DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND

NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J - Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves and Optics

Module-IV ( Waves and Optics) Lecture-1

Interference

1
2

Superposition of Waves
In general, when we combine two waves to form a composite wave,
the composite wave is the algebraic sum of the two original waves,
point by point in space [Superposition Principle].

When we add the two waves we need to take into account their:
Direction
Amplitude
Phase

+ =
3

Superposition of Waves

Interference of light wave is the phenomena whereby two light

waves superpose to form a resultant wave of greater, lower or
same amplitude.

+ =

(Waves almost in phase)

Constructive interference

The interference is constructive, if the waves reinforce

each other.
4

Superposition of Waves
The combining of two waves to form a composite wave is called:
Interference

(Waves almost cancel.)

+ =
Destructive interference
(Close to  out of phase)

The interference is destructive, if the waves tend to cancel

each other.
5

Interference of Waves

+ =

Constructive interference
(In phase)

+ =
(Waves cancel)
(  out of phase) Destructive interference
6

Conditions for interference

When waves come together they can interfere

constructively or destructively. To set up a stable and
clear interference pattern, two conditions must be met:

• The sources of the waves must be coherent, which

means they emit identical waves with a constant
phase difference.

• The waves should be monochromatic - they should

be of a single wavelength.
7

Conditions for interference

Let's say we have two sources sending out identical waves in phase.
Whether constructive or destructive interference occurs at a point
near the sources depends on the path-length difference, d, which is
the distance from the point to one source minus the distance from
the point to the other source.

• Condition for constructive interference:

(path-length difference)𝒅 = 𝟐𝒏𝝀/𝟐, where n is any integer.

•Condition for destructive interference:

(path-length difference)𝒅 = (𝟐𝒏+𝟏)𝝀/𝟐, where n is any
integer.
8

Conditions for interference

9
THEORY OF INTERFERENCE PATTERN

Let S1 and S2 represent the two pinholes of the Young's

interference experiment. We would determine the positions of
maxima and of minima on the line LL' which is parallel to the y-axis
and lies in the plane containing the points S, S1 and S2 (see Fig).

We will show that the interference pattern (around the point 0)

consists of a series of dark and bright lines perpendicular to the
plane of Fig.; 0 being the foot of the perpendicular from the point
S on the screen. For an arbitrary point P (on the line LL') to
correspond to a maximum we must have

𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆1 𝑃 = 𝑛𝜆 ; 𝑛 = 0,1,2, …
Fig.: Arrangement for producing Young's interference pattern.

10
 THEORY OF INTERFERENCE PATTERN
2 2
𝑁𝑜𝑤, (𝑆2 𝑃)2 − (𝑆1 𝑃)2 = 𝐷2 + 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑑
2
- 𝐷2 + 𝑦𝑛 − 𝑑
2

= 2𝑦𝑛d
Where
𝑆1𝑆2 = d and OP = 𝑦𝑛
Thus
2𝑦𝑛d
𝑆 2 𝑃 − 𝑆 1𝑃 =
𝑆2𝑃 + 𝑆1𝑃
If yn, d << D then negligible error will be introduced if S2P + S1P is
replaced by 2D. Thus if we replace S2P + S1P by 2D, the error involved
is about 0.005%. In this approximation
𝑦𝑛 d
𝑆2𝑃 − 𝑆1𝑃 ≈
𝐷 11
 THEORY OF INTERFERENCE PATTERN
Thus we obtain
nλ𝐷
𝑦𝑛 =
𝑑
Thus the dark and bright fringes are equally spaced and the
distance between two consecutive dark (or bright) fringes is
given by
(n+1)λ𝐷 nλ𝐷
𝛽 = 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑛+1 = −
𝑑 𝑑

or
λ𝐷
𝛽=
𝑑
which is the expression for the fringe width.

12
1
3

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY

SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J - Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves and Optics

Module-IV ( Waves and Optics) Lecture-2

Diffraction
1
4

Diffraction
Light is an electromagnetic wave, and like all waves, “bends”
around obstacles. 

