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Undergraduate Topics in Computer
Science

Series Editor
Ian Mackie
University of Sussex, Brighton, UK

Advisory Editors
Samson Abramsky
Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK

Chris Hankin
Department of Computing, Imperial College London, London, UK

Dexter C. Kozen
Computer Science Department, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA

Andrew Pitts
William Gates Building, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK

Hanne Riis Nielson

Department of Applied Math and Computer Science, Technical University
of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark

Steven S. Skiena
Department of Computer Science, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook,
NY, USA

Iain Stewart
Department of Computer Science, Science Labs, University of Durham,
Durham, UK
Mike Hinchey
Lero, Tierney Building, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

‘Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science’ (UTiCS) delivers high-

quality instructional content for undergraduates studying in all areas of
computing and information science. From core foundational and
theoretical material to final-year topics and applications, UTiCS books
take a fresh, concise, and modern approach and are ideal for self-study
or for a one- or two-semester course. The texts are all authored by
established experts in their fields, reviewed by an international
advisory board, and contain numerous examples and problems, many
of which include fully worked solutions.
The UTiCS concept relies on high-quality, concise books in softback
format, and generally a maximum of 275-300 pages. For undergraduate
textbooks that are likely to be longer, more expository, Springer
continues to offer the highly regarded Texts in Computer Science series,
to which we refer potential authors.
More information about this series at http://​www.​springer.​com/​
series/​7592
Kingsley Sage

Concise Guide to Object-Oriented

Programming
An Accessible Approach Using Java
Kingsley Sage
School of Engineering and Informatics, University of Sussex, Falmer,
East Sussex, UK

ISSN 1863-7310 e-ISSN 2197-1781

Undergraduate Topics in Computer Science
ISBN 978-3-030-13303-0 e-ISBN 978-3-030-13304-7
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13304-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019931822

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer

Nature Switzerland AG
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Switzerland
Preface
The twenty-first century continues to experience the relentless
expansion of the IT revolution into our daily lives. We consume
services, do our shopping on-line, listen to music streams and watch
movies on demand. The impact of social media has had a profound
impact on our society and has changed fundamentally the way we
obtain and consume news, information and ideas. There is little sign of
a slowdown in this dramatic shift in our relationship with technology.
Vast research budgets are being applied to the development of
autonomous vehicles, and in applying Artificial Intelligence to change
the way we live. But it has also changed the demand for skills within
our workforce. The demand for manual skills is in decline, and the
demand for IT and programming skills is rising at an unprecedented
rate.
In comparison to the industrialists of the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries, the twenty-first-century entrepreneurs are experts in IT,
programming, software design and development, and developing
practical applications using concepts such as Artificial Intelligence for
our daily lives. With this profound paradigm shift has come a need for
the workforce of many industrialised nations to evolve. Governments
recognise the need for a huge increase in the workforce with
programming skills. In the United Kingdom, and in many other
industrialised nations, core coding skills are now a part of the
secondary school curriculum. Learning to program is no longer
considered to be just a part of the traditional journey of the Computer
Science undergraduate, but a broader skill that underpins an IT literate
workforce for the modern age.

What is the Purpose of This Book?

When I was first approached to write this book, it was suggested that
its purpose was to provide an accessible introduction to coding and the
world of Object Oriented Programming (OOP). Standard texts on the
subject often fall between those that provide only a very lightweight
treatment of the subject (“a little knowledge can be a frustrating
thing”), and those that run to 500 pages or more that are rather better
suited as reference texts or as support on a lengthy period of study in
depth. The challenge for this book is to provide an accessible
introduction to the world of coding and OOP in a way that is helpful to
the first-time coder and allows them to develop and to understand their
knowledge and skills in a way that is relevant and practical. The
examples developed for this book are intended to show how OOP skills
can be used to create applications and programs that have everyday
value, rather than examples that have been synthesised solely to
demonstrate an academic point.
The reader should be able to use this book to develop a solid
appreciation of OOP and how to code. The programming language used
throughout is Java. Java has been chosen as it can be used across all
computing platforms, because it has a commercial skill that has a clear
on-going value derived from its adoption as a core language for
smartphone applications on the Android platform, and as the language
at the heart of the Java EE 8 Jakarta Enterprise scale framework. The
book focusses on the core Java language and does not consider
smartphone or EE 8 coding, as these require skills over and above what
this book is about. However, a knowledge of core Java coding and some
of the related issues also discussed in this book would form an
appropriate pre-requisite for the further study of these topics.
Although this book uses Java as its illustrative programming
language, many of the ideas may be translated directly into other OO
languages such as C++, C# and others. Throughout this book,
programming in Java is demonstrated using the BlueJ Integrated
Development Environment (IDE). BlueJ is a well-established IDE for
learning BlueJ and is widely used in schools and Universities. Eclipse is
the closest product to an industry standard for the development of Java,
but it is often found too complex for the task of teaching and learning.
Who is This Book Aimed at?
As someone with over 20 years of teaching experience from level 3
through to postgraduate, from traditional University teaching to adult
education, I have never been able to identify satisfactorily what defines
the ability of an individual to learn to program. Suffice to say, all that is
really needed is an interest in the subject and time. The aim of this book
is to provide an accessible entry into the world of Object Oriented
Programming (OOP).
The book does not assume any prior knowledge of coding, or any
prior knowledge of software engineering or OO, not does it require any
prior exposure to mathematics. Whilst such prior knowledge is not
unhelpful, it is not essential to learn to program. Instead, this book
takes a more everyday experience to the subject, drawing on examples
from everyday experience to explain what OO is and why it is relevant
in the modern programming experience. As such, the book is aimed at
those who are coming to OO programming for the first time. It is
therefore likely to be useful as a one-semester book introducing the
topic to those new to the study of computer science at the
undergraduate and postgraduate levels, and those who are just learning
for the purpose of self-improvement or professional development.
Whilst the book is aimed at those with no prior coding experience, it
does explore broader topics surrounding coding. This with some prior
knowledge may opt to skip some of the early chapters. That does not
impact the usefulness of this book in terms of learning to code in Java.

What’s in the Book?

