 𝑅 𝑠 = 𝑠
1
𝑠 1 1 1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 1+𝐺 𝑠
𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
= lim 1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
= 1+lim G s H(s)
= 1+𝐾𝑝
---(2.43)
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠→0

where 𝐾𝑝 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)

𝑠→0

𝐾𝑝 is the positional error constant.

Type 0 system
𝑠+𝑧1 𝑠+𝑧2 𝑠+𝑧3 … 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
𝐾𝑝 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)= 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝐾 = 𝐾 𝑝1𝑝2 𝑝3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠+𝑝1 𝑠+𝑝2 𝑠+𝑝3 …. 1 2 3

1
Therefore, 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 1+𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ---(2.44)

50
Type 1 system
𝑠+𝑧1 𝑠+𝑧2 𝑠+𝑧3 … 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
𝐾𝑝 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)= 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝐾 𝑠 = 𝐾 𝑝1𝑝2 𝑝3 = ∞
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠+𝑝1 𝑠+𝑝2 𝑠+𝑝3 …. 1 2 3

1 1
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 1+𝐾𝑝 = 1+∞ = 0 ----(2.45)

In system with type number 1 and above , for step input the value of 𝐾𝑝 is infinity
and so the steady state error is zero2.

2.11 STEADY STATE ERROR WHEN THE INPUT IS UNIT RAMP(VELOCITY)

SIGNAL.
𝑠𝑅(𝑠)
Steady state error ,𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim s E s , 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 1+𝐺
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)

When the input is unit ramp, 𝑟 (𝑡) = t

1
Laplace Transform of r(t) is 𝑅 𝑠 = 𝑠2
1
𝑠 2 1 1 1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 1+𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) = lim 𝑠(1+𝐺 = lim = ---(2.46)
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 ) sG s H(s) 𝐾𝑣
𝑠→0

where 𝐾𝑣 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)

𝑠→0

The constant 𝐾𝑣 is the velocity error constant.

Type 0 system
𝑠+𝑧1 𝑠+𝑧2 𝑠+𝑧3 …
𝐾𝑣 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝐾 =0
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠+𝑝1 𝑠+𝑝2 𝑠+𝑝3 ….
1 1
Therefore, 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾𝑣 = 0 = ∞ ---(2.47)

Type 1 system
𝑠+𝑧1 𝑠+𝑧2 𝑠+𝑧3 … 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
𝐾𝑣 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝐾 𝑠 = 𝐾 𝑝1𝑝2 𝑝3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠+𝑝1 𝑠+𝑝2 𝑠+𝑝3 …. 1 2 3

1
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 -----(2.48)

Hence in Type-1 systems when the input is unit ramp there will be a constant steady
state error.

51
Type 2 system

𝑠+𝑧1 𝑠+𝑧2 𝑠+𝑧3 …

𝐾𝑣 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝐾 𝑠2 =∞
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠+𝑝1 𝑠+𝑝2 𝑠+𝑝3 ….

1 1
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾𝑣 = ∞ = 0 ---(2.49)

In system with type number 2 and above , for unit ramp input the value of 𝐾𝑣 is
infinity and so the steady state error is zero.

2.12 STEADY STATE ERROR WHEN THE INPUT IS UNIT PARABOLIC

(ACCELERATION) SIGNAL.

𝑠𝑅(𝑠)
Steady state error ,𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim s E s , 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 1+𝐺
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)

𝑡2
When the input is unit parabolic, 𝑟 (𝑡) = .
2

1
Laplace Transform of r(t) is 𝑅 𝑠 = 𝑠3

1
𝑠 3 1 1 1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 1+𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) = lim 𝑠2 (1+𝐺 = lim = --(2.50)
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 ) 𝑠2 G s H(s) 𝐾𝑎
𝑠→0

where 𝐾𝑎 = lim 𝑠 2 G s H s
𝑠→0

The constant 𝐾𝑎 is the acceleration error constant.

Type 0 system

𝑠+𝑧1 𝑠+𝑧2 𝑠+𝑧3 …

𝐾𝑎 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠 2 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠 2 𝐾 =0
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠+𝑝1 𝑠+𝑝2 𝑠+𝑝3 ….

1 1
Therefore, 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = =∞ ---(2.51)
𝐾𝑎 0

Type 1 system

𝑠+𝑧1 𝑠+𝑧2 𝑠+𝑧3 …

𝐾𝑎 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠 2 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠 2 𝐾 𝑠 =0
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠+𝑝1 𝑠+𝑝2 𝑠+𝑝3 ….

1 1
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾𝑎 = 0 = ∞ ---(2.52)

Type 2 system
𝑠+𝑧1 𝑠+𝑧2 𝑠+𝑧3 … 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
𝐾𝑎 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠 2 𝐾 𝑠2 = 𝐾 𝑝1𝑝2 𝑝3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠+𝑝1 𝑠+𝑝2 𝑠+𝑝3 …. 1 2 3

52
 1
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 ---(2.53)

Hence in Type-2 systems when the input is unit parabolic there will be a constant
steady state error.
Type 3 system
𝑠+𝑧1 𝑠+𝑧2 𝑠+𝑧3 … 𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
𝐾𝑎 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠 2 𝐾 𝑠3 = 𝐾 𝑝1𝑝2 𝑝3 = ∞
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝑠+𝑝1 𝑠+𝑝2 𝑠+𝑝3 …. 1 2 3

1 1
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾𝑎 = ∞ = 0 ---(2.54)

In system with type number 3 and above, for unit parabolic input the value of 𝐾𝑎 is
infinity and so the steady state error is zero.
The following table shows the steady state errors and the error constants
for standard input signals like unit step, unit ramp & unit parabolic signals

Input Signal Steady State Error Constant

error
𝒆𝒔
𝒔
Unit Step 1 𝐾𝑝 = lim𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
𝑠→0
1 + 𝐾𝑝

Unit Ramp 𝐾𝑣 = lim𝑠𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)

𝑠→0
1
𝐾𝑣
Unit Parabolic 1 𝐾𝑎 = lim𝑠 2 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠
𝑠→0
𝐾𝑎

Static Error Constant for Various Type Number of System

Error Type number of system

constant
0 1 2 3
Kp Constant ∞ ∞ ∞

Kv 0 Constant ∞ ∞

Ka 0 0 Constant ∞

53
Steady State Error for Various Types of Input

Problems on Steady State Error

1.A unity feedback control system has the open loop transfer function

4(1+2𝑠)
𝐺 𝑠 = . If the input to a system is a unit ramp, find steady state error.
𝑠2 (𝑠+2)

Solution:

4(1+2𝑠)
Given that 𝐺 𝑠 = , r(t) =tu(t).
𝑠2 (𝑠+2)

1
Take the Laplace Transform of r(t),we get R(s) =𝑠2

Steady State error is given by

𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim s E s ,
𝑠→0

𝑠𝑅(𝑠)
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim
𝑠→0 1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)

1
𝑠 2
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑠
4(1+2𝑠) = 0
𝑠→0 1+ 2
𝑠 (𝑠+2)

54
2. For servomechanism with open loop transfer function given below explain what
type of input signal give rise to a constant steady state error and calculate their
values.
20(𝑠 + 2)
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 3)
Solution:
20(𝑠+2)
𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑠(𝑠+1)(𝑠+3),

Let us assume that unity feedback system. H(s)=1

The open loop system has a pole at origin. Hence it is a type -1 system. In systems
with type-1 , the velocity input will give a constant steady state error.
1
The steady state error with unit velocity input, 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = Kv

Velocity error constant , Kv = lim s G s H s = lim s G s

𝑠→0 𝑠→0
20(𝑠+2) 20 × 2 40
lim s = 1× 3 =
𝑠→0 𝑠(𝑠+1)(𝑠+3) 3
1 3
Steady State error ,𝑒𝑠𝑠 = Kv = = 0.075
40
40(s+2)
3.A unity feedback system has G s = s(s+1)(s+4) Determine (i)type of the system, (ii)
All error Coefficients(iii)Error for ramp input with magnitude 4.
Solution:
40(s+2)
Given G s = s(s+1)(s+4) and H(s) =1
Type of System:
Since the number of poles at the origin is 1, therefore it is Type 1 system.
All error coefficients
40(s+2)
Kp = lim G s H(s) = lim =∞
𝑠→0 s→0 s(s+1)(s+4)