<<d d >>d

most noticeable when the dimension of the obstacle is close

to the wavelength of the light
1
5

Diffraction

➢ Diffraction of light is the phenomenon of bending

of light waves around the corners and their
spreading into the geometrical shadows.

➢ Fresnel explained that the diffraction

phenomenon was the result of mutual interference
between the secondary wavelets from the same
wave front.
1
6
Types of Diffraction
The diffraction phenomenon are usually divided into two classes

i) Fresnel class of diffraction phenomenon where the source of light

and screen are in general at a finite distance from the diffracting
aperture
1
7

ii) Fruanhofer class of diffraction phenomenon where the source and

the screen are at infinite distance from the aperture. This class of
diffraction is simple to treat and easy to observe in practice.

Types of Diffraction
Difference between Fresnel and Fraunhofer's Diffraction
Fresnel Diffraction:
1. Point source of light or an illuminated narrow slit is used as light source
2. Light incident on the aperture or obstacle is a spherical or cylindrical
wave front
3. The source and screen are at finite distance from the aperture or
obstacle producing diffraction
4. Lenses are not used to focus the rays

Fraunhofer diffraction:
1. Extended source of light at infinite distance is used as light source
2. Light incident on the aperture or obstacle is a plane wave front
3. The source and screen are at infinite distance from the aperture or
obstacle producing diffraction
4. Converging lens is used to focus the rays
6
 Difference between Interference and Diffraction
BASIS OF
INTERFERENCE DIFFRACTION
COMPARISON
Diffraction of light is a
Interference is a phenomenon
phenomenon of bending of light
whereby two waves
around the corners of an obstacle
Description superimpose forming a
or apertures and its consequent
resultant wave of different
spreading into regions of its
amplitude.
geometrical shadow.
The waves emitted by two The waves emitted by two
Waves coherent sources travel in coherent sources travel in straight
straight line. line.
The intensity of bright fringes
Intensity Of All bright fringes are of the decreases as we move further
Bright Fringes same intensity. from the central bright fringe on
either side.
Points of The points of minimum
The minimum intensity points are
Minimum intensity show complete
not completely dark.
Intensity darkness. 7
 Difference between Interference and Diffraction
BASIS OF
INTERFERENCE DIFFRACTION
COMPARISON
Width of the central maximum is
Width Of The same as that of the other bright Width of central maximum is broader
Central fringes i.e fringe width is same for than other maxima and it’s double
Maximum all fringes including central the fringe width.
maxima.
Spacing The spacing between different
The spacing between different
Between fringes displays uniformity in
fringes is non-uniform.
Fringes nature.
Minimum
Minimum intensity may be zero. Minimum intensity is not zero.
Intensity
A slit or obstacle is not necessary
For diffraction to take place, slit or
Slit Or Obstacle for wave interference to take
obstacle is necessarily required.
place.
Interference through double slit Diffraction through double slit
forms interference fringes on the produces interference. Therefore,
Double Slit
screen (Alternate and light bands alternate bright and dark fringes are
or fringes). formed. 8
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J - Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves and Optics

Module-IV ( Waves and Optics) Lecture-3

Fraunhofer Single Slit and

Double Slit Diffraction

21
Fraunhofer Single Slit Diffraction

22
Fraunhofer Single Slit Diffraction

24
Fraunhofer Single Slit Diffraction

25
18PYB101J Module-IV Lecture-3
Fraunhofer Single Slit Diffraction

26
 Fraunhofer Single Slit Diffraction Intensity

The general features of that distribution are shown below.

Most of the intensity is in the central maximum. It is twice the

width of the other (secondary) maxima.
Intensity :
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜶 α =(πa sinθ)/λ
𝐼2 = 𝑅2 = 2
𝐴 𝜶𝟐
27
Fraunhofer Double Slit Diffraction

28
Fraunhofer Double Slit Diffraction

30
Fraunhofer Double Slit Diffraction

31
Fraunhofer Double Slit Diffraction

32
 Fraunhofer Double Slit Diffraction

The intensity at P1 is
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜶
𝐼2 = 𝑅2 = 2
4𝐴 𝜶𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜷 α =(πa sinθ)/λ
β= π (a+b) Sin θ/λ
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜶
= 4𝐼0 𝜶𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜷
Where I0 = A2
➢ The above represents the intensity distribution on the screen.
The intensity at any point on the screen depends on α, β, and
the intensity of central maximum is 4Io.