Chapter 1 starts with an overview of what programming and coding is
all about. It includes some useful historical perspective on the
development of programming languages and the core ideas that
underpin all programming languages. It introduces the idea of a
computing machine and concepts such as a compiler. This section is
helpful to those who have no prior experience of computing as it helps
subsequent understanding of some of the core coding processes and
terminology. The chapter then continues to discuss how the need for
OOP arose in the period from the end of the 1970s to the present day,
and a discussion of why it is considered important to help us solve
modern-day programming problems.
Chapter 2 provides a short introduction to programming in Java
using BlueJ. It is intended to provide just enough knowledge and skills
to create and execute a single-class Java program under BlueJ. This is
significant as it then facilitates discussion of the core principles of
procedural and structured programming, such as loops and conditional
statements. Those with prior experience of coding using languages
such as C and Python may opt to skip this chapter, as they would
undoubtedly be familiar with much of the content. I chose to organise
the book this way as the basic procedural and structured coding
constructions are common to almost all programming (or at least those
that owe their syntactic ancestry to C), and getting these constructions
understood at this stage allows for a more specific focus later on the
principles of OO.
Chapter 3 gets into the details of what OO really is and how it can be
applied to solve modern programming challenges. We start with a
discussion of what classes and objects are, and how the construction
and execution of an OO program parallels the way that human
organisations such as a large office operate. Such analogies are
invaluable in appreciating the true benefits of the OO paradigm. In this
chapter, we develop a set of small multi-class Java applications and
consider the cornerstone issues in OO design of class cohesion and
coupling.
Chapter 4 considers a range of Java library objects and packages
such as the String and the ArrayList , and introduces the idea of
the Application Programming Interface (API). This enables the reader
to start building more complex applications involving simple linear
collections of objects. These ideas are developed using a set of simple
programs that can be enhanced in many different ways as an exercise
for the reader.
Chapter 5 delves further into the OO paradigm and considers how
OO design forms an essential part of producing a useful solution to a
problem. The chapter introduces the idea of class polymorphism (super
and sub-classes) and how this can be used to create a program with a
structure that more closely mirrors an underlying domain. The chapter
also looks further into the idea of selecting classes that are suited to
solving specific problem and so also has elements of software
engineering principles and practice.
Chapter 6 considers what to do when code encounters an error
condition. Software systems are not immune to errors either at the
coding or at the run time phases, and modern software systems need to
be built in a robust manner so that they behave in a predictable manner
when something goes wrong. The exception handling mechanism is
introduced, along with steps on laying out a program to assist in
debugging it. This chapter also considers practical measures that are
adopted in defensive coding.
Chapter 7 digs deeper into the work of arrays and collections,
notably fixed length arrays, the HashMap and HashSet , and shows
how different collection types can be used to effectively model different
real-world collections of data. This chapter also includes some
background on the underlying ideas for these collection types, such as
the hash table.
Chapter 8 provides an introduction to building a Graphical User
Interface (GUI) using Swing. Although some may consider Swing a
relatively old library for the development of a GUI, the key ideas are
relevant across a range of other libraries such as JavaFX, and Swing
forms more of a core element of the Java landscape. The development of
GUIs is a large topic in its own right, so this chapter can only ever serve
as an introduction. In this chapter, we also consider the concept of a
design pattern, specifically the idea of Model View Controller (MVC)
architecture, and how a Java application can be constructed in a well-
recognisable design configuration.
In the final Chap. 9 , two complete applications are presented, from
conceptual design to implementation to help cement the ideas
presented in the previous chapters. One is a text-based application with
no Graphical User Interface (GUI). The other is a small GUI-based
application to give a sense of how to build a GUI on top of an underlying
application.
All the code examples used in this book and the two example
projects described in Chap. 9 are available as on-line resource
accompanying this book.
It is my hope that this book will inspire the reader to learn more
about the world of OO and coding. As such, it represents the start of a
learning journey. As with all endeavours, clarity will improve with time
and effort. Few will write an award-winning book at their first attempt.
Few artists will paint their defining masterpiece at the outset of their
career. Programming is no exception and your skills will improve with
effort, time, reflection and experience. But every learning journey has
to start somewhere. For many, the story starts with the codebreakers of
Bletchley Park in the United Kingdom during WWII, but we shall start
our story in early nineteenth-century France …
Kingsley Sage
Falmer, UK
January 2019
Contents
1 The Origins of Programming
1.​1 The Stored Digital Program is not a New Idea
1.​2 The Birth of the Computing Age
1.​3 The Origin of Programming Languages
1.​4 The Object Oriented Revolution
1.​5 The Java Language
1.​6 Tools of the Trade
2 Procedural Programming Basics in Java
2.​1 First Program and Workflow
2.​2 Primitive Data Types
2.​3 The Procedural Programming Paradigm
2.​4 Sequence
2.​5 Alternation
2.​6 Repetition
2.​7 More on Methods
2.​8 Bringing It All Together
3 Getting into Object Oriented Programming
3.​1 Object Oriented in a Social Context
3.​2 Introducing the OO Class
3.​3 The Anatomy of a Class
3.​4 Creating Objects at Run Time
3.​5 Accessor and Mutator Methods
3.​6 Choosing the Right Classes
4 Library Classes and Packages
4.​1 Organisation of Java into the Core and Packages
 4.​2 Using Library Classes
4.3 The String Class
4.​4 Application Programming Interfaces (APIs)
4.​5 Using Javadocs in BlueJ
4.6 The ArrayList Class
4.​7 The Wrapper Classes
5 Modelling the World the Object Oriented Way
5.​1 Hierarchies in the Real World
5.​2 Introducing Super and Sub-classes
5.​3 Adding Constructors
5.​4 Rules of Inheritance and Over-Riding
5.​5 Method Polymorphism
5.​6 Static and Dynamic Type
5.​7 Abstract Classes
5.​8 Interfaces
5.​9 Class Variables and Static Methods
6 Dealing with Errors
6.​1 The Nature of Errors
6.​2 Coding Defensively
6.​3 Using the Debugger Tool
6.​4 Unit Testing
6.​5 System Testing
6.​6 The Basics of Exception Handling
6.​7 More Advanced Exception Handling
7 Deeper into Arrays and Collections
7.​1 Fixed Length Versus Dynamic Length Arrays
 7.​2 Fixed Length Arrays of Primitive Types
7.​3 Fixed Length Arrays of Objects
7.​4 Multi-dimensional Arrays
7.​5 Sorting Data
7.​6 Hash Functions
7.7 The HashMap Class
7.8 The HashSet Class
7.​9 Iterating Through Collections
8 Adding a Graphical User Interface
8.​1 The Model View Controller MVC Design Pattern
8.​2 Introducing Swing and AWT
8.​3 The Taxonomy of a GUI
8.​4 A Simple First Swing Application
8.​5 Event Handling
8.​6 Centralised and Distributed Event Management
8.​7 Applying the MVC Design Pattern
8.​8 Adding Menus, Text Fields, Text Areas and Images
8.​9 Layout Managers
9 Example Applications
9.​1 Software Engineering Process Models
9.​2 The Good Life Foods Project
9.​3 The Guessing Game Project
9.​4 Final Thoughts
Index
About the Author
Dr. Kingsley Sage is a Senior Teaching Fellow in Computing Sciences
in the Department of Informatics at the University of Sussex, Brighton,
UK, and a Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy (SFHEA). He
has more than 20 years of teaching experience, from the level of
further/continuing education through to postgraduate-level teaching,
in both traditional university teaching and adult education.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
Kingsley Sage, Concise Guide to Object-Oriented Programming, Undergraduate Topics
in Computer Science
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13304-7_1

1. The Origins of Programming

Kingsley Sage1

(1) School of Engineering and Informatics, University of Sussex,

Falmer, East Sussex, UK

Kingsley Sage
Email: [email protected]

In this first chapter we explore what a programming language is, and

something of the history of their development leading up to the Java
language. This will help us understand some of the most basic
terminology used in the process of creating programs. The history of
programming, and computing in general, does not have a universally
agreed timeline and shared sense of significance of contributions.
Nonetheless, computer science has progressed and innovated to bring
us a world that we may scarcely consider without its plurality of
systems with software, data and programs at their core.

1.1 The Stored Digital Program is not a New Idea

Whereas the digital electronic computer is a 20th century concept, the
idea of digital control goes back much further. Digital control simply
refers to the idea of a system controlled by a sequence of instructions
that are either 1 or 0, “on” or “off”. One of earliest notable examples of
such a system that used stored digital instructions was the Jacquard
weaving loom . In the early 1800s, Joseph-Marie Jacquard (1752–1834)
developed an automated weaving loom using a series of punched paper
cards to control the head of the loom to raise and lower different
threads to permit a wide range of fabric designs to be mass produced.
Any design could be expressed by the set of punched cards that were
fed to the machine.

Sources https://​commons.​wikimedia.​org/​wiki/​File:​Book_​Illustration,_​
Jacquard_​Weaving_​and_​Designing,_​Falcon_​Loom_​of_​1728,_​Figure_​12,_​
1895_​(CH_​68766143).​jpg (public domain) https://​commons.​
wikimedia.​org/​wiki/​File:​Jacquard.​loom.​cards.​jpg (public domain)
Jacquard’s ideas were a step innovation of previous work by Jacques
de Vaucanson (1709–1782) and others, but Jacquard is usually credited
with creating a commercial scale automated weaving loom that made
use of stored digital data. This idea proved inspirational for others in
the development of computer science. For example, Charles Babbage
used punched cards as a means of input and output for his designs for
the analytical engine—an early calculating device. As all data, whether
numeric, text, image or audio, can be formulated into an equivalent
binary representation, such cards provided a convenient means of
storing data. For example, the number 19 in denary (base 10) can be
converted into binary (base 2).

16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 1 1
 Here 19 = 1 + 2 + 16. Individual letters can be assigned to numeric
values (i.e. the ASCII code set) and thus text can be converted into a
sequence of numbers, and thus binary data. Continuous data can be
“sampled” at regular intervals and those samples can be converted to
numbers and subsequently to binary data.

1.2 The Birth of the Computing Age

Pioneers such as Charles Babbage (1791–1871) strove to create
mechanical calculating devices such as the Difference Engine (1830s)
and the rather more general purpose Analytical Engine (unfinished in
Babbage’s lifetime). The latter is recognisable by design in many
respects as a computer, as it featured a set of instructions stored on
punched cards, a memory that could remember results, and elements of
sequential control. However, Babbage was ahead of his time in that the
engineering challenges posed in building his mechanical machines
were substantial. But many of his ideas laid dormant until new forms of
technology emerged from the new sciences of electricity and
electronics.
In 1936, the British mathematician Alan Turing (1912–1954)
published his seminal paper “On Computable Numbers”. In it, he
describes an abstract computing apparatus called a “Turing machine
”—a type of universal machine that Turing was able to demonstrate,
using mathematics, could compute all computable things.
Source https://​en.​wikipedia.​org/​wiki/​Alan_​Turing (public domain)
The machine consisted of a paper tape of infinite length that
enabled read and write operations to be performed. Depending on the
symbol observed on the tape, the tape can be made to move forwards
and backwards. Turing is actually describing the underlying
requirements of a modern computer and a programming language—a
feat given that in 1936 the technologies needed to realise such devices
barely existed.
Turing and others would later realise electronic implementations of
Turing machines using electronic valve and later transistor technology,
allowing the realisation of general purpose “electronic digital
computers”. Turing is also widely credited for popularising the term
“Artificial Intelligence ” as he believed that one day such digital
computers would rival humans for computing and analytical ability.
The onset of World War 2 brought opportunities for Turing and
others in the form of the Allied effort to decipher Nazi Germany’s
secretive Enigma codes, particularly in respect of minimising shipping
losses to U-boats on the North Atlantic supply route (the “Battle of the
Atlantic”). U-boat command used Enigma machines, a type of modified
electronic typewriter, to convert plain text messages to cipher text that
was then broadcast by radio to the U-boats. Recovering the original
plain text required another Enigma machine with identical settings to
the original. The design was such that there were billions of
combinations of settings and it was statistically unlikely they could be
discovered by chance. A group of scientists, including Turing, worked at
the Bletchley Park site in England to build a range of machines, such as
Turing’s Bombe and later the Colossus device, that could sift through
millions of settings in just a few hours to find the correct one.

Source https://​en.​wikipedia.​org/​wiki/​File:​Wartime_​picture_​of_​a_​
Bletchley_​Park_​Bombe.​jpg (public domain) https://​en.​wikipedia.​org/​
wiki/​Colossus_​computer (public domain)
This was the start of the era of cryptoanalysis. Colossus is regarded
by many as the world’s first semi programmable electronic computer,
and a faithful recreation of the machine can be viewed today at the UK’s
National Machine of Computing at Bletchley Park.
The post-war years were less kind on Turing, with events leading to
his suicide in 1954. But the development of electronic computers
continued apace in the UK and the US, with the development of
machines such as the Manchester Mk 1 (UK, 1949) and ENIAC (US,
1945). 1952 heralded the arrival of the Ferranti Mk 1 , the world’s first
commercially available general-purpose computer.

