Information Management ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ BCS21

Module 1: The Database Environment and Development Process

A database is an organized collection of logically related data, designed to store,

retrieve, and manage information efficiently. Think of it as a digital filing system where
data is structured in a way that makes it easy to find and use.

Data refers to stored representations of meaningful objects or events. It’s raw

facts or figures that, when organized and processed, become useful information.
1.​ Objects: These are meaningful entities like students.
2.​ Events: These are actions or occurrences, like a student's enrollment

Structured Data
●​ Definition: Data that is organized in a predefined format, such as rows and
columns in a table. It’s easy to search and analyze because it has a fixed
structure.
●​ Examples: Numbers, text, dates.
●​ Storage: Stored in databases (e.g., spreadsheets, SQL databases).

Unstructured Data
●​ Definition: Data that does not have a predefined format or structure. It’s harder
to analyze directly because it doesn’t fit neatly into rows and columns.
●​ Examples: Images, videos, audio files, Word documents, emails.
●​ Storage: Stored in file systems or cloud storage.

Information is data that has been processed or analyzed to make it meaningful and
useful, helping to increase knowledge or aid decision-making. For example, raw student
scores (data) can be processed to calculate average scores and identify the
top-performing student (information), providing insights that can guide actions like
rewards or support.

Metadata is data that describes the properties and context of other data, helping users
understand and manage it. For example, a photo’s metadata includes details like its file
name, size, date taken, location, and camera settings. This information makes it easier
to organize, search, and understand the photo’s context.
File processing systems are inefficient because they create program-data
dependence, cause data duplication, limit data sharing, and require lengthy
development and high maintenance costs. Modern systems like databases solve
these issues by centralizing and standardizing data management.

1.​ Program-Data Dependence - Each program that uses a file must include its
own metadata (e.g., file structure, data format).
2.​ Duplication of Data - Different systems or programs create and maintain
separate copies of the same data.
3.​ Limited Data Sharing - There’s no centralized database to allow multiple
programs to share and access data efficiently.
4.​ Lengthy Development Times - Programmers need to design and code the file
formats and logic for each application from scratch.
5.​ Excessive Program Maintenance - Because of the lack of standardization,
frequent updates are needed to maintain individual programs.

In systems with data dependency, each application is tightly connected to the data it
uses, leading to several issues:
1.​ Each Application Programmer Must Maintain Their Own Data
a.​ What It Means: Each programmer has to manage the data used by their
own application, often duplicating efforts.
2.​ Each Application Program Needs Code for Metadata
a.​ What It Means: Each program has to include the details (metadata) about
how the data is stored, like the file format, which is time-consuming and
error-prone.
3.​ Each Application Must Have Its Own Routines for Data Operations
a.​ What It Means: Every program must have its own code to read, insert,
update, or delete data from the files, which creates redundancy and
increases the risk of errors
4.​ Lack of Coordination and Central Control
a.​ What It Means: Since each program manages its own data independently,
there's no central system to coordinate data usage, leading to
inconsistencies.
5.​ Non-Standard File Formats
a.​ What It Means: Each program may use its own unique way to store data
(non-standard formats), making it difficult for programs to communicate
with each other.
Data redundancy occurs when the same data is stored in multiple places, leading to
several issues:

1.​ Waste of Space to Have Duplicate Data

a.​ What It Means: Storing the same data in multiple places uses
unnecessary storage space.
2.​ Causes More Maintenance Headaches
a.​ What It Means: When data is duplicated, it becomes harder to update and
maintain.
3.​ Data Changes in One File Could Cause Inconsistencies
a.​ What It Means: If data changes in one place but not in others, it leads to
conflicting or inconsistent information.
4.​ Compromises Data Integrity
a.​ What It Means: Data redundancy can lead to errors and make it difficult to
trust the accuracy of the data.

The database approach solves the problems of data redundancy and inconsistency by
using a central repository where data is stored in one place, shared across multiple
applications.

