Overview

• Part 1: Gate Circuits and Boolean Equations

o Binary Logic and Gates
o Boolean Algebra
o Standard Forms
• Part 2: Circuit Optimization
o Two-Level Optimization
o Map Manipulation
o Multi-Level Circuit Optimization
• Part 3: Additional Gates and Circuits
o Other Gate Types
o Exclusive-OR Operator and Gates
o High-Impedance Outputs

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 2

 In this Lecture
• Part 1: Gate Circuits and Boolean Equations
o Binary Logic and Gates
o Boolean Algebra
o Standard Forms
• Part 2: Circuit Optimization
o Two-Level Optimization
o Map Manipulation
o Multi-Level Circuit Optimization
• Part 3: Additional Gates and Circuits
o Other Gate Types
o Exclusive-OR Operator and Gates
o High-Impedance Outputs

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 3

 Binary Logic and Gates
• Binary variables take on one of two values.
• Logical operators operate on binary values and binary
variables.
• Basic logical operators are the logic functions AND,
OR and NOT.
• Logic gates implement logic functions.
• Boolean Algebra: a useful mathematical system for
specifying and transforming logic functions.
• We study Boolean algebra as foundation for designing
and analyzing digital systems!

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 4

 Binary Variables

• Recall that the two binary values have

different names:
o True/False
o On/Off
o Yes/No
o 1/0
• We use 1 and 0 to denote the two values.
• Variable identifier examples:
o A, B, y, z, or X1 for now
o RESET, START_IT, or ADD1 later

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 5

 Logical Operations
• The three basic logical operations are:
o AND
o OR
o NOT

• AND is denoted by a dot (·).

• OR is denoted by a plus (+).
• NOT is denoted by an overbar ( ¯ ), a single
quote mark (') after, or (~) before the variable.

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 6

 Notation Examples
• Examples:
oY = A × B is read “Y is equal to A AND B.”
o z = x + y is read “z is equal to x OR y.”
o X = A is read “X is equal to NOT A.”

§ Note: The statement:

1 + 1 = 2 (read “one plus one equals two”)
is not the same as
1 + 1 = 1 (read “1 or 1 equals 1”).

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 7

 Operator Definitions
§ Operations are defined on the values "0"
and "1" for each operator:

AND
! OR NOT
0·0=0 0+0=0 0=1
0·1=0 0+1=1 1= 0
1·0=0 1+0=1
1·1=1 1+1=1

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 8

 Truth Tables
• Truth table - a tabular listing of the values of a function
for all possible combinations of values on its arguments
• Example: Truth tables for the basic logic operations:

AND OR NOT
X Y Z = X·Y X Y Z = X+Y X Z=X
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 9

 Logic Gate Symbols and Behavior
• Logic gates have special symbols:
- -
@ " A- !A0 @ " A- ! A0 - A@ " A-
0 0
NO3A)+>? 4RA)+>? O4%A)+>?AY,
&(A?,>?,
!+#A6,+T8&9A:XD"YZ:
• And waveform behavior in time as follows:
- . . / /

0 . / . /

!NO3# - !A0 . . . /

!4R# - ! A0 . / / /

!O4%# - / / . .
!"#A%&D&()AG&+),+D

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 10

 Logic Diagrams and Expressions
Truth Table Equation
XYZ F = X + Y × Z
000 0 F = X +Y Z
001 1
010 0 Logic Diagram
011 0 X
100 1
Y F
101 1
110 1 Z
111 1

• Boolean equations, truth tables and logic diagrams describe

the same function!
• Truth tables are unique; expressions and logic diagrams are
not. This gives flexibility in implementing functions.