40(s+2)
Kv = lim s G s H s = Kv = lim s
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 s(s+1)(s+4)

40 × 2 80 40(s+2)
𝐾𝑣 = = = 20 Ka = lim s 2 G s H s = lim s2 =0
1× 4 4 𝑠→0 𝑠→0 s(s+1)(s+4)

Error for the ramp input with magnitude 4

4 4
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = = 0.2
𝐾𝑣 20

55
 K(s+2)
4.A unity feedback system has G s = s2 Determine (i)type of the system,
(s2 +7s+12)
(ii) All error Coefficients(iii)Error for ramp input with magnitude.
Solution:
K(s+2)
Given G s = s2 and H(s) =1
(s2 +7s+12)

(i)Type of System:
Since the number of poles at the origin is 2, therefore it is Type 2 system
(ii)All error coefficients
K(s+2)
Kp = lim G s H(s) = lim 2 (s2 +7s+12) =∞
𝑠→0 s→0 s

K(s+2)
Kv = lim s G s H s = Kv = lim s
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 s2 (s2 +7s+12)

𝐾𝑣 = ∞
K(s+2)
Ka = lim s 2 G s H s = lim s2 s2 (s2 +7s+12)
𝑠→0 𝑠→0
𝐾 × 2 𝐾
𝐾𝑎 = = = 20
1 × 12 6
(iii)Error for the Parabolic input with magnitude
1 6
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = =
𝐾𝑎 𝐾
5.The unity feedback system has the forward transfer function gain 𝐺 𝑠 =
K(2s+1)
and input 𝑟 𝑡 = 1 + 6𝑡. Determine the minimum value of K if the steady
s(5s+1)(1+s)2
state error is to be less than 0.1.
Solution:
K(2s+1)
Given that: 𝐺 𝑠 = s(5s+1)(1+s)2 , H s = 1 and input, 𝑟 𝑡 = 1 + 6𝑡.

To find K:
K(2s+1)
Kp = lim G s H(s) = lim =∞
𝑠→0 s→0 s(5s+1)(1+s)2

K(2s + 1)
Kv = lim s G s H s = Kv = lim s =K
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 s(5s + 1)(1 + s)2

K(2s+1)
Ka = lim s 2 G s H s = lim s2 =0
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 s(5s+1)(1+s)2

56
Let A1 = Step input
A2 = Ramp input
A3 = Parabolic input
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 , 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = + +
1 + Kp 𝐾𝑣 𝐾𝑎
For the given input 𝑟 𝑡 = 1 + 6𝑡. , A1 = 1, A2 = 6
1 6
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = +
1+∞ 𝐾
6
0.1 = 0 +
𝐾
𝐾 = 60
𝑡2
6. Determine K to limit the error of a system for input 𝑟 𝑡 = 1 + 8𝑡 + 18 to 0.8
2
K
having 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) = .
s2 s+1 (s+4)

Solution:
K 𝑡2
Given that: 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠) = s2 and input, 𝑟 𝑡 = 1 + 8𝑡 + 18
s+1 (s+4) 2

To find K:
K
Kp = lim G s H(s) = lim =∞
𝑠→0 s→0 s2 s+1 (s+4)
K
Kv = lim s G s H s = Kv = lim s 2 =∞
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 s s + 1 (s + 4)
K K
Ka = lim s 2 G s H s = lim s2 =
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 s2 s+1 s+4 4

Let A1 = Step input

A2 = Ramp input
A3 = Parabolic input
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 , 𝑒𝑠𝑠 = + +
1 + Kp 𝐾𝑣 𝐾𝑎
𝑡2
For the given input 𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑟 𝑡 = 1 + 8𝑡 + 18 2 . ,
A1 = 1, A2 = 8, 𝐴3 = 18
1 8 18
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = + +
1+∞ ∞ K
4
72
0.8 = 0 + 0 + , K=90
𝐾

Result :The value of 𝐾 = 90

57
2.13 GENERALIZED ERROR COEFFICIENT OR DYNAMIC
ERROR COEFFICIENT
The generalized error coefficients determine the nature of system
response to any arbitrary input and it gives the steady state error in terms of t.
The final steady state error can be obtained by substituting as t=∞.
If the error varies with time, then the error series is used.
The error series is given by,
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim e(t) ---(2.55)
𝑡→∞
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶𝑛 (𝑡)
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐶0 𝑟 𝑡 + 1!1 𝑟 𝑡 + 3!2 𝑟 𝑡 + 3!3 𝑟 𝑡 + ⋯ + 𝑟 𝑡
𝑛!

Where, 𝐶0 = lim F1 s ---(2.56)

𝑠→0
dF1 s
𝐶1 = lim ---(2.57)
𝑠→0 ds

d2 F1 s
𝐶2 = lim ---(2.58)
𝑠→0 ds2

dn Fn s
𝐶𝑛 = lim ---(2.59)
𝑠→0 dsn

9
1.An open loop transfer function 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑠+1 of unity feedback system. Evaluate the
3𝑡 2
first three coefficient error series and steady state error for input 𝑟 𝑡 = .
2

Solution:
9 3𝑡 2
Given that 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑠+1 , 𝐻 𝑠 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 , 𝑟 𝑡 = .
2

To find F(s):
1 1 𝑠+1
𝐹 𝑠 = = =
1 + 𝐺𝐻 1 + 9 𝑠 + 10
𝑠+1
To find 𝐶0 :
𝑠+1 1
𝐶0 = lim F s = = = 0.1
𝑠→0 𝑠 + 10 10
To find 𝐶1 :
dF s
𝐶1 = lim
𝑠→0 ds
d 𝑠+1
𝐶1 = lim
𝑠→0 ds 𝑠 + 10

s + 10 × 1 − s + 1 × 1
𝐶1 = lim
𝑠→0 (s + 10)2

58
 9 9
𝐶1 = lim 2
= = 0.09
𝑠→0 (s + 10) 100

To find 𝐶2 :
d2 F s d2 𝑠 + 1
𝐶2 = lim = lim
𝑠→0 ds 2 𝑠→0 ds 2 𝑠 + 10
−2
𝐶2 = lim 9 −2(𝑠 + 10)−3 = lim 9
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 (𝑠 + 10)−3
18
𝐶2 = lim − = −0.018
𝑠→0 1000
2.14 COMPONENTS OF AUTOMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM
The basic components of an automatic control system are Error detector,
Amplifier and Controller, Actuator (Power actuator), Plant and Sensor or Feedback
system. The block diagram of an automatic control system is shown in fig.

Fig.2.14 Block diagram of automatic control system

The plant is the open loop system whose output is automatically
controlled by closed loop system. The combined unit of error detector, amplifier and
controller is called automatic controller, because without this unit the system
becomes open loop system.
In automatic control systems the reference input will be an input signal
proportional to desired output. The feedback signal is a signal proportional to
current output of the system. The error detector compares the reference input and
feedback signal and if there is a difference it produces an error signal. An amplifier
can be used to amplify the error signal and the controller modifies the error signal
for better control action.
The actuator amplifies the controller output and converts to the required
form of energy that is acceptable for the plant. Depending on the input to the plant,
the output will change. This process continues as long as there is a difference
between reference input and feedback signal. If the difference is zero, then there is

59
no error signal and the output settles at the desired value.
Generally, the error signal will be a weak signal and so it has to be
amplified and then modified for better control action. In most of the system the
controller itself amplifies the error signal and integrates or differentiates to produce
a control signal (i.e., modified error signal). The different types of controllers are P,
PI, PD and PID controllers.