1.3 The Origin of Programming Languages

By the 1950s, computer hardware was a reality. But as with all
technologies, the question arose of what it should be used for. ENIAC
was initially developed to produce artillery firing tables for the US army
—a repetitive and time-consuming task suited to a machine. The
Manchester Mark 1 was used for tasks including searching for prime
numbers and investigating the Riemann hypothesis.
The issue was the relatively low amounts of computing power
combined with the fact that there was only a small group of experts
who truly understood how to program the machines. Initially machines
were programmed using binary and very near binary “assembly
languages” supported by mnemonic aids. Creating programs at such a
low level required a great deal of time and intellect.
The idea of a higher-level view of a computing problem is widely
credited to Ada Lovelace (1815–1852), who collaborated with Charles
Babbage and wrote notes on the design of algorithms for Babbage’s
machines. Whilst not programs, these algorithms represented a higher-
level way of thinking about what a computing device could do.
The key development was to provide a means for programs to be
written in a higher level, more human centric manner, that could then
be translated into the lower level binary instructions that a computer
could process. The earliest programming languages included “Short
Code ” (John Mauchly 1950) and “Autocode ” (Alick Glennie and Ralph
Brooker 1954). These languages allowed a source code file to be
created with the high-level instructions, that were then “compiled ” or
“interpreted ” into the lower level instructions that the computer could
execute:

Compiled languages made the translation one-time and then stored

the resulting machine code for execution many times over. Interpreted
languages made the translation “on the fly” for immediate use. This
distinction is still very much in evidence today, with languages such as
C and Java belonging to the compiled group, and scripting languages
such as JavaScript and PHP belonging to the interpreted group. The
interpreted group has become particularly significant in the world of
web computing.
1954 saw the development of FORTRAN by a team lead by John
Backus at IBM. This was a very significant innovation as FORTRAN was
the first widely adopted general purpose programming language and it
still exists today, although it has long since fallen from wide use. Other
notable languages include COBOL (for business related programming
tasks) (Grace Hopper, 1959) and LISP (for symbolic computing)
(Russell, Hart and Levin, 1958). Nearly all these early languages are
now a matter of historical note, but 1972 brought a significant
milestone with the arrival of C (Bell Labs, Dennis Ritchie). C was
significant as it brought a consistent syntax, provided a range of high
and low level instructions and operations, was designed to encourage
cross platform support, was (and still is) the subject of international
standardisation. C was used to write the UNIX 4 operating system (still
very much in use today). C is also significant in that many
contemporary programming languages (including Java) owe their
syntactic history to it. C has also seen a reboot in the form of the object
oriented C++. Now a wide range of people could write programs using
high-level abstraction rather than needing to understand the detailed
internal operation of the host computer.

1.4 The Object Oriented Revolution

As computers became cheaper, more widespread and powerful, the
range of applications that they were put to increased. In the 1950s,
computers were mainly used for mathematical and scientific tasks, by
the 1970s they were in wide use in business data management, and
with the explosion of personal computing in the 1980s, they reached
out into every aspect of modern lives. That expansion of ambition for
creating ever new and more innovative program applications came
with its own challenges—the size and complexity of codebases was
increasing:

Typical codebase size

1950s 10s of lines
1960s 100s of lines
1970s 1000s of lines
1980s 100,000s of code
Now In some cases > 10,000,000 lines (e.g. Linux)
 The challenge here is not technological, it’s human. By the 1970s, a
significant number of software development projects were failing (i.e.
required substantial or complete write-down of their costs due to
failure to deliver a working product) as they were becoming too
complex for teams to develop and manage using the programming
languages and techniques available. This period saw the birth of
software engineering as an academic discipline to try to counter this.
The problem lay in the fact that they kind of data employed by
programming languages was based in mathematical and fundamental
terms like characters, integers and pointers. These are not the atomic
elements that were needed to build something like a graphic computer
game, or a word processor. Humans don’t think of most problem
domains in atomic terms. We think of them in terms of entities like
“Player”, “Paragraph” and a “Spell checker” and so on.
So there was a basic mismatch between the programming concepts
on offer and the problem domains that developers wanted to address.
Furthermore, a program written for one computer would not
necessarily execute on another. By the 1980s there was a proliferation
of competing brands of computer, with little or no interoperability
between them.
In 1967, the Simula language (Dahl, Nygaard) was the first Object
Oriented (OO) language. In 1980, Smalltalk-80 (Kay, Ingalls and
Goldberg) was released, drawing heavily on Simula for inspiration.
These languages were developed part in response to the challenges
faced by ever expanding code base sizes and part by the need to
express solutions in a human centric manner. Smalltalk is significant in
the programming language development timeline as it directly
influenced the design of a generation of OO languages such C++ ,
Flavors and Java . Smalltalk had at its centre the concept of a “class ” as
an organisational unit of a program, capable of describing a meaningful
entity that formed part of the problem domain. Instances of these
classes (“objects ”) could then message each other to work together to
solve some collective problem, much as a team of people would
communicate and cooperate to solve a problem. The world has never
looked back, and the OO paradigm is now an established cornerstone of
our modern programming landscape.
1.5 The Java Language
The Java language had its 1990s origins in a language called Oak
intended for use in interactive television set top boxes. Initially
developed by James Gosling, Michael Sheridan and Patrick Naughton,
the aim was to produce an OO language to build applications that could
run on any interactive television, regardless of the underlying hardware
that any individual unit had. Although Oak was not successful, it
developed further into the Java 1.0 released by Sun Microsystems
promising “Write Once, Run Anywhere” (WORA ) code. This was a
major innovation that arrived at a time where there was a demand for
lower cost development capable of producing applications that could
run in a range of machines, and on the fast-paced range of new web
browsers that were emerging.
At the heart of this innovation was the idea of the Java Virtual
Machine (JVM) . The JVM was an abstract implementation of a general-
purpose microprocessor, with a corresponding low-level byte code
language specification. Although this abstract microprocessor did not
actually exist, it was similar in design to the vast range of commercial
microprocessors available, so the “last leg” translation of the JVM byte
code to actual machine code for a specific microprocessor was a simple,
speedy and low-cost task. Any Java compiler just needed to translate
the Java source code to JVM bytecode, and the code could then execute
on any device equipped with a JVM.
 Software developers soon provided JVMs for all popular platforms.
This idea of a virtual machine or “sand box” has been widely adopted in
other software engineering applications and frameworks as it offers
flexibility with very little loss of efficiency. It’s how Macs can pretend to
be PCs, and how systems can be built with components written in
different languages.
Java received a particular boost resulting from the emergence of
mobile computing platforms. Manufacturers of smartphone and tablet
devices faced the same challenges as the earlier developers of
interactive television set top boxes—the need to run the same code on
different underlying devices. So, Java was a natural choice as the
implementation language for the Android operating system (Google,
2007) and its applications.
Java has continued to evolve and was acquired by the Oracle
Corporation following their acquisition of Sun Microsystems in 2010
and continues to be free to use. It is available as a run time only package
(JRE ) and as a development toolkit (JDK ). As at 2018, Java is in version
SE 11 and there is an Enterprise Edition EE 8 (known as Jakarta EE ). A
separate version of the JVM (Android Runtime and, before that, Dalvik )
and a branch of the language exist for mobile development.
So, Java is a modern OO compiled language that relies on the virtual
JVM for execution of its byte code. It owes its syntactic ancestry to C and
draws on Smalltalk-80 for inspiration. It is, and has always been, free to
use and embodies the “WORA” principle.

1.6 Tools of the Trade

To create Java programs, you will need to download some tools. They
can all be downloaded from reputable sources for free:
The Java Development Kit ( JDK ): choose the latest version
appropriate for your development machine. All major platforms are
supported. For this book, we assume you are using a desktop
development environment rather than a mobile platform. The JDK
contains the Java compiler and several other tools to help you
develop, debug and document your work. Ensure that your download
the Java Development Kit (JDK) rather than the Run Time
 Environment (JRE)—your computer likely has the latter installed
already.
An Integrated Development Environment (IDE) : this is a toolset
to help you edit and manage the code that you produce. There are
many popular IDEs available. The professional market leaders are
Eclipse and Netbeans which are rich in features, but overly complex
for learning and teaching. This book, and many others, uses the BlueJ
IDE that can be freely downloaded for all major platforms. BlueJ was
developed specifically for teaching and learning and offers just the
right set of features to enable you to develop code easily.

All the code examples used in this book are available freely in the on-
line package that accompanies this book.
With that knowledge, it’s time to start writing some programs.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019
Kingsley Sage, Concise Guide to Object-Oriented Programming, Undergraduate Topics
in Computer Science
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13304-7_2

2. Procedural Programming Basics in

Java
Kingsley Sage1

(1) School of Engineering and Informatics, University of Sussex,

Falmer, East Sussex, UK

Kingsley Sage
Email: [email protected]

In Chap. 1 we learned some of the key concepts and terminology

around programming. In this chapter it’s time to jump in and start to
create our first programs in Java using the BlueJ Integrated
Development Environment (IDE). The first programs that we shall
consider will be necessarily simple., and are intended to introduce the
reader to the basic workflow necessary to write, compile, execute and
debug a Java program, and to the elements of procedural programming
that constitute core programming knowledge applicable not just to
Java, but a wide range of other procedural and Object Oriented (OO)
languages. At this stage, we will not focus on the OO elements of Java—
that subject is explored in depth Chap. 3. Instead we shall master some
basic procedural programming elements that make up an essential
component of the broader landscape of coding.