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 11

 Boolean Algebra
§ An algebraic structure defined on a set of at least two elements,
with three binary operators (denoted +, · and ) that satisfies the
following basic identities:

1. X+0= X 2. X.1=X
3. X+1=1 4. X .0=0
5. X+X=X 6. X .X = X
7. X+X=1 8. X .X = 0
9. X=X
10. X+Y =Y+X 11. XY = YX Commutative
12. (X + Y) + Z = X + (Y + Z) 13. (XY) Z = X(Y Z) Associative
14. X(Y + Z) = XY + XZ 15. X + YZ = (X + Y) (X + Z) Distributive
16. X + Y =X .Y 17. X .Y = X + Y DeMorgan’s

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 12

 Some Properties of Identities & the Algebra
§ If the meaning is unambiguous, we leave out the symbol “·”
§ The identities above are organized into pairs. These pairs
have names as follows:
1-4 Existence of 0 and 1 5-6 Idempotence
7-8 Existence of complement 9 Involution
10-11 Commutative Laws 12-13 Associative Laws
14-15 Distributive Laws 16-17 DeMorgan’s Laws

§ The dual of an algebraic expression is obtained by

interchanging + and · and interchanging 0’s and 1’s.
§ The identities appear in dual pairs. When there is only
one identity on a line the identity is self-dual, i. e., the
dual expression = the original expression.
4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 13
 Proof of DeMorgan’s Laws
• Proof by truth table is trivial
x + y = x × y

• Similarly it can be proven that

x × y = x + y

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 14

Some Properties of Identities Algebra

• Unless it happens to be self-dual, the dual of an

expression does not equal the expression itself.
• Example: F = (A + C) · B + 0
dual F = (A · C + B) · 1 = A · C + B
• Example: G = X · Y + (W + Z)
dual G =
• Example: H = A · B + A · C + B · C
dual H =
• Are any of these functions self-dual?

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 15

 Boolean Operator Precedence

§ The order of evaluation in a Boolean expression:

1. Parentheses
2. NOT
3. AND
4. OR
§ Consequence: Parentheses appear around
OR expressions

§ Example: F = A(B + C)(C + D)

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 16

Example 1: Boolean Algebraic Proof
• A + A·B = A (Absorption Theorem)
Proof Steps Justification (identity or theorem)
A + A·B
= A·1+A·B X=X·1
= A · ( 1 + B) X · Y + X · Z = X ·(Y + Z)(Distributive Law)
=A·1 1+X=1
=A X·1=X
• Our primary reason for doing proofs is to learn:
o Careful and efficient use of the identities and theorems of
Boolean algebra, and
o How to choose the appropriate identity or theorem to
apply to make forward progress, irrespective of the
application.

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 17

Example 2: Boolean Algebraic Proofs

• AB + AC + BC = AB + AC (Consensus Theorem)

Proof Steps Justification (identity or theorem)

AB + AC + BC
= AB + AC + 1 · BC ?
= AB +AC + (A + A) · BC ?
=

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 18

Example 3: Boolean Algebraic Proofs
• ( X + Y )Z + X Y = Y ( X + Z )

Proof Steps Justification (identity or theorem)

(X + Y )Z + X Y
=

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 19

 Useful Theorems

+ + +!, = + + ! (+ + , ) = + *!"#A%&'(A)
x + x × y = x + y x × (x + y )= x × y Simplification

x + y = x×y x×y = x + y DeMorgan' s Laws

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 20

 Boolean Function Evaluation

F1 = xyz !" #" $" %&" %'" %(" %F"

F2 = x + yz *" *" *" *" *" " "
F3 = xyz + x y z + xy *" *" &" *" &" " "
F4 = xy + x z *" &" *" *" *" " "
*" &" &" *" *" " "
&" *" *" *" &" " "
&" *" &" *" &" " "
&" &" *" &" &" " "
&" &" &" *" &" " "
"
4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 21
 Expression Simplification
• An application of Boolean algebra
• Simplify to contain the smallest number
of literals (complemented and
uncomplemented variables):
A B + A C D + A BD + A C D + A BC D
= AB + ABCD + A C D + A C D + A B D
= AB + AB(CD) + A C (D + D) + A B D
= AB + A C + A B D = B(A + AD) +AC
= B (A + D) + A C 5 literals
4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 22
 Complementing Functions
• Use DeMorgan's Theorem to complement a
function:
1. Interchange AND and OR operators
2. Complement each constant value and literal
• Example: Complement F = x y z + x y z
F = x y z + x y z = x y z.x y z
=(x + y + z).(x + y + z)
• Example: Complement G = (a + bc)d + e
G=

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 23

 Complementing using Dual
1. Take dual of the function
2. Then complement each literal

Now complement F = x y z + xyz using dual

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 24

 Where we are?
• Part 1: Gate Circuits and Boolean Equations
o Binary Logic and Gates
o Boolean Algebra
o Standard Forms
• Part 2: Circuit Optimization
o Two-Level Optimization
o Map Manipulation
o Multi-Level Circuit Optimization
• Part 3: Additional Gates and Circuits
o Other Gate Types
o Exclusive-OR Operator and Gates
o High-Impedance Outputs

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 25

 Overview – Canonical Forms

• What are Canonical Forms?