2.15 CONTROLLERS
A controller is a device introduced in the system to modify the error signal
and to produce a control signal. The manner in which the controller produces the
control signal is called the control action. The controller modifies the transient
response of the system. The electronic controllers using operational amplifiers are
presented in this section.
The following six basic control actions are very common among industrial analog
controllers.
1. TWO-position or ON-OFF control action.
2. Proportional control action.
3. Integral control action.
4. Proportional-plus- integral control action.
5. Proportional-plus-derivative control action.
6.Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative control action.
Depending on the control actions provided the controllers can be classified as
follows.
1. Two position or ON-OFF controllers.
2. Proportional controllers. 3. Integral controllers.
4. Proportional-plus-integral controllers.
5. Proportional-plus-derivative controllers.
6. Proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative controllers.

2.15.1 TWO POSITION OR ON-OFF CONTROLLERS:

The ON-OFF or two position controller has two fixed positions. They are
either on or off. The on-off control system is very simple in construction and hence
less expensive. For this reason, it is very widely used in both industrial and domestic
control systems.

60
Then ON-OFF control action may be provided by a relay. There are different types of
relay. The most popular one is electromagnetic relay. It is a device which has NO
(Normally Open) and NC(Normally Closed) contacts, whose opening and closing are
controlled by the relay coil. When the relay coil is excited, the relay operates and the
contacts change their positions (i.e., NO-NC and NC-NO).
Let the output signal from the controller be u(t) and the actuating error
signal be e(t). In this controller, u(t) remains at either a maximum or minimum
value.
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑢1 ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒 𝑡 < 0
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑢2 ; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒 𝑡 > 0
𝐸 𝑠 = 𝐿 𝑒 𝑡 ; 𝑈 𝑠 = 𝐿{𝑢 𝑡 }

Fig.2.15 Block diagram of on-off controller

2.15.2 PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLERS (P- CONTROLLERS)

The proportional controller is a device that produces a control signal, u(t)
proportional to the input error signal, e(t).
In P-controller, 𝑢 𝑡 ∝ 𝑒 𝑡
∴ 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒 𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐾𝑝 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

On taking Laplace transform of equation above we get,

𝑈 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑝 𝐸 𝑠 ---(2.60)
𝑈 𝑠
∴ 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟, 𝐸 = 𝐾𝑝 ---(2.61)
𝑠

The equation (2.60) gives the output of the P-controller for the input E(s) and
equation (2.61) is the transfer function of the P-controller. The block diagram of the
P-Controller is shown below.

Fig.2.16 Block diagram of Proportional controller

61
 From the equation (2.61), we can conclude that the proportional controller
amplifies the error signal by the amount Kp. Also the introduction of the controller
on the system increases the loop gain by an amount Kp. The increase in loop gain
improves the steady state, disturbance signal rejection and the relative stability and
also makes the system less sensitive to parameter variations. But increasing the gain
to very large values may lead to instability of the system. The drawback in P-
Controller is that it leads to a constant steady state error.
2.15.3 INTEGRAL CONTROLLER (I-CONTROLLER)
The integral controller is a device that produces a control signal u(t) which is
proportional to integral of the input error signal, e(t).
In I-controller, 𝑢 𝑡 ∝ ‫𝑡𝑑 𝑡 𝑒 ׬‬
∴ 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑖 ‫𝑡𝑑 𝑡 𝑒 ׬‬
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐾𝑖 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
On taking Laplace transform of equation above we get,
𝐸 𝑠
𝑈 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑖 ---(2.62)
𝑆
𝑈 𝑠 𝐾𝑖
∴ 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟, 𝐸 = ---(2.63)
𝑠 𝑆

The equation (2.62) gives the output of the I-controller for the input E(s) and
equation (2.63) is the transfer function of the I-controller. The block diagram of the
I-Controller is shown below

Fig.2.17 Block diagram of Integral controller

The integral controller removes or reduces the steady error without the
need for manual reset. Hence the I-controller is sometimes called automatic reset.
The drawback in integral controller is that it may lead to oscillatory response of
increasing or decreasing amplitude which is undesirable and the system may
become unstable.
2.15.4 PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL CONTROLLER (PI-
CONTROLLER)
The proportional plus integral controller (PI-controller) produces an output
signal consisting of two terms: one proportional to error signal and the other
proportional to the integral of error signal.

In PI-controller, 𝑢 𝑡 ∝ 𝑒 𝑡 + ‫𝑡𝑑 𝑡 𝑒 ׬‬

62
 𝐾𝑝
∴ 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒 𝑡 + න 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑖
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐾𝑝 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑖 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
On taking Laplace transform of equation with zero initial conditions above we get,

𝐾𝑝 𝐸 𝑠
𝑈 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑝 𝐸 𝑠 + ---(2.64)
𝑇𝑖 𝑠

𝑈 𝑠 1
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝐼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟, 𝐸 = 𝐾𝑝 1 + 𝑇 𝑠 ---(2.65)
𝑠 𝑖

The equation (2.64) gives the output of the PI-controller for the input E(s) and
equation (2.65) is the transfer function of the PI-controller. The block diagram of the
PI-Controller is shown below

Fig.2.18 Block diagram of PI controller

The proportional action increased the loop gain and makes the system less
sensitive to variations of system parameters. The integral action eliminates or
reduces the steady state error.
The integral action is adjusted by varying the integral time. The change in
value of Kp affects both the proportional and integral parts of control action. The
inverse of the integral time Ti is called the reset rate.
2.15.5 PROPORTIONAL PLUS DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER
(PD-CONTROLLER)
The proportional plus derivative controller (PD-controller) produces an
output signal consisting of two terms: one proportional to error signal and the other
proportional to the derivative of error signal.
𝑑
In PD-controller, 𝑢 𝑡 ∝ 𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 𝑒(𝑡)
𝑑
∴ 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒 𝑡 + 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑑 𝑒(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐾𝑝 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
On taking Laplace transform of equation with zero initial conditions above we get,
𝑈 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑝 𝐸 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 𝐸 𝑠 ---(2.66)

𝑈(𝑠)
∴ 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝐷 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟, 𝐸(𝑠) = 𝐾𝑝 1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 ---(2.67)

63
The equation (2.66) gives the output of the PD-controller for the input E(s) and
equation (2.67) is the transfer function of the PD-controller. The block diagram of
the PI-Controller is shown below

Fig.2.19 Block diagram of PD controller

The derivative control acts on rate of change of error and not the actual
error signal. The derivative control action is effective only during transient periods
and so it does not produce corrective measure for any constant error. Hence the
derivate controller is never used alone, but it is employed in association with
proportional and integral controllers. The derivative controller does not affect the
steady state error directly but anticipates the error, initiates an early corrective
action and tends to increase the stability of the system. While derivate control action
has an advantage of being anticipatory it has the disadvantage that it amplifies noise
signals and may cause a saturation effect in the actuator.
The derivate control action is adjusted by varying the derivative time. The
change in the value of Kp affects both the proportional and derivative parts of
control action. The derivative control is also called rate control.
2.15.6 PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL PLUS DERIVATIVE
CONTROLLER (PID-CONTROLLER)
The PID-controller produces an output signal consisting of three terms:
one proportional to error signal, another one proportional to integral of error signal
and the third one proportional to the derivative of error signal.
𝑑
In PD-controller, 𝑢 𝑡 ∝ 𝑒 𝑡 + ‫ 𝑡𝑑 𝑡 𝑒 ׬‬+ 𝑑𝑡 𝑒(𝑡)
𝐾𝑝 𝐸 𝑠 𝑑
∴ 𝑢 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒 𝑡 + + 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑑 𝑒(𝑡)
𝑇𝑖 𝑆 𝑑𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝐾𝑝 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝑇𝑖 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

On taking Laplace transform of equation with zero initial conditions above we get,
𝐾𝑝 𝐸 𝑠
𝑈 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑝 𝐸 𝑠 + + 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 𝐸(𝑠) ---(2.68)
𝑇𝑖 𝑠
𝑈(𝑠) 1
∴ 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝐼𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟, 𝐸(𝑠) = 𝐾𝑝 1 + 𝑇 𝑠 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 ---(2.69)
𝑖

64
The equation (2.68) gives the output of the PID-controller for the input E(s) and
equation (2.69) is the transfer function of the PID-controller. The block diagram of
the PID-Controller is shown below

Fig.2.20 Block diagram of PID controller

The combination of proportional control action, integral control action and derivative
control action is called PID-control action. This combined action has the advantages
of the each of the three individual control actions.
The proportional controller stabilizes the gain but produces a steady state
error. The integral controller reduces or eliminates the steady state error. The
derivative controller reduces the rate of change of error.
2.16 ANALYTICAL DESIGN OF PI, PD AND PID
CONTROL SYSTEMS
2.16.1 ANALYSIS OF PI-CONTROLLER
The PI-controller can be realized by op-amp integrator with gain followed
by sign changer as shown below.
By deriving the transfer function of the controller shown above and comparing with
the transfer function of PI-controller defined by equation (2.65 ) it can be proved
that the circuit shown in above figure works as PI-controller.