2.1 First Program and Workflow

The traditional first program in many textbooks is “Hello World ”, so we
shall start there. To create a Java program using BlueJ, first start the
BlueJ program and under the Project menu tab select “New Project”.
Give the project a name. The project name will be used to create a
directory on your PC/Mac. A BlueJ project is effectively a set of files
contained within a directory. That set of files will ultimately consist of
source code ( .java files) , compiled Java byte code ( . class
files) and other files that, taken together, constitute your Java
application. Once you have done that you should have a screen that
looks like this:
The precise appearance and layout may vary slightly depending on
which version of BlueJ you have installed on your machine. There are
some key controls to appreciate:
Menu bar: where you will find key operations such as saving and
opening projects.
Central panel: the large panel on the top right where organisational
chunks of code will ultimately be represented.
Workbench: the panel at the bottom of the screen where you will be
able to monitor your completed program as it executes.
The left-hand side key controls panel: where you will find buttons
to create a “New class” and “compile” your programs.

To create a Java program, the workflow is as follows:

Create a project: A project is a collection of files that make up a
program or application.
Create one or more “classes”: A class is an organisational unit of a
Java program. We shall consider this is much more depth in Chap. 3.
For now, we just need to understand that a Java program is built from
one or more organisational units of functionality. At this stage we
shall build a program from just one class, and that class will contain
all the code that we need.
Compile the class into Java byte code: this may require several
attempts at editing the code using the BlueJ source code editor.
Create an instance of the class: again, this terminology will become
clearer in Chap. 3. For now, we can think of this as “creating a
functioning incarnation of our program on the Java Virtual Machine”.
Call a method: summoning some aspect of the instance of the class
to make the program “do something useful”.
If there are problems, we may also need to go back and fix
errors: this is the process (some would say art) of “debugging”.

So, we start by creating a class. To do this, press the “New Class” button
on the left-hand panel. Your will be asked for a Class Name. Provide an
alphanumeric name. By convention, Java classes start with a capital
(upper case) letter. They should not start with a number, and there
should not be any spaces in the name. Many experienced programmers
use the “camel caps” style of naming where capital letters are used at
the start of key words e.g. “ MyFirstClass ”, or “ My1stClass ”.
The Class Type should be left as “Class” and this is the BlueJ default.
The BlueJ source code editor will open. Once you have done this an
orange box will appear in the central panel with a hatched marking
through it.

A class (an organisational unit of a Java program) is represented in

BlueJ by an orange box in the central panel. Double click on a class to
invoke the BlueJ source code editor.

If a class is shown with a hatched marking through it, then it has not
yet been compiled into Java byte code. Pressing the Compile button
will start that process.

If a class is shown in solid orange, then it has been compiled

successfully and is ready for use.

Note that BlueJ does produce some sample code when a class is
created. This sample code is not particularly useful, so we will delete
most of it. Just leave the skeleton of the class definition as shown below:

Note carefully the type of curly brackets (often called “braces ”) that
are used in the definition of the class. We will be making a great deal of
use of two types of brackets:
Braces: { and } used in the definition of chunks of code.
Round brackets: ( and ) used in the definition of statements and
method calls.
Now we will add some useful source code to make our first working
program:

This example is a complete definition of the MyFirstClass class.

The class definition is contained within a pair of braces. Everything
inside that pair of braces is a part of the class definition. To help us
remember what we are doing, we add comments to our source code.
Comments do not form part of the compiled byte code—they are there
for our benefit, and for the benefit of others reading our code.
Comments come in two types.

Multi line comments: starting with the symbol pair /* and

ending with the symbol pair */ . Any text can appear between those
pairs and can run over many lines. Here we have used a multi-line
comment to provide information about who has written the
program.
 Single line comments: start with the symbol pair // . Any text
after this symbol pair up to the end of the line are treated as text
comments.

Inside the class definition we have a public method called

myFirstMethod() . A method is one of the component parts of a
class definition and represents something that the class can do (a
behaviour ). If you have previous experience of procedural
programming (e.g. using C) you will recognise this as the concept of a
function (however there is a difference between a function and a
method that we explore in Chap. 3). Note that by convention method
names start with a lower-case letter so that we can easily distinguish
them from classes. Note also that the method has a pair of round
brackets after it.
In the case of both the class and the class’ method definitions, the
keyword public simply means that the functionality is openly
accessible. We will return to the importance of the keyword void later
when we delve further into the concept of a method.
System.out.println () is a pre-defined library method that
displays text on the console. As we have not created any kind of
Graphical User Interface (GUI), our output will be simple text on the
console window. BlueJ will cause the console window to open as
required when we execute the code. You will notice that System starts
with a capital letter. This is because it refers to a class.

The System class is a programmatic representation of the Java

Virtual Machine. As Java was created as a platform independent
language, it does not readily provide any means of addressing the
underlying hardware that your program is running is running on.

If you need to communicate with the host PC, for example to display
something on the screen, or open a file, you do so by interacting with
the System class. There is only ever one System object, and you
 do not need to do anything to bring it into existence. You can think of
the System object as a proxy for the JVM.

The final thing to note is the semi-colon at the end of a line of code.
This marks the end of a complete statement of Java code, a bit like the
full stop that we put at the end of a sentence when writing in English.
If you have written everything correctly, you can now press the
Compile button and the source code will be translated into Java byte
code. If you have made an error, the compiler will produce an error
message (a syntax error) and you will need to fix the problem and try to
compile again. When the source code is free from syntax errors and
compiled, you will see the message “Class compiled—no syntax errors”.
Now it’s time to run our first program. To run the program, you will
need to create an instance of MyFirstClass . To do this, right click
the solid orange box on the central panel and select new
MyFirstClass . You can then give the instance of the class a name.
Just use the default name for now. Once you have done that you a red
box will appear on the BlueJ workbench.
 The red box is a Java object built from the MyFirstClass class
definition.

A Java class is a definition of an organisational unit of a Java

program. They appear as orange boxes on the BlueJ central panel.

A Java object is an instance of a Java class. An object is “instantiated”

from a Java class. We can instantiate many Java objects from the
same Java class definition.

Now that we have created a Java object, we have a functioning

program working in the memory of our machine. Now all we need to do
is to tell the object what we want to do. The object only has one thing
that it can do. We need to invoke the myFirstMethod() chunk of
code. To do this, we right click on the object on the workbench and
select the void myFirstMethod() . This will cause the console
window to open and your message will appear. Well done, you have
created and executed your first Java program!

2.2 Primitive Data Types

Now that we have looked at the basic workflow for creating and
executing a Java program, we can now delve deeper into the basics of
the procedural aspects of programming. Our first program just
displayed some text on the console window. More useful programs will
do rather more, and in particular, will allow us to store and manipulate
data. By data, we mean any type of information including, although not
limited to, numeric data, logical data, text and objects. We can view the
purpose of a program as a means of doing some useful work on data.
Data is stored in the form or variables. We start by considering the
most basic kind of data, called “primitive data ”. The term “primitive”
here is used to distinguish between data that is atomic (in the sense
that it cannot be broken down into any smaller useful units) and that
does not have the status of an object, and objects. We consider much
more about objects in Chap. 3. Java has 8 primitive types in total, 6 for
numeric data, 1 for single character data and 1 for logical or boolean
expressions. Each is characterised by a range of values that a variable of
that type can hold and the number of bytes in memory that it occupies.
The 8 primitive types are:

Type Description Size Example value

boolean True or false 1 bit true, false

byte Integer 1 byte (8 bits)

char Unicode character 2 bytes 'a', '\u0030'

short Integer 2 bytes − 3, − 2, − 5

int Integer 4 bytes − 3, − 2, − 5
long Integer 8 bytes − 3L, 0L, 4L
float Floating point 4 bytes 1.2f, − 1.2e03f

double Floating point 8 bytes 1.2, − 1.2e03

The choice of integer and floating-point types simply reflects the
range of values that each type can accommodate. In Java, all numeric
types are signed, meaning that they can take on positive and negative
values (there is no distinction between signed and unsigned types as
there is in languages such as C).
Primitive data is stored in the form of variables. To use a variable we
must declare it first. This ensures that the compiler knows how much
memory to set aside to store each variable. Java is a strongly typed
language , meaning that we must always state what kind of data
something is before we can use it. This declaration happens only once.
We can store values in the variables and manipulate those values as our
needs dictate. Note that the primitive data type keywords start with
lower case letters to remind us that they do not have the status of a
class. Primitive variables also have default values (0 for the numeric
ones and false for boolean ones).
Here are some example of primitive variables being declared and
then given some values:
 You can also combine a declaration with setting an initial value:

You can manipulate variable values using an expression. Here are

some examples of valid expressions using a range of mathematical
operators .
 For an expression, the right-hand side of the equals sign is evaluated
and used to set the variable on the left-hand side. Many programmers
do not care for the x = x + 2 way of writing “add two to 2”
as it resembles an impossible equation. But in practice it does not
matter—just use a style that works for you. Note that all expressions
end with the semi-colon. You can also see the quite popular “side style”
of commenting.
Variables must be declared before they are used. Failure to do so
will result in the compiler reporting an error. However, it is important
to understand that where we place the declarations of variables
determines their “ownership” under the “rules of scope ”. Variables can
be declared within the scope of a class, or within an individual method,
or indeed part of a method. The first two cases are relevant at this
stage.

A variable that is declared within the class definition, but outside the
scope of any method within that class is referred to
(interchangeably) as an instance variable , a class attribute , and a
field of a class . However, the term “class variable” is not
appropriate. We shall see in a later chapter that class variable refers
to something different. Such a variable is accessible at any point in
the source code within that class. We say that it has scope of the
class.