• Minterms and Maxterms
• Index Representation of Minterms and Maxterms
• Sum-of-Minterm (SOM) Representations
• Product-of-Maxterm (POM) Representations
• Representation of Complements of Functions
• Conversions between Representations

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 26

 Canonical Forms
• It is useful to specify Boolean functions in a form that:
o Allows comparison for equality.
o Has a correspondence to the truth tables

• Canonical Forms in common usage:

o Sum of Minterms (SOM)
o Product of Maxterms (POM)

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 27

 Minterms
• Minterms are AND terms with every variable present
in either true or complemented form.
• Given that each binary variable may appear normal
(e.g., x) or complemented (e.g., x ), there are 2n
minterms for n variables.
• Example: Two variables (X and Y)produce
2 x 2 = 4 combinations:
XY (both normal)
X Y (X normal, Y complemented)
X Y (X complemented, Y normal)
X Y (both complemented)
• Thus there are four minterms of two variables.
• How many for 3 or 4 variables?

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 28

 Maxterms
• Maxterms are OR terms with every variable in true or
complemented form.
• Given that each binary variable may appear normal
(e.g., x) or complemented (e.g., x), there are 2n
maxterms for n variables.
• Example: Two variables (X and Y) produce
2 x 2 = 4 combinations:
X + Y (both normal)
X + Y (x normal, y complemented)
X + Y (x complemented, y normal)
X + Y (both complemented)
• How many for 3 or 4 variables?

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 29

 Maxterms and Minterms
• Examples: Two variable minterms and maxterms.

Index Minterm Maxterm

0 xy m0 x+y M0

1 xy m1 x+y M1

2 xy m2 x+y M2

3 xy m3 x+y M3

• The index above is important for describing

which variables in the terms are true and
which are complemented.

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 30

 Standard Order
• Minterms and maxterms are designated with a subscript
• The subscript is a number, corresponding to a binary
pattern
• The bits in the pattern represent the complemented or
normal state of each variable listed in a standard order.
• All variables will be present in a minterm or maxterm
and will be listed in the same order (usually
alphabetically)
• Example: For variables a, b, c:
o Maxterms: (a + b + c), (a + b + c)
o Terms: (b + a + c), a c b, and (c + b + a) are NOT in
standard order.
o Minterms: a b c, a b c, a b c
o Terms: (a + c), b c, and (a + b) do not contain all
variables
4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 31
 Purpose of the Index
• The index for the minterm or maxterm, expressed as
a binary number, is used to determine whether the
variable is shown in the true form or complemented
form.
• For Minterms:
o “1” means the variable is “Not Complemented” and
o “0” means the variable is “Complemented”.

• For Maxterms:
o “0” means the variable is “Not Complemented” and
o “1” means the variable is “Complemented”.

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 32

 Index Example in Three Variables
• Example: (for three variables)
• Assume the variables are called X, Y, and Z.
• The standard order is X, then Y, then Z.
• The Index 0 (base 10) = 000 (base 2) for three
variables). All three variables are
complemented for minterm 0 ( X , Y , Z ) and no
variables are complemented for Maxterm 0
(X,Y,Z).
o Minterm 0, called m0 is X Y Z .
o Maxterm 0, called M0 is (X + Y + Z).
o Minterm 6 ?
o Maxterm 6 ?
4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 33
 Index Examples – Four Variables
Index Binary Minterm Maxterm
i Pattern mi Mi
0 0000 a b c d $ + # + " + !
1 0001 a b c d ?
3 0011 ? a+ b + c+ d
5 0101 a b c d a + b + c + d
7 0111 ? a+ b + c+ d
10 1010 a b c d a + b + c + d
13 1101 a b c d ?
15 1111 a b c d a + b + c + d