Fig.2.21 PI- Controller using op-amp

The assumptions made in op-amp circuit analysis are
The voltages of both inputs are equal.
The input current is zero.
Based on the above assumptions the equivalent circuit of op-amp integrator and
sign changer are shown in figure below.

65
 Fig.2.22 Equivalent circuit of Integrator and sign changer

From the Equivalent circuit of integrator,

𝑒 𝑡
𝑖1 = 𝑅1
---(2.70)

On taking Laplace transform of equation with zero initial conditions above we get,
𝐸 𝑠
𝐼1 𝑠 = ---(2.71)
𝑅1

1
𝐼1 𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑠 ---(2.72)
𝑅1
1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖1 𝑅2 + ‫𝑖 ׬‬1 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑢1 𝑡 ---(2.73)
𝐶2

By varying the values of R1 and R2 and the values of Kp and Ti are adjusted.
On taking Laplace transform of equation (2.73) with zero initial conditions we get,
1 𝐼1 𝑠
𝐼1 𝑠 𝑅2 + = − 𝑈1 𝑠 ---(2.74)
𝐶2 𝑠

1
∴ 𝐼1 𝑠 𝑅2 + = − 𝑈1 𝑠 ---(2.75)
𝐶2 𝑠

Substitute for I1(s) from equation (2.72) in equation (2.75)

𝑅2 1
∴− + 𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑈1 𝑠 ---(2.76)
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑠

From Equivalent circuit of sign changer

𝑢 𝑡
𝑢 𝑡 = − 𝑖2 𝑅 ; ∴ 𝑖 2 = − ---(2.77)
𝑅

𝑢1 𝑡 = 𝑖2 𝑅 ---(2.78)
Substitute for i2 from equation (2.77) in equation (2.78)
𝑢(𝑡)
∴ 𝑢1 = − 𝑅 = −𝑢(𝑡) ---(2.79)
𝑅

66
On taking Laplace transform of the equation (2.79) we get,
𝑈1 𝑠 = −𝑈 𝑠 ---(2.80)
Substitute for U1(s) from equation (2.76) in equation (2.80)
𝑅2 1
− + 𝐸 𝑠 = −𝑈 𝑠
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑠
𝑅2 1
+ 𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑈 𝑠
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑠

𝑈 𝑠 𝑅2 1
= +
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑅1 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑠
𝑈 𝑠 𝑅 1
= 𝑅2 1 + 𝑅 ---(2.81)
𝐸(𝑠) 1 2 𝐶2 𝑠

The equation (2.81) is the transfer function of op-amp PID-controller. On comparing

equation (2.81) with equation (2.65) we get,
𝑅2
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐾𝑝 =
𝑅1
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑇𝑖 = 𝑅2 𝐶2

2.16.2 ANALYSIS OF PD-CONTROLLER

The PD-controller can be realized by op-amp differentiator with integral and
derivative followed by sign changer as shown below
By deriving the transfer function of the controller shown above and comparing with
the transfer function of PD-controller defined by equation (2.67) it can be proved
that the circuit shown in above figure works as PD-controller.

Fig.2.23 PD- Controller using op-amp

The assumptions made in op-amp circuit analysis are
The voltages of both inputs are equal.
The input current is zero.
Based on the above assumptions the equivalent circuit of op-amp differentiator and
sign changer are shown in figure below

67
 Fig.2.24 Equivalent circuit of Differentiator and sign changer

From the Equivalent circuit of differentiator,

𝑒 𝑡 𝑑
𝑖1 = + 𝐶1 𝑑𝑡 𝑒 𝑡 ---(2.82)
𝑅1

On taking Laplace transform of equation with zero initial conditions above we get,
1
𝐼1 𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑠 + 𝐶1 𝑠 𝐸 𝑠 ---(2.83)
𝑅1

1
𝐼1 𝑠 = + 𝐶1 𝑠 𝐸 𝑠 ---(2.84)
𝑅1

𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖2 𝑅2 = −𝑢1 (𝑡) ---(2.85)

On taking Laplace transform of equation ( 2.85 ) with zero initial conditions we get,

𝐼1 𝑠 𝑅2 = − 𝑈1 𝑠 ---(2.86)

Substitute for I1(s) from equation (2.86) in equation (2.84)

𝑅2
∴− 𝑅1
+𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠 𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑈1 𝑠 ---(2.87)

From Equivalent circuit of sign changer

𝑢(𝑡)
𝑢 𝑡 = − 𝑖2 𝑅 ; ∴ 𝑖 2 = − 𝑅
---(2.88)

𝑢1 𝑡 = 𝑖2 𝑅 ---(2.89)

Substitute for i2 from equation ( 2.88 ) in equation (2.89)

𝑢(𝑡)
∴ 𝑢1 = − 𝑅 = −𝑢(𝑡) ---(2.90)
𝑅

On taking Laplace transform of the equation (2.90) we get,

𝑈1 (𝑠) = −𝑈(𝑠) ---(2.91)

68
Substitute for U1(s) from equation (2.91 ) in equation ( 2.87)
𝑅2
− +𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠 𝐸 𝑠 = −𝑈 𝑠
𝑅1
𝑅2
+𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠 𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑈 𝑠
𝑅1
𝑈 𝑠 𝑅2
= +𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑅1

𝑈 𝑠 𝑅
= 𝑅2 1 +𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠 ---(2.92)
𝐸(𝑠) 1

The equation (2.92 ) is the transfer function of op-amp PD-controller. On comparing

equation (2.92 ) with equation (2.67 ) we get,
𝑅2
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐾𝑝 =
𝑅1
𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑇𝑑 = 𝑅1 𝐶1

By varying the values of R1 and R2 and the values of Kp and Td are adjusted.

2.16.3 ANALYSIS OF PID-CONTROLLER

The PID-controller can be realized by op-amp amplifier with integral and
derivative followed by sign changer as shown below.

By deriving the transfer function of the controller shown above and comparing with
the transfer function of PID-controller defined by equation (2.69) it can be proved
that the circuit shown in above figure works as PID-controller.

Fig.2.25 PID- Controller using op-amp

The assumptions made in op-amp circuit analysis are

The voltages of both inputs are equal.

The input current is zero.

69
Based on the above assumptions the equivalent circuit of op-amp amplifier and sign
changer are shown in figure below

Fig.2.26 Equivalent circuit of Amplifier and sign changer

From the Equivalent circuit of Amplifier,
𝑒 𝑡 𝑑
𝑖1 = + 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑡 ---(2.93)
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡

On taking Laplace transform of equation with zero initial conditions above we get,
1
𝐼1 𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑠 + 𝐶1 𝑠 𝐸 𝑠 ---(2.94)
𝑅1

1
𝐼1 𝑠 = + 𝐶1 𝑠 𝐸 𝑠 ---(2.95)
𝑅1
1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑖1 𝑅2 + ‫𝑖 ׬‬1 𝑑𝑡 = −𝑢1 𝑡 ---(2.96)
𝐶2

On taking Laplace transform of equation (2.96) with zero initial conditions we get,
1 𝐼1 𝑠
𝐼1 𝑠 𝑅2 + = − 𝑈1 𝑠 ---(2.97)
𝐶2 𝑠

1
∴ 𝐼1 𝑠 𝑅2 + = − 𝑈1 𝑠 ---(2.98)
𝐶2 𝑠

Substitute for I1(s) from equation (2.95) in equation (2.98)

𝑅2 𝐶1 1
∴− + +𝑅 +𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠 𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑈1 𝑠 ---(2.99)
𝑅1 𝑐2 1 𝐶2 𝑠