A controlling agent (like a database management system) manages the data, ensuring
it's accurate and up-to-date. Data is stored in a standardized format, making it easy to
access, update, and maintain, reducing duplication and errors.

A Database Management System (DBMS) is like the operating system of a computer

but for data. Just as an operating system manages computer hardware (like the CPU,
memory, and storage), a DBMS manages data resources.
●​ Data Resources: The employee data is stored in a database, and the DBMS e
da nsures that the data is accurate and up-to-date.
●​ Controlled Access: Just like an operating system decides who can use the
computer's hardware resources, the DBMS controls who can access or modify
the employee data.
1.​ Program-Data Independence
a.​ What It Means: Programs don’t need to know how data is stored or
structured, making it easier to change data without affecting programs.
2.​ Planned Data Redundancy
a.​ What It Means: Data duplication is minimized, and any necessary
repetition is done deliberately to improve efficiency.
3.​ Improved Data Consistency
a.​ What It Means: With a single, centralized database, there’s less chance of
having conflicting data.
4.​ Improved Data Sharing
a.​ What It Means: A centralized database allows easy sharing of data
across departments.
5.​ Increased Application Development Productivity
a.​ What It Means: Developers can focus on creating features rather than
managing data, speeding up development.
6.​ Enforcement of Standards
a.​ What It Means: The database ensures data is stored consistently and
follows defined rules.
7.​ Improved Data Quality
a.​ What It Means: With centralized control, data is more accurate,
consistent, and well-organized.
8.​ Improved Data Accessibility and Responsiveness
a.​ What It Means: Data can be accessed quickly and efficiently by
authorized users.
9.​ Reduced Program Maintenance
a.​ What It Means: Since data is centralized, there’s less need for changing
programs when data changes.
10.​Improved Decision Support
a.​ What It Means: With accurate, centralized data, businesses can make
better-informed decisions.

1.​ New, Specialized Personnel

a.​ What It Means: You need skilled employees, like database administrators
(DBAs), to manage the database.
2.​ Installation and Management Cost and Complexity
a.​ What It Means: Setting up and managing a database system can be
expensive and complex.
3.​ Conversion Costs
 a.​ What It Means: Moving from an old system to a new database system
can require time, effort, and resources to convert the data.
4.​ Need for Explicit Backup and Recovery
a.​ What It Means: Databases require regular backups and plans for
recovery in case of failure, adding to the operational costs.
5.​ Organizational Conflict
a.​ What It Means: Implementing a database system can cause conflict
within the organization, especially if departments are used to working in
their own way.

Database Administrator (DBA)

●​ What It Means: The person responsible for managing and maintaining the
database, ensuring it runs smoothly, securely, and efficiently.

End Users
●​ What It Means: The people who interact with the database.

1.​ CASE Tools (Computer-Aided Software Engineering)

a.​ What It Means: Software tools that help design and develop databases
and applications more efficiently.
2.​ Repository (Centralized Storehouse of Metadata)
a.​ What It Means: A place where all the metadata (data about data) is
stored, describing the structure, relationships, and properties of the
database.
3.​ Database Management System (DBMS)
a.​ What It Means: Software that helps manage and control access to the
database, ensuring data is stored, retrieved, and updated efficiently.
4.​ Database
a.​ What It Means: The actual place where data is stored in an organized
manner.
5.​ Application Programs
a.​ What It Means: Software that interacts with the database to perform
specific tasks, such as entering, retrieving, or updating data.
6.​ User Interface
a.​ What It Means: The screens, buttons, and forms that users interact with
to view or manipulate data in the database.
7.​ Data/Database Administrators
 a.​ What It Means: People responsible for maintaining the database,
ensuring it runs smoothly, securely, and efficiently.
8.​ System Developers
a.​ What It Means: Personnel who design and create the database and
related software applications.
9.​ End Users
a.​ What It Means: People who use the applications and databases to
perform their tasks, such as entering or querying data.