➢ The term cos2 β corresponds to interference and

sin2α corresponds to diffraction.

33
 Fraunhofer Double Slit Diffraction

The intensity distribution on the screen due to double slit diffraction

is shown in Fig.

34
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J - Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves and

Optics
Module-IV ( Waves and Optics) Lecture-4

Problem Solving
1. A single slit of width 1 mm is illuminated by light of wavelength 589 nm. Find the
angular spread of the central maxima of diffraction pattern observed.
2. In Fraunhofer type diffraction at narrow slit of width 0.2 mm, a screen is placed 1.2
m away from the slit. In the fringe pattern, first minimum lie at 3.7 mm on either side of
the central maximum. Find out the wavelength of light.

Solution: given- b = .2mm, D = 1.2 m and x = 3.7 mm

3. In Fraunhofer diffraction at a slit of width 1.2 x 10-6 m, find the half-angular width of
the central bright maximum if the slit is illuminated by light of wavelength 5.89 x 10-7 m

Given: b = 1.2 x 10-6 m and λ = 5.89 x 10-7 m

Formula: b sinθ = mλ
For first minimum m = 1
sinθ = λ/b = 5.89 x 10-7 / 1.2 x 10-6
= 0.491
θ = sin-1 (0.491)
θ = 29.41°
4. Parallel beam of light (5.0 x 10-7 m) is normally incident on a slit. The central
maximum fans out at 30° on both sides of the direction of the incident light. Calculate
the slit width. For what width of the slit the central maximum would spread out to 90°
from the direction of the incident light?

Given: θ = 30° and λ = 5.0 x 10-7 m

Formula: b sinθ = mλ
For first minimum m = 1
b = λ/ Sinθ = 5.0 x 10-7 m / Sin 30°
=1.0 µm
θ = 90° , b = ?
b = 5.0 x 10-7 m / Sin 90° = 0.5 µm
5. A Parallel beam of light (5890 x 10-10 m) is incident perpendicularly on a slit of width
0.1 mm. Calculate angular width and linear width of central maximum formed on the
screen 100 cm away.
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J - Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves and Optics

Module-IV ( Waves and Optics) Lecture-7

Fraunhofer Diffraction due to

N-Slits (Grating) and Concepts
of Diffraction grating
41
 Fraunhofer Diffraction due to N-Slits (Grating)

➢ An arrangement consisting of large number of parallel slits of the

same width and separated by equal opaque spaces is known as
Diffraction grating
➢ Gratings are constructed by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a
transparent material such as glass, with a fine diamond point.
➢ The ruled lines are opaque to light while the space between any
two lines is transparent to light and acts as a slit.
➢ This is known as plane transmission grating.
➢ When the spacing between the lines is of the order of the
wavelength of light, then an appreciable deviation of the light is
produced.
42
 Fraunhofer Diffraction due to N-Slits (Grating)
Theory:
➢ A section of a plane transmission grating MN placed
perpendicular to the plane of the paper is as shown in the figure.

➢ Let ‘a’ be the width of each slit and ‘b’ the width of each opaque
space.

43
 Fraunhofer Diffraction due to N-Slits (Grating)
➢ MN represents the section of a plane transmission grating. AB,
CD, EF … are the successive slits of equal width a and BC, DE … be
the rulings of equal width b (Fig). Let e = a+b.

➢ Let a plane wave front of monochromatic light of wave

length λ be incident normally on the grating.

➢ According to Huygen’s principle, the points in the slit AB, CD… etc
act as a source of secondary wavelets which spread in all
directions on the other side of the grating.