From Equivalent circuit of sign changer

𝑢 𝑡
𝑢 𝑡 = − 𝑖2 𝑅 ; ∴ 𝑖2 = − 𝑅
---(2.100)

𝑢1 𝑡 = 𝑖2 𝑅 ---(2.101)
Substitute for i2 from equation (2.100) in equation (2.101)
𝑢 𝑡
∴ 𝑢1 = − 𝑅
𝑅 = −𝑢 𝑡 ---(2.102)

70
On taking Laplace transform of the equation (2.102) we get,
𝑈1 (𝑠) = −𝑈(𝑠) ---(2.103)
Substitute for U1(s) from equation (2.99) in equation (2.103)
𝑅2 𝐶1 1
− + + +𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠 𝐸 𝑠 = −𝑈 𝑠
𝑅1 𝑐2 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑠
𝑅2 𝐶1 1
+ + +𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠 𝐸 𝑠 = 𝑈 𝑠
𝑅1 𝑐2 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑠

𝑈 𝑠 𝑅2 𝐶1 1
= + + +𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑅1 𝑐2 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑠

𝑈 𝑠 𝑅2 𝐶1 1
= + + +𝑅2 𝐶1 𝑠
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑅1 𝑐2 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑠

𝑈 𝑠 𝑅 𝑅1 𝐶2 +𝑅2 𝐶1 1
= 𝑅2 +𝑅 +𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠 ---(2.104)
𝐸(𝑠) 1 𝑅1 𝐶2 2 𝐶2 𝑠

The equation (2.104) is the transfer function of op-amp PID-controller. On

comparing equation (2.104) with equation (2.69) we get,
𝑅2
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐾𝑝 =
𝑅1
𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑇𝑑 = 𝑅1 𝐶1
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑇𝑖 = 𝑅2 𝐶2
𝑅1 𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, = 1
𝑅2 𝐶2
By varying the values of R1 and R2 and the values of Kp,Td and Ti are adjusted

2.17 RESPONSE WITH P, PI, PD AND PID

CONTROLLERS
In feedback control systems a controller may be introduced to modify the
error signal and to achieve better control action. The introduction of controllers will
modify the transient response and the steady state error of the system. The effects
due to introduction of P, PI, PD and PID controllers are discussed in this section.
2.17.1 EFFECT OF PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER (P-
CONTROLLER)
The proportional controller produces an output signal which is proportional
to error signal. The transfer function of proportional controller is given below.
𝑈(𝑠)
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟, 𝐸(𝑠) = 𝐾𝑝 ---(2.105)

71
 The term Kp in the transfer function of proportional controller is called the
gain of the controller. Hence the proportional controller amplifies the error signal and
increases the loop gain of the system. The following aspects of system behavior are
improved by increasing loop gain.

(i)Steady state tracking accuracy.

(ii)Disturbance signal rejection.

(iii)Relative stability

In addition to increase in loop gain it decreases the sensitivity of the

system to parameter variations. The drawback in proportional control action is that it
produces a constant steady state error.

2.17.2 EFFECT OF PI-CONTROLLER

The proportional plus integral controller (PI-controller) produces an output
signal consisting of two terms: one proportional to error signal and the other
proportional to the integral of error signal.

1
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝐼 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟, 𝐺𝑐 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑝 1 + ---(2.106)
𝑇𝑖 𝑠
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

The block diagram of unity feedback system with PI- controller is shown below.

Fig. 2.27 Block diagram of feedback system with PI- controller

Let the open loop transfer function G(s) be a second order system with transfer
function, as shown below
𝜔𝑛2
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 )
Now, loop transfer function = Gc(s) G(s) H(s)

2 2 (1+𝑇 𝑠)
𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛
1 𝜔𝑛
= 𝐺𝑐 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 . 1 = 𝐾𝑝 1 + 𝑇 𝑠 = 𝑖
---(2.107)
𝑖 𝑠(𝑠+2𝛿𝜔𝑛 ) 𝑠2 𝑇𝑖 (𝑠+ 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 )

72
Now the closed loop transfer function is given by,
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺𝑐 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺𝑐 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)
𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 (1 + 𝑇𝑖 𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑠 2 𝑇𝑖 (𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 )
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 (1 + 𝑇𝑖 𝑠)
1+ 2
𝑠 𝑇𝑖 (𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 )
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 (1 + 𝑇𝑖 𝑠)
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 𝑇𝑖 𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 + 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 (1 + 𝑇𝑖 𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 (1 + 𝑇𝑖 𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑇𝑖 𝑠 3 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑇𝑖 𝑠 2 + 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 𝑇𝑖 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 )
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 (1 + 𝑇𝑖 𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝐾𝑝
𝑇𝑖 (𝑠 3 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 2 + 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 𝑠 + 𝑇 𝜔𝑛2 )
𝑖
𝐾𝑝 2
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑇𝑖 𝜔𝑛 (1 + 𝑇𝑖 𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝐾𝑝
(𝑠 3 +2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 2 + 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 𝑠 + 𝑇 𝜔𝑛2 )
𝑖
𝐶(𝑠) 2 (1+𝑇 𝑠)
𝐾𝑖 𝜔𝑛 𝐾𝑝
= 3 2
𝑖
2 𝑠+ 𝐾 𝜔2 ) ∴ 𝐾𝑖 = ---(2.108)
𝑅(𝑠) (𝑠 +2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛 𝑖 𝑛 𝑇𝑖

From the closed loop transfer function(2.108) it is observed that the PI-
controller introduces a zero in the system and increases the order by one. The
increase in the order of the system results in a less stable system than the original
one because higher order systems are less stable than lower order systems.
From the loop transfer function (2.107)it is observed that the PI-controller
increases the type number by one. The increase in type number results in reducing
the steady state error. For example if the steady state error of the original system is
constant, the integral controller will reduce the error to zero.
2.17.3 EFFECT OF PD-CONTROLLER
The proportional plus derivative controller (PD-controller) produces an output signal
consisting of two terms: one proportional to error signal and the other proportional
to the derivative of error signal.
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝐷 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟, 𝐺𝑐 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑝 1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 ---(2.109)
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
The block diagram of unity feedback system with PD- controller is shown below

Fig. 2.28 Block diagram of feedback system with PI- controller 73

Let the open loop transfer function G(s) be a second order system with transfer
function, as shown below
𝜔𝑛2
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 )
Now, loop transfer function = Gc(s) G(s) H(s) and H(s) = 1 for unity feedback
2 2 1+𝑇 𝑠
𝐾𝑝𝜔𝑛
𝜔𝑛
= 𝐺𝑐 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 . 1 = 𝐾𝑝 1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 1 = 𝑑
---(2.110)
𝑠(𝑠+2𝛿𝜔𝑛 ) 𝑠(𝑠+2𝛿𝜔𝑛 )

Now the closed loop transfer function is given by,

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺𝑐 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺𝑐 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)

𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 )
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠
1+
𝑠(𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 )

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 ) + 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 (1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠)
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 )
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 (1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠)
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + (2𝛿𝜔𝑛 + 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 𝑇𝑑 )𝑠 + 𝐾𝑝 𝜔𝑛2 )

2 (𝐾 +𝐾 𝑠)
𝜔𝑛
𝐶(𝑠)
∴ 𝐾𝑑 = 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑑 ---(2.111)
𝑝 𝑑
= 2 )𝑠+ 𝐾 𝜔 2 )
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠2 +(2𝛿𝜔𝑛 +𝐾𝑑 𝜔𝑛 𝑝 𝑛

From the closed loop transfer function (2.111) it is observed that the PD-
controller introduces a zero in the system and increases the damping ratio. The
addition of the zero may increase the peak overshoot and reduce the rise time. But
the effect of increased damping ultimately reduces the peak overshoot.
From the loop transfer function(2.110) it is observed that the PD-controller
does not modify the type number of the system. Hence PD-controller will not act
modify steady state error.

2.17.4 EFFECT OF PID-CONTROLLER

A suitable combination of the three basic modes: proportional, integral
and derivative (PID) can improve all aspects of the system performance.
The proportional controller stabilizes the gain but produces a steady state
error. The integral controller reduces or eliminates the steady state error. The
derivate controller reduces the rate of change of error. The combined effect of all
the three cannot be judged from parameters Kp, Kd and Ki.