A variable that is declared within an individual method within a

class definition is referred to a method variable . It is accessible
only within the code for that method. When the method is not
actively executing, the variable cannot be accessed and does not
exist. We say that it has the scope of the method.

Unlike other programming languages, there is no concept in Java of

a global variable. All variables must belong to some organisational unit
of your program. We can use built in methods such as
System.out.println() to display the current value of any
variable in the console window. Here is an example method that does
exactly that:
 Note the use of the + symbol in the call to
System.out.println() . Here the + symbol is called the
“concatenation operator ”. Concatenation simply means to place one
thing after another

2.3 The Procedural Programming Paradigm

Now that we know about the primitive data types, we turn our
attention to the fundamental concepts of procedural programming .
Java is an Object Oriented language, but it also has the procedural
programming concepts as its core, as do many other programming
languages. The term “procedural programming” is not entirely well-
defined, and is contentious for some academics. In the broadest terms,
it refers to a style of programming where a problem is broken down in
a set of smaller procedures, also called functions and, in Java’s case,
methods. But the term is also used to include a set of programming
code constructions (structured programming ) that deliver the minimal
requirements of a general-purpose programming language. These
constructions themselves arise from the pioneering work of Alan
Turing and his abstract Turing machine mentioned in Chap. 1.
Rather than dwell on the detailed mathematical treatments that
many purists attach to programming paradigms, we will instead
describe what is required of a general-purpose programming language
in rather more everyday terms. Suffice to say that it can be
demonstrated that a programming language is general purpose (i.e. can
perform any computable calculation) provided it exhibits 3
characteristics:
Sequence : processes one instruction after another, until all
instructions have been executed.
Alternation (also called selection ): selects one execution path
from a set of alternatives.
Repetition (also called iteration ): repeatedly executes some code
whilst some condition persists.
All general-purpose languages exhibit these three characteristics.
They may do so in different ways, and they may have other features
besides. But these other features are present only to make the language
easier to use, and they are not actually a pre-requisite for the language
being general purpose. As Java is a general-purpose programming
language, it provides (a variety of) means of delivering these core
characteristics.

2.4 Sequence
The notion of sequence from structured programming is simply the
idea that instructions are executed in a given reliable order i.e. from
start to finish. It is up to the programmer to determine what the correct
sequence is to achieve the intended result. This idea contrasts with the
concept of declarative programming, where the user simply states what
their requirements are, and the order of these declarative statements is
unimportant.
The only additional aspect of sequence comes from the procedural
programming paradigm, that adds the notion of a “call stack ”. This
reflects the idea that a larger program can be broken down int smaller
pieces—methods in the case of Java. One method can then call upon
another. This is also the concept behind the program design philosophy
of “task decomposition ” where a large task is broken down into a set of
smaller tasks, until each task is sufficiently simple to be understood and
implemented.
When a method calls upon another method, execution of the calling
method is parked whilst the called method is executed. Once the called
method has completed execution, control passes back to the calling
method. At any stage of the execution of the program, there is a stack of
calling methods where the order of the stack is determined by the
sequence in which the method calls took place. The following example
will help you understand this point:

Let’s imagine that we invoke method1() . We see that

method1() does some work, then calls method2() . This parks
method1() on the call stack and method2() starts to execute. Then
method2() calls method3() , parking method2() on the call
stack. Next, method3() finishes and control passes back to
method2() . We then see that method2() finishes, and control
passes back to method1() . Finally, method1() finishes. Note that
in this example the variable y is used in all three methods. But y is a
method variable, so the version in method1() is unique to that
method, and distinct from the y used in method2() and so on. In
general, “what goes inside the method, stays in the method”.
 We can visualise a call stack as follows:

We shall see later that as well as passing control from one method
to another, we can pass and return values as well.

2.5 Alternation
The next element from structured programming to understand is
alteration (also known as selection ). Alternation is concerned with
selecting an execution path from a set of possible alternatives i.e.
making a choice. That choice will depend on some decision criteria, and
only one of the possible alternatives can be pursued i.e. the choices are
mutually exclusive. We can use a simple flowchart diagram to illustrate
the concept:
 Here we see that we are required to evaluate a question. This
question has a boolean nature in that the answer can only be either
“yes” ( true ) or “no” ( false ). If the answer to question 1 is true
, we perform action 1. If the answer to question 1 is false , we
instead evaluate question 2. If the answer to question 2 is false , we
perform action 2. Note that is question 1 was true , we never
evaluated question 2, so the two questions here have answers that are
mutually exclusive. We could have carried on extending the chain of
questions as long as we liked. But once we find a question that
evaluates to true , the decision-making process is complete.
Alternation in Java (as in many other languages) is delivered using
if and switch statements. They are both equally expressive in that
anything that is written using switch can be re-written using if .
There are situations where it is aesthetically more pleasing to use one
over another, but this is a choice for the programmer.
The if statement takes the general form:
 Note carefully the use of brackets here. The test conditions are
contained in round brackets, and the body of the statement (the code
that is to be executed if the test condition is true) is contained in braces.
Note also that there is no semi-colon at the end of the test condition
code.
We can have as many else … if sections as we like, or none at
all. We also have the option of having a final else section for an action
to be performed when no other test expression in the statement overall
evaluated as true . The test conditions are evaluated as either true
or false . Such expressions will make use of Java operators . An
operator is just a name for a symbol that performs a specific operation
on one, two or three operands and returns a result. For example, + the
addition symbol is an operator in the sense that 2 + 3 has two operands
and returns the result 5. For the if statement, we will use operators that
return values of true or false. The commonplace ones in this application
are:

Operator Meaning
== Is equal to
!= Is not equal to
> Is greater than
>= Is greater than or equal to
Operator Meaning
< Is less than
<= Is less than or equal to
&& Logical AND
|| Logical OR
Note the use of == as the equality operator . A common mistake
in learning to code is to confuse the assignment operator = with the
== equality operator. The assignment operator sets a variable to a
specific value. The equality operator tests to see whether two values
are the same or not.
The logical operators are used to combine tests together to make
more complex test conditions that depend on two or more pieces of
data. Logical AND only evaluates as true if all sub-conditions evaluate as
true. Logical OR evaluates as true if any of the sub-conditions evaluates
as true.
Here are some example if statements:
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 receptam licet à multis recensionem (ut ipse ait) quoniam de
undecima cujus meminit parabola, altum apud hos silentium. Jure
vapulant à te, Tolete, qui excludunt undecimam constanter tamen
asserenda est contra te quadripartita diei divisio, in hoc potissimum
illorum error consistit, quod horam primam faciunt, non inveniunt;
horam undecimam inveniunt excludunt tamen, nihil à mente
Evangelistarum magis alienum, quam ut ὁ πρωιὴ verteretur hora
prima diei, quæ in illorum scriptis sonat quartam noctis vigiliam. Vid.
Tolet. in Joan. cap. 19. Annot. 8.
By this division of the day into these four quarters, or greater hours,
the Evangelists are reconciled touching our Saviour’s Passion. He was
crucified at the third hour, Mark 15. 25. S. John intimateth his
examination before Pilate, to have been Hora quasi sexta, about the
sixth hour, John 19. 14. In the first place, understand by his crucifying,
not his hanging on the Cross, which was not till the sixth hour, Luk. 23.
44. nor his expiration, which was not till the ninth hour, Mar. 15. 34.
but his examination under Pilate, at which time the people cried out,
Crucifie him, Crucifie him; and then the third and sixth hour will easily
be reconciled, for these two hours immediately following one another,
what was done on the third hour, might truly be said to be done about
the sixth.
Lastly, This sheweth that the hours among the Jews were of two
sorts; some lesser, of which the day contained twelve: others greater,
of which the day contained four, as hath been above shewn: the lesser
are termed hours of the day, Are there not twelve hours of the day?
John 11. 9. The greater, some term hours of the Temple, or hours of
prayer. Peter and John went up into the Temple, at the ninth hour of
prayer, Acts 3. 1. But in truth there are but three hours of prayer, the
third, the sixth, and the ninth.[239] The third instituted by Abraham, the
sixth by Isaac, and the ninth by Jacob. The third hour the Holy Gost
descended upon the Apostles, Acts 2. 15. About the sixth Peter went
up to the house-top to pray, Acts 10. 9. At the ninth, Peter and John
went into the Temple, Acts 3. 1.
[239] Drusius in præterit. Act. 3. 1. Non fuisse ultra tres horas
precationis in die apud Judæos, clare testatur David Kimchi.
From these greater hours of the day and night, the Canonical hours,
[240] in use in the Roman Church, had their beginning; each Canonical
hour containeth three lesser hours, so that in the whole night and day
there are eight Canonical hours. At six of the clock in the evening
began the first, and that is termed Hora vespertina; or vespertinum
simply, (officium being understood) their Vespertine. At nine of the
clock at night began the second, and that is termed Completorium,
their Completory. At midnight began the third, Nocturnum, their
Nocturn. At three of the clock in the morning, began their Matutinum,
their Matines. The Canonical hours for their day-service were named,
Hora prima, tertia, sexta, nona. Their first hour began from six of the
clock in the morning, and held till nine: the third from nine till twelve,
the sixth from twelve till three, the ninth from three till six at night.
[240] Vide Bellarm. de bonis oper. in part. 1. cap. 10.
The Dial in use among the ancient Jews, differed from that in use
among us: theirs were a kind of stairs; the time of the day was
distinguished, not by lines, but by steps, or degrees; the shade of the
Sun every half hour moved forward to a new degree. In the Dial of
Ahaz, the Sun went back ‎‫‏מעלות‏‬‎ Magnoloth, degrees, or steps, not
lines, Isai. 38. 8.
Their weeks were two-fold; the one was ordinary consisting of seven
daies, the other extraordinary and Prophetical, consisting of seven
years. Dan. 9. 24. The first is termed Hebdomas diaria, a week of
daies; the second, Hebdomas annalis, a week of years.
The Hebrews at first measured their moneths according to the
course of the Sun, whence they are called Menses solares; and then
every moneth consisted of thirty daies. The waters prevailed from the
seventeenth day of the second moneth, Gen. 17. 13. unto the seventh
day of the seven moneth, Gen. 8. 4. that is, full five moneths. If we will
number the daies, they were an hundred and fifty, Gen. 7. 24. Whereby
it appeareth, that every moneth contained full thirty daies. After the
Israelites departure out of Egypt, then they measured their moneths by
the course of the Moon; they are termed Menses Lunares: they
contained either thirty daies, and then they were called Menses pleni,
full moneths: or twenty nine daies, and then they were called Menses
cavi, Deficient Moneths.
 The Sun exceedeth the Moon in her course eleven daies, hence[241]
every third or second year, one month was inserted. Now because the
twelfth moneth in the Hebrew Kalender was called Adar, hence when a
month was inserted, the last was called Ve-adar,the second Adar.
 [241] Vide Kalendarium Hebraicum Munsteri pag. 62.
Before their captivity in Babylon, they counted their moneths without any name, according to the
number. The First, Second, Third moneth, &c. After their return from Babylon, they called them by
these names:

1. Nisan; it was also called ‎‫‏אביב‏‬‎Abib, which signifieth an ear of Corn. in {Marc
1
this month Barley began to be eared. { Apri
2. Iiar, it was also called ‎‫‏זיו‏‬‎which signifieth beauty: then the Trees began { Apri
2
to be beautified with Buds and Blossoms. { May
3. Sivan. { May
3
{ June
4. Thamuz. { June
4
{ July
5. Ab. { July
5
{ Aug
6. Elul. { Aug
6
They answered to { Sept
7. Tisri, otherwise called Ethanim. part of { Sept
7
{ Octo
8. Marchesuan, it was called Bull. { Octo
8
{ Nov
9. Chisleu. { Nov
9
{ Dec
10. Tebeth. { Dec
10
{ Janu
11. Shebeth. { Janu
11
{ Febr
12. Adar. Ve-adar. { Febr
12
{ Marc

Before their coming out of Egypt, they began their year in the moneth of Tisri,[242] and thus they
continued it always after, for civil affairs, for their date of buying, selling, their Sabbatical years, years of
Jubile, &c. After their coming out of Egypt, they began their year in the moneth Nisan, and so continued
it for the computation of their greatest Feasts.
[242] Ἐν μηνὶ δευτέρῳ Δὶῳ μὲν ὑπὸ Μακεδόνων λεγομένῳ Μαρσουάνῃ δὲ ὑπὸ Ἑβραίων, οὕτω
γὰρ Αἰγύπτιοι τὸν ἐνίαυτον ἦσαν διατεταχότες. Μωυσῆς δὲ τὸν Νισὰν, ὅς ἐστι ξανθικὸς, μήνα
πρῶτον ἐπὶ ταῖς ἑορταῖς ὥρισεν. Joseph. Antiq. l. 1. c. 4. Mendose ponitur Μαρσουάνη pro
αρχασουὰν qui mensis erat olim secundus apud Hebræos, sicut et Dius apud Macedones.

CHAP. II.
Of their Feasts.

Before we descend to their particular Feasts; First we will see their manner of Feasting in general.
Their ordinary meals, as they were not many in a day, so neither were they costly. They were called
Arucoth,[243] which word signifieth properly, such fare as Travellers and Way-faring men use on their
journeys. The word is used, Jer. 40. 5. So the chief Steward gave him victuals, and a reward, and let
him go. Likewise, Pro. 15. 17. Better is a dinner of green herbs where love is. The extroardinary and
more liberal kind of entertainment, by way of Feasting, was commonly called Mischte,[244] from their
liberal drinking at such meetings. There was also another kind of feasting, wherein they made merry
together, eating the remainders of their Sacrifices; this they termed Chag.[245] From this custom of
having a feast at the end of their Sacrifices, the Christians of the Primitive Church instituted their Love-
feasts to succeed the Lords Supper:[246] In both these greater and more solemn Feasts, there were
some Ceremonies used by them, as preparatory to the Feast, others in their giving thanks, others in
their gesture at Table.
[243] ab ‎‫‏ארח ארוחות‏‬‎Iter facere, significat viaticum.
[244] ‎‫‏משתה‏‬‎ Convivium, compotatio dicitur à potendo sive bibendo, ut Græcè συμπόσιον, ab
altera ejus parte.
[245] ‎‫‏חג‏‬‎, Festum, celebris solemnitas à radice ‎‫‏חגג‏‬‎, Festum celebravit.
[246] Chrysostom. 1 Cor. 11. Hoc autem præcipio.
The Ceremonies preparatory were principally these three: 1. Salutations. 2. Washing the feet of the
guests. 3. Pouring Oyl on them.
Their Salutations were testified either by words, or some humble gesture of the body. By words, and
then these were the usual forms; The Lord be with you: or The Lord bless you, Ruth. 2. 4. From the last
of these, blessing is often taken in Scripture for saluting. If thou meet any,[247] bless him not, or if any
bless thee, answer him not again, saith Elisha to Gehazi, 2 King. 4. 29. The sense is, as our English
renders it, Salute him not. Sometimes they said, Peace be unto thee; peace be upon thee, Go in peace,
and such like: When ye come into an house salute the same; and if the house be worthy, let your peace
come upon it, but if it be not worthy, let your peace return to you, Matth. 10. 12, 13. By gesture; their
salutations were signified sometimes by prostrating the whole body; sometimes by kissing the feet,
Luke 7. 38. commonly by an ordinary kiss.[248] Moses went out to meet his father-in-law, and did
obeysance, and kissed him, Exod. 18. 7. Moreover, Joseph kissed all his Brethren, and wept upon them,
Gen. 45. 15. This Saint Paul calleth an holy kiss, 1 Cor. 16. 20. S. Peter, a kiss of charity, 1 Pet. 5. 14.
Tertullian[249] calleth it Osculum pacis, A kiss of peace. These were kisses which a Cato might give, and
a Vestal receive: Of this sort the Jews had three kinds;[250] A kiss of salutation,[251] which hath been
specified by some of those former instances. A kiss of valediction:[252] Wherefore hast thou not suffered
me to kiss my sons and my daughters, Gen. 31. 28. A kiss of homage;[253] the word signifieth a kiss of
state or dignity, but it was to testifie their homage, and acknowledgment of their Kings Soveraignty.
Then Samuel took a Vial of Oyl, and poured it upon Saul’s head, and kissed him, 1 Sam. 10. 1. And unto
this they refer that in the second Psalm, Kiss the son, least he be angry. These salutions, howsoever
they were such as were used mutually, sometimes in their meetings abroad upon the way, yet were
they such, as were used also in their entertainment, as clearly appeareth by many of those fore quoted
examples.
[247] Tertul. lib. 6. advers. Marcion.
[248] Xenophon. de institut. Cyr. lib. 1. pag. 17. It. lib. 5. pag. 113.
[249] Tertul. de orat. cap. 14.
[250] Vide Drusium ad difficiliora loca, Exod. c. 12.
[251] ‎‫‏נשיקות פרקים‏‬‎Neshikoth pharukim, Oscula propinquorum.
[252] ‎‫‏נשיקות פרושות‏‬‎Neshikoth parusoth, Oscula separationis.
[253] ‎‫‏נשיקות גדולה‏‬‎Neshikoth gedola, Oscula magnitudinis.