➢ Let us consider the secondary diffracted wavelets, which makes

an angle θ with the normal to the grating.
44
 Fraunhofer Diffraction due to N-Slits (Grating)

➢ The path difference between the wavelets from one pair of

corresponding points A and C is CG = (a+b)sinθ. It will be seen
that the path difference between waves from any pair of
corresponding points is also (a + b) sin θ

➢ The point P1 will be bright, when

(a+b)sinθ = nλ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3

➢ (a+b)sinθ = 0, satisfies the condition for brightness for n=0.

Hence the wavelets proceeding in the direction of the incident
rays will produce maximum intensity at the centre O of the
screen. This is called zero order maximum or central maximum.
45
 Fraunhofer Diffraction due to N-Slits (Grating)

➢ If (a + b) sin θ1 = λ, the diffracted wavelets inclined at an angle θ1 to

the incident direction, reinforce and the first order maximum
is obtained.

➢ Similarly, for second order maximum, (a+b)sinθ2 = 2λ

➢ On either side of central maxima different orders of secondary

maxima are formed at the point P1, P2.

46
Fraunhofer Diffraction due to N-Slits (Grating)

➢ In general, (a+b)sinθ = nλ is the condition for maximum

intensity, where n is an integer, the order of the maximum
intensity.

𝑛𝜆
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃= 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃=𝑁𝑛𝜆
𝑎+𝑏
➢ where N = 1/a+b , gives the number of grating element or
number of lines per unit width of the grating

➢ In the undiffracted position, θ = 0 and hence sin θ = 0.

➢ Therefore sin θ = Nmλ is satisfied for m= 0 for all values of λ.

47
 Fraunhofer Diffraction due to N-Slits (Grating)

➢ Hence, at O all the wavelengths reinforce each other producing

maximum intensity for all wave lengths. Hence an undispersed
white image is obtained.

➢ As θ increases, (a + b) sinθ first passes through λ/2 values for all

colours from violet to red and hence darkness results.

➢ As θ further increases, (a + b) sin θ passes through λ values of all

colours resulting in the formation of bright images producing a
spectrum from violet to red.

➢ These spectra are formed on either side of white, the central

maximum.
48
Concepts of Diffraction grating

49
Concepts of Diffraction grating

50
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J - Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves and Optics

Module-IV ( Waves and Optics) Lecture-8

Applications of Diffraction Grating-

Determination of Wavelength

51
Applications of diffraction grating-determination of wavelength

52
Applications of diffraction grating-determination of wavelength

53
Applications of diffraction grating-determination of wavelength

54
Problem 1. A monochromatic light with wavelength of 500 nm strikes a
grating and produces the fourth-order bright line at an 30° angle. Determine
the number of slits per centimeter.
Given data :
Wavelength (λ) = 500x10-9 m = 5x10-7 m, θ = 30o, n = 4
Solution :
Distance between slits: a sin θ = n λ
a (sin 30o) = 4 x 5x10-7
a (0.5) = 20x10-7
a = (20x10-7) / 0.5
a = 4 x10-6 m
Number of slits per centimeter :
x = 1 / 4x10-6 m
x = 0.25x106 / m
x = 0.25x106 / 102 cm
x = 0.25x104 / cm
x = 2500 / cm
Problem 2. A grating containing 4000 slits per centimeter is illuminated with
a monochromatic light and produces the second-order bright line at a 30°
angle. What is the wavelength of the light used?

Data:
The distance between the slits (a) = 1 / (4000 slits / cm) = 0.00025 cm = 2.5 x
10-4 cm = 2.5 x 10-6 meters
Order (n) = 2, Sin 30o = 0.5

Solution :

a Sinθ = nλ
λ = a Sinθ /n
= 2.5 x 10-6 x Sin 30/2
= 2.5 x 10-6 x 0.5/2
= 6250 x 10-10 m
4. A parallel beam of monochromatic light is allowed to incident normally on a plane
transmission grating having 5000 lines per cm and second order spectral line is found to
be diffracted through 30°. Calculate the wavelength of light.