74
Problems on Controller

1.The following diagram shown unity feedback with derivative control. By using
derivative control the damping ratio is to be made 0.5. Determine the value of Td
[May/June-2014]

Solution:
𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝐷 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟, 𝐺𝑐 𝑠 = 1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠

Open loop transfer function G(s) be a second order system with transfer function, as
shown below
16
𝐺 𝑠 =
(𝑠 2 +1.6𝑠)
Now, Gc(s) G(s)
16 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 16 + 16
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = 1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 =
(𝑠 2 +1.6𝑠) (𝑠 2 +1.6𝑠)
Now the closed loop transfer function is given by,
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺𝑐 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺𝑐 𝑠 𝐺(𝑠)
𝑇𝑑 𝑠 16 + 16
𝐶(𝑠) (𝑠 2 +1.6𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑇 𝑠 16 + 16
1+ 𝑑 2
(𝑠 +1.6𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 16 + 16
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) (𝑠 +1.6𝑠) + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 16 + 16
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 16 + 16
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 1.6𝑠 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 16 + 16
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 16 + 16
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + (1.6 + 16𝑇𝑑 )𝑠 + 16
The standard form of closed loop transfer function for second order system is
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2

75
Comparing with the standard form
2𝛿𝜔𝑛 = 16 𝑇𝑑 + 1.6 and 𝜔𝑛2 = 16 , Given damping ratio = 0.5
2𝛿𝜔𝑛 − 1.6 = 16 𝑇𝑑
2𝛿𝜔𝑛 − 1.6
𝑇𝑑 =
16
2𝑥0.5𝑥4 − 1.6
𝑇𝑑 =
16
2.4
𝑇𝑑 =
16
𝑇𝑑 = 0.15 𝑆𝑒𝑐

2.A closed loop control system with unity feedback is shown in figure. By using
derivative control the damping ratio is to made 0.75. Determine the value Td. Also
determine rise time, peak time and peak overshoot without derivative control and
with derivative control. The input to the system is unit step input.

Solution:
Without Controller Transfer function of the system
4
𝐶(𝑠) 2
= 𝑠 +𝑠
𝑅(𝑠) 4
1+ 2
𝑠 +𝑠
𝐶(𝑠) 4
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 +𝑠+4
On comparing with the standard form
𝜔𝑛2 = 4 and 𝜔𝑛 = 2 rad/sec
1
2𝛿𝜔𝑛 = 1 and 𝛿 =
2𝑥2
𝛿 = 0.25

76
Rise time:
1 − 𝛿2
𝜋−𝜃 𝜋 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝛿
𝑡𝑟 = =
𝜔𝑑 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝛿 2
𝜋 − 1.318
𝑡𝑟 =
2 1 − 0.252
𝑡𝑟 = 0.942 Sec
Peak time:
𝜋 𝜋
𝑡𝑝 = =
𝜔𝑑 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝛿 2
𝜋
𝑡𝑝 =
2 1 − 0.252
𝑡𝑝 = 1.62 Sec
Peak overshoot:
𝛿𝜋
−
2
% 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 1−𝛿 𝑥 100
0.25 𝑥 2
−
% 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 1−0.252 𝑥 100
% 𝑀𝑝 = 44.4 %

With PD-Controller Transfer function of the system

4 (1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠)
𝑠2 + 𝑠
4 (1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠)
1+
𝑠2 + 𝑠
𝐶(𝑠) 4 (1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠)
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 𝑠 + 4 (1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠)

𝐶(𝑠) 4 (1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠)
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + (1 + 4𝑇𝑑 )𝑠 + 4
On comparing with the standard form
𝜔𝑛2 = 4 and 𝜔𝑛 = 2 rad/sec
2𝛿𝜔𝑛 = 1 + 4𝑇𝑑

77
 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 −1
𝑇𝑑 = And Substitute given damping ratio 0.75 for PD controller System
4
2𝑥0.75𝑥2 − 1
𝑇𝑑 =
4
𝑇𝑑 = 0.5
Rise time:
1 − 𝛿2
𝜋−𝜃 𝜋 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝛿
𝑡𝑟 = =
𝜔𝑑 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝛿 2

1 − 0.752
𝜋 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
0.75
𝑡𝑟 =
2 1 − 0.752
𝑡𝑟 = 0.942 Sec
Peak time:
𝜋 𝜋
𝑡𝑝 = =
𝜔𝑑 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝛿 2
𝜋
𝑡𝑝 =
2 1 − 0.752
𝑡𝑝 = 2.37 Sec
Peak overshoot:
𝛿𝜋
−
% 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 1−𝛿 2 𝑥 100
0.75 𝑥 2
−
% 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 1−0.752 𝑥 100
% 𝑀𝑝 = 2.8 %

3.For the system shown in Figure. Find the effect of PD controller with Td = 1/10 on
peak overshoot and settling time when it is excite by unit step input. [Apr/May 2015]

Solution:
First simply the given block diagram by cascading blocks

78
Now we include the PD controller with given system

The transfer function of the overall system

(1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 )5
𝑌(𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠 + 3)
=
𝑋(𝑠) (1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 )5
1+
𝑠(𝑠 + 3)

𝑌(𝑠) (1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 )5
=
𝑋(𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠 + 3) + (1 + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠 )5

𝑌(𝑠) (5𝑇𝑑 𝑠 + 5 )
= 2
𝑋(𝑠) 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 5𝑇𝑑 𝑠 + 5

𝑌(𝑠) (5𝑇𝑑 𝑠 + 5 )
= 2
𝑋(𝑠) 𝑠 + (3 + 5𝑇𝑑 )𝑠 + 5
Substitute Td = 1/10 = 0.1 given in the problem
𝑌(𝑠) (0.5𝑠 + 5 )
= 2
𝑋(𝑠) 𝑠 + 3.5𝑠 + 5
The standard form of closed loop transfer function for second order system is
𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔𝑛2
= 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2
On comparing with the standard form
𝜔𝑛2 = 5 and 𝜔𝑛 = 2.23 rad/sec
3.5
2𝛿𝜔𝑛 = 3.5 and 𝛿 = 2𝑥2.23
𝛿 = 0.754

79
Peak overshoot:
𝛿𝜋
−
% 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 1−𝛿 2 𝑥 100
0.754 𝑥 3.14
−
% 𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 1−0.754 2
𝑥 100
% 𝑀𝑝 = 1.99 ≅ 2
Settling Time:
4
For 2% error 𝑡𝑠 =
𝛿𝜔𝑛
4
𝑡𝑠 =
0.754 𝑥 2.23
𝑡𝑠 = 2.285 𝑆𝑒𝑐
3
For 5% error 𝑡𝑠 =
𝛿𝜔𝑛
3
𝑡𝑠 =
0.754 𝑥 2.23
𝑡𝑠 = 1.714 𝑆𝑒𝑐

80
 LINKS TO VIDEOS

UNIT II
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ziu1OTwUrbw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YuZ3iwA-47I
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ONkuhKtbvYs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bUYzLCwAoCQ
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1UrctnMzYLF9KjPf6VbWCMQ
pASWj0_uFm

81
 E-book References

Control System Engineering - I J Nagrath & M Gopal

Feedback Control Systems - Katsuhiko Ogata
Control System Engineering - A Nagoor Kani

82
9.Assignments UNIT II

Slow Learner

1. Calculate the following parameters for the system whose natural

frequency of oscillation is 10rad/sec and damping ratio is 0.707. (i)
Delay time (ii) Rise time (iii) % of peak overshoot (iv) Settling time.

2. Derive the unit step response and unit ramp response for the first order
system shown in fig.

83
9.Assignments UNIT II

Medium Learner

1. The closed loop transfer function of a second order system is given by

100
T ( s) =
s 2 + 10s + 100
Determine the damping ratio, natural frequency of oscillations, rise
time, settling time and peak overshoot.

2. The Unity feedback system is characterized by the open loop transfer

function
K
G( s) =
s ( s + 10)
Determine the gain K, so that the system will have the damping ratio
of 0.5. For this value of K, Determine the settling time, peak overshoot,
and time to peak overshoot for a unit step input.