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 34

 Minterm and Maxterm Relationship
• Review: DeMorgan's Theorem
x · y = x + y and x + y = x × y
• Two-variable example:
M 2 = x + y and m 2 = x·y
Thus M2 is the complement of m2 and vice-
versa.
• Since DeMorgan's Theorem holds for n
variables, the above holds for terms of n
variables
• giving:
M i = m i and m i = M i
Thus Mi is the complement of mi.
4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 35
 Function Tables for Both
• Minterms of Maxterms of
2 variables 2 variables
xy m0 m1 m2 m3 x y M0 M1 M2 M3
00 1 0 0 0 00 0 1 1 1
01 0 1 0 0 01 1 0 1 1
10 0 0 1 0 10 1 1 0 1
11 0 0 0 1 11 1 1 1 0

• Each column in the maxterm function table is the

complement of the column in the minterm
function table since Mi is the complement of mi.

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 36

 Observations
• In the function tables:
o Each minterm has one and only one ‘1’ present in the 2n
terms (a minimum of 1s). All other entries are ‘0’.
o Each maxterm has one and only one ‘0’ present in the 2n
terms All other entries are ‘1’ (a maximum of 1s).
• We can implement any function by "ORing" the
minterms corresponding to "1" entries in the function
table. These are called the minterms of the function.
• We can implement any function by "ANDing" the
maxterms corresponding to "0" entries in the function
table. These are called the maxterms of the function.
• This gives us two canonical forms:
o Sum of Minterms (SOM)
o Product of Maxterms (POM)

for stating any Boolean function.

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 37
 Minterm Function Example
• Example: Find F1 = m1 + m4 + m7
• F1 = x y z + x y z + x y z
x y z index m1 + m4 + m7 = F1
000 0 0 + 0 + 0 =0
001 1 1 + 0 + 0 =1
010 2 0 + 0 + 0 =0
011 3 0 + 0 + 0 =0
100 4 0 + 1 + 0 =1
101 5 0 + 0 + 0 =0
110 6 0 + 0 + 0 =0
111 7 0 + 0 + 1 =1
4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 38
 Minterm Function Example
• F(A, B, C, D, E) = m2 + m9 + m17 + m23
• F(A, B, C, D, E) =

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 39

 Maxterm Function Example
• Example: Implement F1 in maxterms:
F1 = M0 · M2 · M3 · M5 · M6
F1 = (x + y + z) ·(x + y + z)·(x + y + z)
·(x + y + z)·(x + y + z)
xyz i M0 × M2 × M3 × M5 × M6 = F1
000 0 0 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 =0
001 1 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 =1
010 2 1 × 0 × 1 × 1 × 1 =0
011 3 1 × 1 × 0 × 1 × 1 =0
100 4 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 =1
101 5 1 × 1 × 1 × 0 × 1 =0
110 6 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 0 =0
111 7 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 × 1 =1
4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 40
 Maxterm Function Example
F( A , B, C, D ) = M 3 × M8 × M11 × M14
F(A, B,C,D) =

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 41

 Canonical Sum of Minterms
• Any Boolean function can be expressed as a
Sum of Minterms.
o For the function table, the minterms used are the
terms corresponding to the 1's
o For expressions, expand all terms first to explicitly
list all minterms. Do this by “ANDing” any term
missing a variable v with a term ( v + v ).
• Example: Implement f = x + x y as a sum of
minterms.
First expand terms: f = x ( y + y ) + x y
Then distribute terms: f = xy + x y + x y
Express as sum of minterms: f = m3 + m2 + m0

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 42

 Another SOM Example
• Example: F = A + B C
• There are three variables, A, B, and C which we take
to be the standard order.
• Expanding the terms with missing variables:

• Collect terms (removing all but one of duplicate

terms):
• Express as SOM:

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 43

 Shorthand SOM Form
• From the previous example, we started with:
F=A +BC
• We ended up with:
F = m1 + m4 + m5 + m6 + m7
• This can be denoted in the formal shorthand:
,( + # *# F! = !-('#C#B#A#" !
• Note that we explicitly show the standard
variables in order and drop the “m”
designators.