+
5. In a plane transmission grating the angle of diffraction for second order maxima for
wavelength 5 x 10-5 cm is 30°. Calculate the number of lines in one cm of the grating
surface.
6. How many orders will be visible if the wavelength of the incident radiation is
5000 x 10-10 m and the number of lines on the grating is 2620 in one inch.
Exercise Problems:

1. A plane transmission grating has 5000 lines / cm. Calculate

the angular separation in second order spectrum of red line
7070 Å and blue line 5000 Å. (Answer: 15ᵒ)
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
21PYB101J -Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves and Optics

Module-IV ( Waves and Optics) Lecture-9

Polarization by reflection-Brewster’s angle,

Polarization by refraction-Malu’s Law

61
 Polarization of Light

➢Electromagnetic Wave
➢Electric field E & Magnetic field B
➢Both E & B Perpendicular to
each other, also perpendicular to
direction of propagation
➢Both E & B in Phase
➢Unpolarized in nature

62
Polarization of Light

63
➢Light from source is allowed to fall on a tourmaline crystal
which is cut parallel to its optic axis

➢When the crystal A is rotated, there is no change in the

intensity of the emergent light.

➢Place another crystal B parallel to A and both the crystals are

rotated together, so that their axis are parallel, the intensity of
light coming out of B does not change.

➢When B is alone rotated, the intensity of the emergent light

from B gradually decreases. When the axis of B is at right
angles to the axis of A, no light emerges from B.
64
➢Light waves coming out of tourmaline crystal A have their
vibrations in only one direction, perpendicular to the
direction of propagation.

➢These waves are said to be polarized. Since the vibrations

are restricted to only one plane parallel to the axis of the
crystal, the light is said to be plane polarized.

65
➢PQRS represents the plane of vibration and EFGH represents
the plane of polarization.

66
67
 Polarization by reflection-Brewster’s angle
➢The simplest method of
producing plane polarized light is
by reflection.

➢Malus, discovered that when a

beam of ordinary light is reflected
from the surface of transparent
medium like glass or water, it gets
polarized.

➢The degree of polarization

varies with angle of incidence.

68
➢When the light is allowed to be incident at a particular angle,
(for glass it is 57.5ᵒ) the reflected beam is completely plane
polarized.

➢ The angle of incidence at which the reflected beam is

completely plane polarized is called the polarizing angle (ip).
This is called Brewster’s Law

69
70
Pile of plates consist of number of glass plates
placed one over the other at an angle 32.5ᵒ to the
axis of the tube. The light beam allowed to fall on
the pile of plates at an angle 57.5ᵒ which is the
polarizing angle for glass.

➢The reflected light is plane polarized. It is used as polarizer

and Analyzer
71
Malu’s Law
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J - Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves and

Optics
Module-IV ( Waves and Optics) Lecture-10

Problem Solving
Problem. 3 The refractive index of a polarizer is 1.9218. What will be
the polarization angle and angle of refraction?

Data: μ = 1.9218.
From Brewster’s law:
μ = tan ip
ip = tan−1 (1.9128)
ip = 62⁰ 24’

Now we will see that our angle of refraction:

It is specified that ip + ir = 90 degrees

Thus, angle of refraction or ir = 90 – 62⁰ 24’

ir = 27⁰ 36’
 Exercise Problems:

1. The refractive index of the medium is √3 . Calculate the angle of

refraction if the unpolarised light is incident on it at the polarizing
angle of the medium. (Answer: 30ᵒ)
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
21PYB101J -Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves and Optics

Module-IV ( Waves and Optics) Lecture-13

Polarization by double refraction-Nicol Prism,

Ordinary and Extraordinary Rays

77
 Polarization by double refraction

Double Refraction:
➢When a ray of unpolarised light is incident on a calcite crystal,
two refracted rays are produced, this phenomenon is called
double refraction.
➢Two images of a single object are formed. This phenomenon
is exhibited by several other crystals like quartz, mica etc.
➢Ordinary ray (O) and Extraordinary ray (E)

78
➢Ordinary Ray (O), obey the laws of reflection & refraction.
➢Extraordinary Ray (E), do not obey the laws of reflection and
refraction.
➢Inside a double refracting crystal the ordinary ray travels with
same velocity in all directions and the extra ordinary ray travels
with different velocities along different directions.
➢Inside the crystal there is a particular direction in which both
the rays travel with same velocity is called optic axis.
➢The refractive index is same for both rays and there is no
double refraction along optic axis. 79
 Nicol prism

➢Nicol prism was designed by William Nicol.