1.​ Personal Databases

a.​ What It Means: A small, user-specific database designed to store
personal information, often for one person’s use.
2.​ Two-Tier and N-Tier Client/Server Databases
a.​ What It Means: These are systems where the database and the client
(user interface) are separate, but in a two-tier system, there’s only one
middle layer (server), while in an n-tier system, there can be multiple
layers between the client and database.
b.​ Example:
i.​ Two-Tier: A basic banking application where the user interacts with
the front-end interface (client) and the database server processes
requests (server).
ii.​ N-Tier: A large e-commerce website where the client, application
server, and database are separate, allowing for more complex
interactions and scalability.
3.​ Enterprise Applications
a.​ What It Means: Large-scale applications used by businesses or
organizations to handle various operations, often using databases to store
critical business data.
4.​ Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems
a.​ What It Means: Systems that integrate various business processes
(finance, HR, supply chain, etc.) into one unified system using a
centralized database.
5.​ Data Warehousing Implementations
a.​ What It Means: Systems used to store large amounts of data from
different sources, often for reporting and analysis purposes. Data is often
organized for easy querying and decision-making.
b.​ decisions.
 1.​ Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)
a.​ What It Means: ERP systems integrate all the major functions of a
business (like finance, sales, HR, inventory, etc.) into one unified system,
using a centralized database. This helps in better coordination and
management across departments.
2.​ Data Warehouse
a.​ What It Means: A data warehouse is a large, centralized repository
where data from different operational databases is collected, stored, and
organized for reporting and decision-making. It is designed to support
decision support systems by providing historical data and analytics.
3.​ Integrated Decision Support System (DSS)
a.​ What It Means: A DSS uses the data from the data warehouse to help
decision-makers analyze data and make informed decisions. It combines
data from various operational systems to provide insights and improve
business strategies.

Module 2: Data Models

●​ Data models
○​ Relatively simple representations of complex real-world data structures
■​ Often graphical
●​ Model: an abstraction of a real-world object or event
○​ Useful in understanding complexities of the real-world environment
●​ Data modeling is iterative and progressive

Importance of Data Models

●​ Facilitate interaction among the designer, the applications programmer, and the
end user
●​ End users have different views and needs for data
●​ Data model organizes data for various users
●​ Data model is an abstraction
○​ Cannot draw required data out of the data model
Basic building blocks
●​ Entity: anything about which data are to be collected and stored
●​ Attribute: a characteristic of an entity
●​ Relationship: describes an association among entities
○​ One-to-many (1:M) relationship
○​ Many-to-many (M:N or M:M) relationship
 ○​ One-to-one (1:1) relationship
●​ Constraint: a restriction placed on the data

Business Rules
●​ Descriptions of policies, procedures, or principles within a specific organization
○​ Apply to any organization that stores and uses data to generate
information
●​ Description of operations to create/enforce actions within an organization’s
environment
○​ Must be in writing and kept up to date
○​ Must be easy to understand and widely disseminated
●​ Describe characteristics of data as viewed by the company

Discovering Business Rules

●​ Sources of business rules:
○​ Company managers
○​ Policy makers
○​ Department managers
○​ Written documentation
●​ Procedures
●​ Standards
●​ Operations manuals
○​ Direct interviews with end users
●​ Standardize company’s view of data
●​ Communications tool between users and designers
●​ Allow designer to understand the nature, role, and scope of data
●​ Allow designer to understand business processes
●​ Allow designer to develop appropriate relationship participation rules and
constraints
Translating Business Rules into Data Model Components
●​ Nouns translate into entities
●​ Verbs translate into relationships among entities
●​ Relationships are bidirectional
●​ Twwo questions to identify the relationship type:
○​ How many instances of B are related to one instance of A?
○​ How many instances of A are related to one instance of B?