The second Ceremony preparatory was washing their feet.[254] And the man brought the men into
Joseph’s house, and gave them water, and they did wash their feet, Gen. 43. 34. This office was
commonly performed by servants, and the meanest of the family, as appeareth by our Saviour Christ,
who to leave an example of humility behind him, washed his Disciples feet, Joh. 13. 5. And Abigail,
when David took her to wife, said Behold, let thine hand-maid be a servant to wash the feet of the
servants of my Lord, 1 Sam. 25. 41. For this purpose they had certain Vessels in readiness for such
imployments: that which our Saviour used, we translate a Basin, John 13. 5. He poured out water into a
Basin. The word νιπτὴς there used signifieth in general a Washpot, and is there used for that which in
strict propriety of speeches, the Grecians termed ποδόνιπτρον, (i.) A Washpot for our feet; Some may
here make the question, whence this water was poured? I see no inconvenience, if we say, that there
were usually in their Dining-rooms greater vessels, from which they poured out into lesser, according as
they needed; of which sort it is not improbably thought[255] that those Water-pots were mentioned,
John 2. 6. There were set there six Water-pots of stone, after the manner of the purifying of the Jews.
By purifying there, understand this complemental washing of which we treat: Now if we consider the
washing of their hands, usual and commendable in it self, though superstitiously abused by Scribes and
Pharisees, and the washing of their feet, before and after meal, (for our Saviour washed his Disciples
feet after supper) which second washing, the Hebrews say it was in use only at the Passover, there
must needs be use of grate store of water in their greater Feasts; and therefore no marvel, if many and
capacious vessels stood in readiness. Farther, we are to note, that as the office was servile and base, so
the vessel: which observation giveth light to that, Psal. 60. 8. Moab is my wash pot; that is, the
Moabites shall be basely subject unto me, as the pot in which I wash my feet.
[254] Lotio pedum ante discubitum non solum Judæis, sed & gentibus ipsis erat usitata. Locus hic
tuus est, hic occumbe, ferte aquam pedibus. Plautus. Pers.
[255] Stukius. lib. conviv.
The third Ceremony preparatory, was pouring out of oyl. A woman in the City brought an Alabaster
box of oyntment, and stood at his feet behind him weeping, and begun to wash his feet with tears, and
did wipe them with the hairs of her head, and kissed his feet, and anointed them with the ointment,
Luk. 7. 37, 38. It was also poured upon the head, whence in the same place, Christ challengeth the
Pharisee which entertained him, Mine head with oyl thou didst not anoint, vers. 46. Psal. 23. 5. Thou
anointest mine head with oyl.
After these ceremonies of preparation had been performed, than they proceeded to giving thanks.
The Master of the house sitting down together with his Guests, took a cup full of wine in his right hand,
and therewith begun his consecration, after this manner;[256] Blessed be thou, O Lord our God, the
King of the world, which createst the fruit of the Vine. Having said thus, he first lightly tasted of the
Wine, and from him it pass’d round the Table. This grace of thanksgiving, they call[257] Bircath haiaiin,
the blessing of the cup. With this Christ himself seemeth to have begun his supper; He took the cup and
gave thanks, and said, Take this and divide it among your selves, for I say unto you I will not drink of
the fruit of the Vine, until the Kingdom of God shall come, Luk. 22. 17, 18. After the blessing of the cup,
the Master of the house took the bread, which they did Scindere, but not Abscindere, lightly cut for the
easier breaking thereof, but not cut in sunder; and holding this in both his hands, he consecrated it,
with these words; Blessed be thou, O Lord our God, the King of the world, which bringest forth bread
out of the earth. This consecration of bread they termed,[258] Bircath halechem. After the consecration,
he brake the bread, whence the master of the house, or he who performed these blessings in his stead,
was termed[259] Habotsagn, (i. the breaker:) the bread being broken, he distributed to every one that
sat at the table a morsel, which being done, then they began to feed upon the other dishes that were
provided. This Rite of blessing both the Cup and the Bread, they observed only in their solemn
Festivales; otherwise they consecrated the Bread alone, and not the Cup. In their Feast time, they
seasoned their meat with good conference, such as might either yield matter of instruction, or exercise
their wits; which practice was also observed in their Christian love feasts.[260] Of the first sort, was that
Parable proposed by our blessed Saviour at a Feast, Luk. 14. 7. Of the second, was Sampson’s Riddle,
which he proposed unto his Companions, Judg. 14. 12. At the end of the Feast, they again gave thanks,
which was performed in this manner, either by the Master of the house himself, or by some guest, if
there were any of better note at the table: He taking a cup of Wine in both his hands, began thus: Let
us bless him who hath fed us with his own, and of whose goodness we live: Then all the guests
answered; Blessed be he of whose meat we have eaten, and of whose goodness we live. This grace
they called[261] Bircath Hamazon. And this is thought[262] to be the Cup wherewith Christ after Supper
commended the Mystery of his Blood to his Disciples: After this he which began the Thanksgiving
proceedeth, Blessed be he, and blessed be his name, &c. annexing a longer prayer, in which he gave
thanks: First, for their present food. Secondly, for their deliverance from the Egyptian servitude. Thirdly,
for the Covenant of Circumcision. Fourthly, for the Law given by the Ministry of Moses. Then he prayed,
that God would have mercy: 1. On his people Israel. 2. On his own City Jerusalem. 3. On Sion the
Tabernacle of his Glory. 4. On the Kingdom of the House of David his Anointed. 5. That he would send
Elias the Prophet. Lastly, That he would make them worthy of the daies of the Messiah, and of the life
of the world to come.
[256] ‎‫‏ברוך אתה יי אלוהנו מלך העולם בורא פרי הגפן‏‬‎ Benedictus sis tu Domine Deus noster rex
mundi, qui creas fructum vitis.
[257] ‎‫‏ברכת היין‏‬‎
[258] ‎‫‏ברכת הלחם‏‬‎Benedictionem panis Drusius in N. T. part. altera p. 78.
[259] ‎‫‏הבוצע‏‬‎
[260] Non tam cœnam cœnant quam disciplinam Tertul. Apolog. c. 39.
[261] ‎‫‏ברכת המזון‏‬‎
[262] Vid. P. Fag. in præc. Hebr.
This prayer being ended, then all the Guests which sate at the Table, with a soft and low voice, said
unto themselves in this manner, Fear the Lord all ye his holy ones, because there is no penury to those
that fear him: The young Lyons do want and suffer hunger, but those that seek the Lord want no good
thing. Afterward, he which began the thanksgiving, blessing the cup in the same form of words as he
used at the first sitting down saying; Blessed be thou, O Lord God, the King of the world, which createst
the fruit of the Vine: and therewith he drank a little of the Wine, and so the cup passed round the table.
Thus they began and ended their Feast, with the blessing of a cup: this cup they termed ‎‫‏כוס הלל‏‬‎ Cos
hillel, Poculum ὑμνήσεως, A cup of thanksgiving; and both these cups are mentioned by Saint Luke;
and, which is worth our observation, the word of Consecration whereby it was instituted, as part of the
Blessed Sacrament in the New Testament, were added only to the last cup. This cup is the New
Testament in my blood, which it is shed for you. After all this, they sung[263] Hymns and Psalms, which
also was practised by our blessed Saviour, Mark 14. 26. So that howsoever he used not any
superstitions either then practised, or since added by after Jewes, (as the drinking of four cups of wine,
[264] or the breaking of the bread with all ten fingers,[265] in allusion to the ten Commandments, &c.)
yet in the beginning, and ending, we see his practice suitable with theirs. If any desire a larger
discourse of these Blessings, noted out of the Rabbines, let him read P. Fagius[266] his Comment on
Deut. 8. 10. From whom I have borrowed a great part of what herein I have delivered. If any shall here
object, that I seem to make the blessed Sacrament of our Lords Body and Blood, a Jewish Ceremony; I
answer, no: For as a kind of initiatory purification by water, was used before by the Jews of old, and no
Proselite was admitted into the Church of the Jews, without this purification: yet it was no more a
Sacrament to them, than Circumcision was to Turks and Saracens. Thus, neither was breaking the bread
Sacramental to the Jew, but then it became a Sacrament, when Christ said of it; This is my body. This
cup is the New Testament in my blood, &c. Luke 22. 19. The Jews could not say, The cup of blessing
which we bless, is it not the Communion of the Blood of Christ? 1 Corinthians 10. 16.
[263] Scalig. de emend. Temp. lib. 6. p. 273.
[264] Moses Kotsensis fol. 118. col. 1.
[265] Sebastian Munster. Mat. 26.
[266] It. præc. Hebr. per Fagium editas.
The last thing considerable in their Feasts, is their gesture. In the days of our Saviour it is apparent,
[267]that the gesture of the Jews was such as the Romans used. The table being placed in the middest,
round about the table were certain beds, sometimes two, sometimes three, sometimes more, according
to the number of the guests; upon these they lay down in manner as followeth. Each bed contained
three persons, sometimes four, seldom or never more. If one lay upon the bed, then he rested the
upper part of his body upon the left elbow, the lower part lying at length upon the bed: but if many lay
on the bed, then the uppermost did lie at the beds head, laying his feet behind the second’s back: in
like manner the third or fourth did lye, each resting his head in the others bosom. Thus John leaned on
Jesus bosom, John 13. 23. This first is an argument of special love towards him whom the Master of the
house shall take into his own bosome, John, he was the beloved Disciple. Secondly, an argument of
parity, amongst others, resting in one anothers bosom. Many shall come from the East and West; and
shall sit down with Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob, Mat. 8. 11. And where shall they sit? In Abraham’s
bosom, Luke 16. 22. that is, they shall all sit at the same table, be partakers of the same glory. Thus
Christ, he was in the bosom of his Father, John 1. 18., that is, in the Apostles phrase, He thought it no
robbery to be equal with his Father. Their tables were perfectly circular, or round, whence their manner
of sitting was termed[268] Mesibah, a sitting round; and their phrase of inviting their guests to sit down,
was, Sit round: We will not sit round until he come hither, 1 Sam. 16. 11. Again, Thy children shall be as
Olive-plants round about thy table, Psal. 128. 3. This custom of lying along upon a bed, when they took
their meat, was also in use in Ezekiel’s time; Thou satest upon a stately bed, and a table prepared
before it, Ezek. 23. 41. And[269] whether this were the custome of the ancient Hebrews, I leave to be
discussed by others. But unto this also doth Amos allude; They laid themselves down upon cloaths laid
to pledge by every Altar, Amos 2. 8. that is, the garments[270] taken to pledge they use in stead of
beds, when at their Altars they eat things sacrificed to Idols: Yea, the plucking off their shooes when
they went to table, implieth this custom of lying at the Table, to have been very ancient. The plucking
off their shooes seemeth to have been generally received, when they were in Egypt; for this cause is it
that they had a strict charge in eating the Passover, to have their shooes on their feet, for greater
expedition. The reason why they usually pluckt them off, was, for the clean keeping of their Beds on
which they lay. Here, seeing the rule of observing the Passover requireth, that it should be eaten with
their shooes on their feet, which argueth rather standing than lying upon a bed: it may be demanded,
Whether Christ transgressed not against the first Institution thereof, in the manner of his sitting at the
table? Tremelius answereth thus; and, in my mind, fully:[271] We must know, saith he, that Exod. 12. it
was commanded, after what manner they, ready to depart out of Egypt, should eat the Passover at that
time; for the necessity of that time so required, namely, an hasty eating thereof; but afterward, in the
Law, where it is commanded that this Ceremony of the Paschal should be renewed every year, those
words are not added. Wherefore all the Hebrew Doctors, both ancient and modern, do teach with one
joynt consent, that the Commandment of sprinkling the door-posts with blood, of having on their
shooes, of girding their loyns, of taking staves in their hands, and eating the Lamb in hast; did not
extend it self to the generations following, but only to have concerned that very night, wherein they
departed out of Egypt:[272] Yea, it was an ancient tradition amongst them, that when they did in after-
times eat the Passover, they would sit down, or lean upon a bed, as our Saviour and his Disciples did, in
token of their deliverance obtained.
[267] Voces quibus usi sunt Evangelistæ sonant accubitum non sessionem, ἀναπίπτειν, Luk. 22.
ἀνακεῖσθαι; Mat. 26. Κατακεῖσθαι, Luc. 14. ἀνακλιθήναι, Mat. 14.
[268] ‎‫‏מסבה‏‬‎Discubitus, cujus radix est ‎‫‏סבב‏‬‎circumivit, Ambivit.
[269] Philo. Jud. p. 383.
[270] Vetustissimus mos erat, super lanatis pellibus discumbere. Qui poterat pelles addere dives
erat. Ovid.
[271] Tremel. in Mat. 26. 20.
[272] Talmud. tract. de Paschate vid. Tremel. loco superius citato.