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 44

 Canonical Product of Maxterms
• Any Boolean Function can be expressed as a
Product of Maxterms (POM).
o For the function table, the maxterms used are the terms
corresponding to the 0's.
o For an expression, expand all terms first to explicitly list all
maxterms. Do this by first applying the second distributive
law , “ORing” terms missing variable v with a term equal to v×v
and then applying the distributive law again.
• Example: Convert to product of maxterms:
f (x, y, z) = x + x y
Apply the distributive law:
x + x y = (x + x )(x + y ) = 1 × (x + y ) = x + y
Add missing variable z:
x + y + z × z = (x + y + z) (x + y + z )
Express as POM: f = M2 · M3
4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 45
 Another POM Example
• Convert to Product of Maxterms:
f(A, B, C) = A C + B C + A B
• Use x + y z = (x+y)·(x+z) with x = (A C + B C), y = A
, and z = B to get:
f = (A C + B C + A )(A C + B C + B)
• Then use x + x y = x + y to get:
f = ( C + BC + A )(A C + C + B )
and a second time to get:
f = ( C + B + A )(A + C + B )
• Rearrange to standard order,
f = ( A + B + C )(A + B + C) to give f = M5 · M2
4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 46
 Function Complements
• The complement of a function expressed as a sum of
minterms is constructed by selecting the minterms
missing in the sum-of-minterms canonical forms.
• Alternatively, the complement of a function expressed
by a Sum of Minterms form is simply the Product of
Maxterms with the same indices.
• Example: Given F ( x , y , z ) = Sm ( 1, 3 , 5 , 7 )
F ( x , y , z ) = S m( 0,2,4,6 )
F ( x , y , z ) = P M (1,3,5,7 )

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 47

 Conversion Between Forms
• To convert between sum-of-minterms and product-of-
maxterms form (or vice-versa) we follow these steps:
o Find the function complement by swapping terms in the list with
terms not in the list.
o Change from products to sums, or vice versa.

• Example:Given F as before:+' * # F # ( ! = !,'&# %#$#" !

• Form the Complement: F ( x , y , z ) = Sm ( 0, 2,4,6 )
• Then use the other form with the same indices – this
forms the complement again, giving the other form of the
original function: +' * # F # ( ! = !, ' &# %#$#" !

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 48

 Standard Forms
• Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP) form:
equations are written as an OR of AND terms
• Standard Product-of-Sums (POS) form:
equations are written as an AND of OR terms
• Examples:
o SOP: A B C + A B C + B
o POS: (A + B) · (A + B + C ) · C

• These “mixed” forms are neither SOP nor

POS
o (A B + C) (A + C)
o A B C + A C (A + B)

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 49

 Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP)
• A sum of minterms form for n variables can be written
down directly from a truth table.
o Implementation of this form is a two-level network of gates
such that:
o The first level consists of n-input AND gates, and
o The second level is a single OR gate (with fewer than 2
n
inputs).
• This form often can be simplified so that the
corresponding circuit is simpler.

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 50

 Standard Sum-of-Products (SOP)
• A Simplification Example:
• -( , # +# *! = !F('#C#B#A#" !
• Writing the minterm expression:
F = A B C + A B C + A B C + ABC + ABC
• Simplifying:
F=

• Simplified F contains 3 literals compared to 15

in minterm F
4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 51
 AND/OR Two-level Implementation of
SOP Expression
• The two implementations for F are shown below – it
is quite apparent which is simpler!
"
# A
!
A
" "
# #
A
"
# !
A
"
#
A
"
#
A
!
B
4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 52
 SOP and POS Observations
• The previous examples show that:
o Canonical Forms (Sum-of-minterms, Product-of-
Maxterms), or other standard forms (SOP, POS)
differ in complexity
o Boolean algebra can be used to manipulate
equations into simpler forms.
o Simpler equations lead to simpler two-level
implementations
• Questions:
o How can we attain a “simplest” expression?
o Is there only one minimum cost circuit?
o The next part will deal with these issues.

4-Mar-25 CSE 1325: Digital Logic Design 53