➢It is cut into two halves along the diagonal so that their
face angles are 72ᵒ and 108ᵒ.
➢The two halves are joined together by a layer of Canada
balsam, a transparent cement.
➢For sodium light, the refractive index for ordinary light is
1.658 and for extraordinary light is 1.486. The refractive
index for Canada balsam is 1.550 for both rays.
80
➢A monochromatic beam of unpolarised light is incident on
the face of the nicol prism. It splits up into two rays as
ordinary ray (O) and extraordinary ray (E) inside the nicol
prism.

➢The ordinary ray is totally internally reflected at the layer of

Canada balsam and is prevented from emerging from the
other face.

➢The extraordinary ray alone is transmitted through the

crystal which is plane polarized. The nicol prism serves as a
polarizer and also an analyser. 81
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
21PYB101J -Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves and Optics

Module-IV ( Waves and Optics) Lecture-14

Optical activity-Quarter Waveplate, Optical Activity -

Half Wave Plate

82
 Quarter Wave And Half Wave Plates

Quarter Wave Plate:

A quarter wave plate is a thin plate of
birefringent crystal having the optic axis parallel to its
refracting faces and its thickness adjusted such that it
introduces a quarter wave of Path difference λ/4 and phase
difference π/2 between the extra ordinary ray and ordinary ray
propagating through it.

83
➢When a plane polarized light wave is incident on a
birefringent crystal having the optic axis parallel to its refracting
surface, the wave split into O ray and E ray.

➢As a result, when they emerge from the rear face of the crystal
an optical path difference (λ/4) would be developed between
them.

Where μe , μo are the refractive

index of E and O Ray and d is
the thickness of the wave plate.

84
➢By picking the right thickness (d) we
can change the relative phase by
exactly 90ᵒ. This changes linear to
circular polarization.
➢A quarter wave plate is used in
producing circularly or elliptically
polarized light. 85
 Half Wave Plate

A Half wave plate is a thin plate of birefringent crystal

having the optic axis parallel to its refracting faces and
its thickness adjusted such that it introduces a half wave
of path difference λ/2 and phase difference π between
the extra ordinary ray and ordinary ray propagating
through it.

86
➢When a plane polarized light wave is incident on a
birefringent crystal having the optic axis parallel to its
refracting surface, the wave split into E-wave and O-wave.

➢As a result, when they emerge from the rear face of the
crystal an optical path difference (λ/2) would be developed
between them.

Where μe , μo are the refractive index

of E and O Ray and d is the
thickness of the wave plate.

87
➢A half wave plate is used for changing the direction of plane of
vibration of plane polarized light. When light is incident
normally on half wave plate, the plane of vibration of emergent
ray rotates through an angle 2θ.
➢A half wave plate is used in producing circularly or elliptically
polarized light.
88
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
21PYB101J -Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves and Optics

Module-IV ( Waves and Optics) Lecture-15

Production and detection of Elliptically polarized

light, Production and detection of Circularly polarized
light

89
Production of Circularly polarized light

90
➢Unpolarized light is first converted to plane polarized light by
allowing it to pass through a polarizer.

➢The polarizer and QWP are rotated such that the electric
vector E of the plane polarized wave makes an angle of 45ᵒ
with the optic axis of QWP, the plane polarized wave splits into
two rays O-ray and E-ray of equal amplitude.

91
➢The two rays are in phase at the front face of the crystal but
progressively get out of phase as they travel through the
crystal. As they emerge from the rear face of the crystal, they
will have a path difference of λ/4 or phase difference of 90ᵒ.

➢The two rays are linearly polarized in mutually

perpendicular directions. When they combine, they produce
circularly polarized light.

92
Detection of Circularly polarized light

93
➢The circularly polarized light beam is allowed to pass through
the rotating analyzer, the intensity of the emerging beam remains
uniform, then the incident is circularly polarized light. Similar
result would be obtained if the incident light is unpolarized light.