3. Determine the unit Step response of the control system shown in figure.

84
9.Assignments UNIT II

In the system, x(t) is the input displacement and θ(t) is the output
angular displacement. Assume that the masses involved are negligibly
small and that all motions are restricted to be small; therefore, the system
can be considered linear. The initial conditions for x and θ are zeros, or x(0-
) = 0 and θ(0-) = 0. Show that this system is a differentiating element .
Then obtain the response θ(t) when x(t) is a unit-step input.

Explain why the proportional control of a plant that does not possess an
integrating property (which means that the plant transfer function does not
include the factor 1/s) suffers offset in response to step inputs

The block diagram of Figure. shows a speed control system in which the
output member of the system is subject to a torque disturbance. In the
diagram, Ω(s), Ω(s) ,T(s) and D(s) are the Laplace transforms of the
reference speed, output speed, driving torque, and disturbance torque,
respectively. In the absence of a disturbance torque, the output speed is
equal to the reference speed.

Investigate the response of this system to a unit-step disturbance torque.

Assume that the reference input is zero, or Ωr(s)

In the system , it is desired to eliminate as much as possible the speed

errors due to torque disturbances. Is it possible to cancel the effect of a
disturbance torque at steady state so that a constant disturbance torque
applied to the output member will cause no speed change at steady state?

85
10.TWO MARKS QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-UNIT II
1.Define rise time with reference to time response. (K1 , CO2)
The time taken for response to rise from 0% to 100% for the very first time is
rise time.

2.Give the steady state errors to a various standard inputs for type 2
system. (K1, CO2)
Steady state error=0 for unit step and ramp input
Steady state error=1/Ka for unit parabolic input

3.What is transient response? (K1 , CO2)

The transient response is the response of the system changes from one state to
another.

4.What is steady state response? (K1 , CO2)

The transient response is the response of the system when it approaches infinity.

5.What is order of an system? (K1 , CO2)

The order of a system is order of differential equation governing the system The
order of a system can be obtained from the transfer function of the given system.

6.Define damping ratio. (K1, CO2)

It is the ratio of actual damping to critical damping.

7.List the time domain specification. (K1 , CO2)

The time domain specification are
i. Peak time
ii. Rise time
iii. Delay time
iv. Peak overshoot

8.Define delay time. (K1, CO2)

The time taken for response to reach 50% of final value for very first time is
delay time.

86
9.Define Rise time. (K1 , CO2)
The time taken for response to raise from 0% to100% for very first time is Rise
time

10.Define Peak time. (K1 , CO2)

The time taken for response to reach the peak value for very first time is Peak
time.

11.Define peak overshoot. (K1, CO2)

It is defined as the ratio of the maximum peak value measured from final value
to final value.

12.Define settling time. (K1 , CO2)

It is defined as the time taken by the response to reach and stay within a
specified error and the error is usually specified as % of final value.

13.What is the need for a controller? (K1 , CO2)

The controller is provided to modify the error signal for better control action.

14.What is PI controller? (K1 , CO2)

The PI controller is a device which produces a control signal consisting of two
terms-one proportional to error signal and the other proportional to the Integral
of error signal.

15.What is transient and steady state response? (K1 , CO2)

The transient response is the response of the system when the input changes
from one state to another. The response of the system as t ->infinity is called
steady-state response

16.What are generalized error coefficients? (K1 , CO2)

They are the coefficients of generalized error series. The generalized error series
is given by
e(t) = C0r(t) + C1 r (t) + (C2/2!) r''(t) + (C3/3!) r'''(t) + ............. + (Cn/n!) rn'(t)
The coefficients C0, C1, C2 , ......,Cn are called generalized error coefficients or
dynamic error coefficients

87
17.How the system is classified depending on the value of damping?
(K1, CO2)
Depending on the value of damping, the system can be classified into the
following four cases
Case 1 : Undamped system, δ = 0
Case 2 : Under damped system, 0 < δ< 1
Case 3 : Critically damped system, δ= 1
Case 4 : Over damped system, δ> 1.

18.Mention two advantages of generalized error constants over static

error constants. (K1, CO2)
i. Generalized error series gives error signal as a function of time.
ii. Using generalized error constants the steady state error can be determined for
any type of input but static error constants are used to determine m state error
when the input is any one of the standard input

19.What is PD controller? (K1 , CO2)

The PD controller is a device which produces a control signal consisting of two
terms-one proportional to error signal and the other proportional to the
derivative of error signal.

20.What is PID controller? (K1, CO2)

The PID controller is a device which produces a control signal consisting of three
terms-one proportional to error signal, another one proportional to integral of
error signal and the third one proportional to derivative of error signal.

21.What is steady state error? (K1, CO2)

The steady state error is the value of error signal e(t), when t tends to infinity .
The steady state error is a measure of system accuracy. These errors arise from
the nature of inputs, type of system and from non-linearity of system
components.

22.Give the relation between generalized and static error coefficients.

(K1, CO2)
The following expression shows the relation between generalized and static error
coefficient :C0 = 1/( 1 + Kp) C1 = 1/( Kv) C2 = 1/( Ka)

88
23.What is Proportional controller and what are its advantages?
(K1 , CO2)
The Proportional controller is a device that produces a control signal which is
proportional to the input error signal. The advantages in the proportional
controller are improvement in steady-state tracking accuracy, disturbance signal
rejection and the relative stability. It also makes a system less sensitive to
parameter variations.

24.What is the drawback in P-controller? (K1 , CO2)

The drawback in P-controller is that it develop a constant steady-state error.

25.What is integral control action? (K1, CO2)

In integral control action, the control signal is proportional to integral of error
signal.

26.What is the advantage and disadvantage in integral controller?

(K1 , CO2)
The advantage in Integral controller is that it eliminates or reduces the steady-
state error. The disadvantage is that it can make a system unstable.

27.Define Damping ratio. (K1 , CO2)

The damping ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual damping to critical
damping.

28.Why derivative controller is not used in control systems?

(K2, CO2)
The derivative controller produces a control action based on the rate of change of
error signal and it does not produce corrective measures for any constant error.

29.What are the main advantages of generalized error co-efficient?

(K1, CO2)
i) Steady state is function of time.
ii) Steady state can be determined from any type of input

89
 11. PART B UNIT II
1.Derive the time response of first order system for unit step input and
unit ramp input signal. (K1 , CO2)

2.Derive the unit step response and unit ramp response for the first order
system shown in fig. (K3 ,CO2)

3.Derive the unit step response for the critical damped Second order
system. (K1,CO2)

4.Derive the unit step response of undamped and under damped second
order system.(K1 ,CO2)

5.Derive the time response of first order system for unit impulse input and
Parabolic input signal . (K1,CO2)

6.Determine the unit Step response of the control system shown in figure.
(K3,CO2)

7.Derive the unit step response for over damped second order system.
(K1 , CO2 )

90
8.Measurements conducted on a servo mechanism show that the system
response as

c(t ) = 1 + 0.2e −60t − 1.2e −10t

When subjected to unit step input. Obtain an expression for closed loop
transfer function. Also determine the undamped natural frequency and
damping ration. (K3, CO2)

9.Determine the time response specification and expression for output for
unit step input to a system having the system equation.

d2y dy
2
+ 5 + 16 y = 9 x
dt dt
Assume zero initial conditions. (K3, CO2)

10.Calculate the following parameters for the system whose natural

frequency of oscillation is 10rad/sec and damping ratio is 0.707. (i)
Delay time (ii) Rise time (iii) % of peak overshoot (iv) Settling time.
(K2, CO2)

11.The closed loop transfer function of a second order system is given by

100
T ( s) =
s + 10s + 100
2

Determine the damping ratio, natural frequency of oscillations, rise

time, settling time and peak overshoot. (K3, CO2)

12.The Unity feedback system is characterized by the open loop transfer

function

K
G( s) =
s ( s + 10)
Determine the gain K, so that the system will have the damping ratio
of 0.5. For this value of K, Determine the settling time, peak overshoot,
and time to peak overshoot for a unit step input. (K3, CO2)

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13.The OLTF of a system with unity feedback is

10
G( s) =
s (0.1s + 1)
Evaluate the static error constant of the system.
Obtain steady state error when subjected to the input given by the
polynomial . (K5, CO2)
a2 2
r (t ) = a0 + a1t + t
2
14.The following diagram shows unity feedback with derivative control.
By using this derivative control the damping ratio is to be made 0.5.
Determine the value of Td . (K3 , CO2)

15.Explain the effect of PI and PD controllers in control systems.