➢To distinguished between these two cases, by introducing the

QWP in the path of light before it falls on the analyzer.

94
➢If the light passes through the QWP, an additional
path difference of 90ᵒ is introduced between O-ray and
E-ray. Therefore the total phase difference of 180ᵒ
between O-ray and E-ray. On emerging from the QWP,
the O-ray and E-ray combine to produce plane polarized
light.
➢Therefore if light coming out of QWP is examined
with an analyzer, light will be extinguished twice in one
full rotation of the polarizer.
95
Production of Elliptically polarized light

96
➢Unpolarized light is first converted to plane polarized light by

allowing it to pass through a polarizer.

➢The polarizer and QWP are rotated such that the electric vector

E of the plane polarized wave makes an angle of θ is not equal to

45ᵒ with the optic axis of QWP, the plane polarized wave incident

on QWP splits into two rays O-ray and E-ray of equal amplitude.
97
➢The two rays are in phase at the front face of the crystal but

progressively get out of phase as they travel through the crystal. As

they emerge from the rear face of the crystal, they will have a path

difference of λ/4 or phase difference of 90ᵒ.

➢The two rays are linearly polarized in mutually perpendicular

directions. When they combine, they produce elliptically polarized

light.
98
Detection of Elliptically polarized light

99
➢The elliptically polarized light beam is allowed to pass through
the rotating analyzer, the intensity of the emerging beam varies
from maxima and minima, then the incident is elliptically
polarized light. Similar result would be obtained if the incident
light is unpolarized light.

➢To distinguished between these two cases, by introducing the

QWP in the path of light before it falls on the analyzer.
100
➢If the light passes through the QWP, an additional path
difference of 90ᵒ is introduced between O-ray and E-ray.
Therefore the total phase difference of 180ᵒ between O-ray and
E-ray. On emerging from the QWP, the O-ray and E-ray
combine to produce plane polarized light.

➢Therefore if light coming out of QWP is examined with an

analyzer, light will be extinguished twice in one full rotation of
the polarizer. 101
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB101J - Electromagnetic Theory, Quantum Mechanics, Waves and

Optics
Module-IV ( Waves and Optics) Lecture-16

Problem Solving
Problem 1. Calculate the plate thickness of a quarter wave plate for
light of wavelength 5.9 x 10-7 m. The refractive index of ordinary and
extraordinary ray is 1.544 and 1.553 respectively.

Given data :

Wavelength (λ) = 5.9 x 10-7 m, μo = 1.544 μe = 1.553

Solution :

Thickness of the QWP d = λ/ 4(μe - μo )

= 5.9 x 10-7 / 4 (1.553-1.544)

= 1.6388 x 10-5 m
Problem 2. Calculate the thickness of the half wave plate if the
refractive index of ordinary and extraordinary ray is 1.544 and 1.553
respectively. Given: λ = 600 nm.

Given Data: λ = 6.0 x 10-7 m, μo = 1.544 μe = 1.553

Solution:
Thickness of the HWP d = λ /2 (μe - μo )
= 6.0 x 10-7 / 2 (1.553-1.544)
= 3.3 x 10-5 m
Problem 3: Calculate the thickness of doubly refracting crystal plate
required to introduce a path difference of λ/2 between the O and E ray
for a light of wavelength 580 nm. The refractive index of ordinary and
extraordinary ray is 1.544 and 1.553 respectively.

Given Data: λ = 5.80 x 10-7 m, μo = 1.544 μe = 1.553

Solution:

Thickness of the HWP d = λ /2 (μe - μo )

= 5.80 x 10-7 / 2 (1.553-1.544)
= 3.22 x 10-5 m
Problem 4: Calculate the thickness of a quarter wave plate which
would convert plane polarized light into circularly polarized light.
Given that μe = 1.658, μo = 1.486 at the wave length of 5890 Å.

Given Data: λ = 5.890 x 10-7 m, μo = 1.486 μe = 1.658

Solution:

Thickness of the QWP d = λ /4 (μe - μo )

= 5.890 x 10-7 / 4 (1.658-1.486)
= 8.56 x 10-7 m