(K2,CO2)

16.Explain the effect of PID and P controllers in control systems.

(K2, CO2)

17.Explain the Analytical design for PD,PID control systems.

(K2, CO2)

18.For the system shown, find the dynamic error coefficient method for
input r(t)=5 . (K3,CO2)

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19.For the system shown find the effect of PID controller with Td=1/10 on
peak overshoot and settling time when it is excited by unit step
input. (K3 , CO2)

20.A closed loop control system with unity feedback is shown in figure.
By using derivative control that damping ratio is to made 0.75.
Determine the value Td. Also determine the rise time, peak time and
peak overshoot without derivative control and with derivative control.
The input to the system is unit step. (K3, CO2)

21.Find the overall transfer functions for the given system and also find
the value of β to make damping ratio of the given system is equal to
0.5. (K3, CO2)

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22.A second order system has unity feedback and an open loop transfer
function is
500
G( s) =
s ( s + 15)
i)Draw a block diagram for the closed loop system.
ii)What is the characteristic equation of the closed loop system?
iii)What is the numerical value of natural frequency and damping
ratio?
iv)What is the settling time of the system? (K2, CO2)

23.The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is given by

G ( s ) = K / s ( sT + 1)
, where K and T are positive constant. By what factor should the
amplifier gain K be reduced, So that the peak overshoot of unit step
response of the system is reduce from 75% to 25%. (K4 , CO2)

24.Explain in detail about steady state error and systems . (K2 , CO2)

25. For servomechanism with open loop transfer function given below
explain what type of input signal give rise to constant steady state error
and calculate their values. (K3, CO2)
a.) G(s) = (20(s + 2))/(s(s + 1)(s + 3))
b.) G(s) = (10/((s + 2)(s + 3))
c.) G(s) = (10/(s^2(s + 1)(s + 2))

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 12.Supportive Online Certification courses (NPTEL, Swayam,
Coursera, Udemy, etc.,)

❖Swayam - Control Systems

❖ Udemy - Introduction to Control System for Engineers

❖ Udemy - Applied Control System for Engineers – Autonomous Vehicles

❖ NPTEL - Control System Engineering.

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13.Real time Applications in day to day life and to industry

UNIT II
❖ Vacuum Control Systems which control the vacuum of a specific industrial
chamber or vessel using different control strategies like PD, PID controllers, etc.,
❖ Machine vision guided robotics( where an embedded or overhead camera is used
to position a manipulator rather than position encoders and inverse kinematics or
use both)
Industry Applications
Control systems are mainly used for controlling the equipments of machines in
industry. In recent years control systems have proliferative applications in in
modern industry and technology. Control systems are found in abundance in all
sectors of industry such as:
❖ Quality control of manufactured products
❖ Automatic assembly line
❖ Machine tool control
❖ Space technology and weapon systems
❖ Computer control
❖ Power Systems
❖ Robotics
❖ Micro Electro Mechanical Systems(MEMS)
❖ Smart transportation systems
❖ Ship stabilization systems
❖ Temperature control systems
❖ Steering control of automobiles
❖ Missile launching system
❖ Sun tracking control of solar collectors

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 14.Contents beyond Syllabus ( COE related value
added courses)

COE related value added courses:

1. Embedded COE
2. Robotic s COE

Content beyond syllabus:

UNIT II - Unit step response and Unit Impulse response
using MATLAB

(i)Obtain step response of a unity feedback system having forward path

transfer function of G(s) = 1/𝑠+4
MATLAB Code:
num = [1];
den = [1 4]
g = tf (num,den)
t = feedback(g,1)
step(t,'r')
Output:

97
(ii)Obtain impulse response of a unity feedback system having forward
path transfer function of G(s) = 1/𝑠+9
MATLAB Code :
num = [1];
den = [1 9]
g = tf (num,den)
t = feedback(g,1)
impulse(t,'r')
Output:

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 15. ASSESSMENT SCHEDULE

Assessment Proposed Date Actual Date

Unit 1 Assignment
27.01.2024
Assessment

Unit Test 1 01.02.2024

Unit 2 Assignment
08.02.2024
Assessment

Internal Assessment 1 10.02.2024

Retest for IA 1 20.02.2024

Unit 3 Assignment
24.02.2024
Assessment

Unit Test 3 29.02.2024

Unit 4 Assignment
09.03.2024
Assessment

Internal Assessment 2 01.04.2024

Retest for IA 2 11.04.2024

Unit 5 Assignment
12.04.2024
Assessment

Revision Test 1 16.04.2024

Revision Test 2 17.04.2024

Model Exam 23.04.2024

Remodel Exam 02.05.2024

University Exam 11.05.2024

 16.Prescribed Text Books & Reference Books

TEXT BOOK:

❖ Nagarath, I.J. and Gopal, M., “Control Systems Engineering”, New Age
International Publishers, 2017.

❖ Benjamin C. Kuo, “Automatic Control Systems”, Wiley, 2014.

REFERENCES:

❖ Katsuhiko Ogata, “Modern Control Engineering”, Pearson, 2015.

❖ Richard C.Dorf and Bishop, R.H., “Modern Control Systems”, Pearson Education,
14th edition, 2016.

❖ John J.D., Azzo Constantine, H. and Houpis Sttuart, N Sheldon, “Linear Control
System Analysis and Design with MATLAB”, CRC Taylor& Francis 2013.

❖ Rames C.Panda and T. Thyagarajan, “An Introduction to Process Modelling

Identification and Control of Engineers”, Narosa Publishing House, 2017.

❖ M.Gopal, “Control System: Principle and design”, McGraw Hill Education, 2018.

❖ NPTEL Video Lecture Notes on “Control Engineering “by Prof. S. D. Agashe, IIT
Bombay.

100
 17.Mini Project suggestions
Slow Learners
❖ Auditorium Control System Using IR
❖ Appliances Security Controller Using Power Line
Medium Learners
❖ Access Control System
Using Microcontroller/Microprocessor
❖ Automatic Sprinkler Control System
To p p e r s
❖ A u t o m a t i c S p e e d C o n t r o l l e r f o r Fa n s a n d C o o l e r s U s i n g
Current Sensor
❖ Bomb Detection Robotics Using Embedded Controller
❖ Bi-Directional Visitors Counter

101
AUTOMATIC CONTROL
To automate temperature control with a PID controller, the following are required:
Install an electronic temperature measurement device
Automate the valve by adding an actuator (and perhaps a positioner) so it can be
driven electronically
Install a controller and connect it to the temperature measurement device and
automated control valve
The operator sets the PID controller’s set point (SP) to the desired temperature, and
the controller’s output (CO) sets the position of the control valve. The temperature
measurement, called the process variable (PV), is then transmitted to the PID
controller, which compares it to the set point and calculates the difference, or error
(E), between the two signals. Based on the error and the controller’s tuning
constants, the controller calculates the appropriate controller output to set the
control valve at the correct position to keep the temperature at the set point (Figure
2). If the temperature rises above its set point, the controller will reduce the valve
position and vice versa.
Each of the controller’s three modes reacts differently to the error. The amount of
response produced by each control mode is adjustable by changing the controller’s
tuning settings.

These tuning rules work well on processes with very long time constants relative to
their dead times and on level control loops, which contain an integrating process.
They do not work well on control loops that contain self-regulating processes, such
as flow, temperature, pressure, speed, and composition.
A self-regulating process always stabilizes at some point of equilibrium, which
depends on the process design and controller output; if the controller output is set
to a different value, the process will respond and stabilize at a new point of
equilibrium.

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 Thank you

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