The parties that gave entertainment at their Feasts were two:[273] 1. The Master of the house. 2. The
Master of the Feast; they differed thus: The Master of the house was termed ‎‫‏בעל הבית‏‬‎ Baal habeth,
ὀικοδεσπότης, Pater familias. The Master of the Feast was termed ‎‫‏בעל משתה‏‬‎ Baal mischte,
ἀρχιτρίκλινος, Triclinii Præfectus. The Master of the Feast was the chief servant, attending the Master of
the house in time of the Feast. Others[274] add a third sort, whom they would have to be Præfecti
morum, in Greek they were termed ὀινόπται. Their Office was thought to have been the inspection of
the Guests, that none should disorder themselves by drinking too much; whence they were called
ὀφθαλμοὶ the eyes of the Feast. Such kind of Officers were in use in Ahasuerosh his Court, Esth. 1. 8.
and likewise among the Athenians;[275] but whether any such belonged unto the Jews is justly doubted.
[273] Vid. Casaubon exercit. p. 278.
[274] Gaudentius Brixianus. vid. Casaubon. ibid.
[275] Athenæus, l. 10.
The ancient Jews, they were both Hospital, ready to entertain, and also liberal in their entertainment:
Their Hospitality is commended throughout the Scripture, though now it be grown out of use among
them, as appeareth by that Proverbial speech concerning the entertainment of a friend:[276] That the
first day he is Oreach, a guest: the second Toreach, a burden: the third Barach, a runnagate. Their
liberality appeared by remembring the poor at their Feasts, by sending them portions. Send portions
unto them for whom nothing is prepared, Neh. 8. 10. This[277] was afterwards practised by Heathens,
who in their solemn Feasts did not onely entertain their Guests for the present, but did also allow them
certain junkets to carry away with them. These they termed ἀποφόρητα: and likewise, unto their friends
who were absent they sent portions, which they termed μερίδας. This observation giveth light to that
Canon in the Laodicean Counsel, which forbiddeth the Christians in their love feasts, μέρη αἴρειν, to
send portions, the reason of which prohibition, I conceive to be three-fold. First, that Christians might
not symbolize with Heathen people. Secondly, That none presuming that their portions should be sent
them, might absent themselves. Thirdly, that those present (especially the poorer sort, as it often falleth
out) might not be injured, by having the best of their provision sent away in such portions.
[276] ‎‫‏ארוח‏‬‎Hospes ‎‫‏טרוח‏‬‎Onus ‎‫‏ברוח‏‬‎Profugus Buxtorf. Synag. cap. 32. p. 493.
[277] Moris erat veteribus in conviviis μερίδας mittere absentibus amicis. Theophrastus cap. περὶ
μεμψιμορίας. Idem testatur Plut. in Agesilao. διέπεμπε μερίδας τοῖς φίλοις ἀπὸ τῶν τεθυμένων.
Eundem morem Judæis in usu fuisse testantur sacræ literæ Nehem. 8. 10. ἀποστείλατε μερίδας.
Here we may note, for conclusion, that as the time of their supper was towards the evening, and then
they gave greatest entertainment; So the time of their dinner was about the sixth hour of the day; that
is, as we count, about Noon. Kill meat and make ready, for the men shall eat with me at Noon, en. 43.
16. Peter went up upon the house to pray about the sixth hour; than waxed he and hungred, and would
have eaten, but whiles they made something ready, he fell into a trance, Acts 10. 9, 10.
Moreover we may here note the difference between those three cups mentioned in Scripture,
ποτήριον τῆς εὐλογίας, 1 Cor. 10. 19. The cup of blessing, and this is applied to those several cups used
in their solemn Feasts, because of those blessings or thanksgiving annexed. Secondly, ποτήριον εἰς
παράκλησιν, Jer. 16. 7. The cup of consolation; this was so called, because it was sent by special friends
in time of mourning, as intending by this drinking to put away sorrow and grief from the mourner.
Thirdly, ποτήριον σωτηρίας, Psal. 116. 13. The cup of salvation: this was used commonly after their
Peace-offerings, which were vowed in way of thankfulness for benefits obtained. Whence the Seventy
Elders commonly translate a Peace offering, σωτήριον, A sacrifice of salvation, or salvation it self.

CHAP. III.
Of their Sabbath.

The word ‎‫‏שבת‏‬‎ Schabbath, from whence our English word Sabbath is derived, signifieth Rest, and is
applied to all solemn Festivals. They polluted my Sabbaths, Ezek. 20. 21. that is, my Feasts. Sometimes
it is applyed to the whole week, Jejuno bis in Sabbato, I fast twice in the week. Sometimes, and that
most frequently, it is used for that 7th day which God had set apart for his own service. This last was
holy, either by a simple holiness which belonged to it, as was the seventh day; or else by a double
holiness occasioned by some solemn Feast upon the same day, and then it was called, Sabbatum
magnum, a great Sabbath, John 19. 36. For on that Sabbath day of which S. John speaketh, the Feast
of the Passover hapned that year.
 The week days are termed by the Hebrew, ‎‫‏חולים‏‬‎ Cholim, prophane days; by the Greek ἐνεργοὶ,
working days: but when they speak of them altogether, τὸ μεταξὺ σαββάτων, the space of time
between two Sabbaths.[278] This was the time upon which the Gentiles desired to hear Paul Act. 13. 42.
In respect of the different degrees of holiness on days, the Sabbath-day is not unfitly compared to a
Queen, or rather to those whom they termed Primary wives; other Feast days to Concubines, or half
wives; working-days, to hand-maids.
[278] Scalig. de emend. Temp. l. 6 p. 261. Item Beza in hunc locum.

The Sabbaths began at[279] six a clock the night before: this the Grecians called παρείσοδον
σαββάτου the Hebrew[280] Biath haschabbath, the enterance of the Sabbath.
[279] Scalig. de emend. Temp. l. 6. p. 269.
[280] ‎‫‏באת השבת‏‬‎

The preparation to the Sabbath begun at[281] three of the clock in the afternoon; the Hebrews called
this ‎‫‏ערב השבת‏‬‎ Gnereb haschabbath, the Sabbath eve. By the ancient Fathers it was called[282] cœna
pura; the phrase is borrowed from Pagans, whose Religion taught them in their Sacrifices to certain of
their Gods and Goddesses, to prepare themselves by a strict kind of holiness; at which time of their
preparation they did pertake of a certain Supper, which as it consisted of choice meats, such as those
Heathens deemed more holy than others: so it was eat with the observation of Holy Rites and
Ceremonies: Hence they themselves were said at this time of their preparation to be in In casto, and
their preparatory Supper termed, Cœna pura. Thus we see the reason why the Fathers called the
Sabbath-eve, Cœnam puram. By the Evangelists it was called παρασκευὴ, A preparation, Mark 15. 42.
For distinction sake, we may call that fore-time of the day προπαρασκευὴ, A fore-preparation. For the
whole day was a kind of preparation, as will appear by the particulars then forbidden. First on this day
they might go no more than three Parsas; now a Parsa contained so much ground as an ordinary man
might go ten of them in a day. Secondly, Judges might not then sit in Judgment upon life and death, as
is shewn in the Chapter of Translation of Feasts.[283] Thirdly, all sorts of Artificers were forbidden to
work, only three excepted, shoomakers, Taylors, and Scribes; the two former for repairing of apparel,
the other for fitting themselves by study to expound the Law the next day, and these were permitted
but half the preparation time to work.
[281] Joseph. Antiq. l. 16. c. 10.
[282] In ritibus Paganorum cœna pura appellabatur; cœna illis apponi solita, qui in casto erant
quod Græci dicunt ἁγνεύειν, vel προαγνεύειν. Isaac Casaubon, Exercit. 16, p. 662.
[283] Casaubon. Exercit. 16. p. 479. ex Michlol. Kimchi.

The best and wealthiest of them,[284] even those that had many servants, did with their own hands
further the preparation; so that sometimes the Masters themselves would chop herbs, sweep the house,
cleave wood, kindle the fire, and such like.
[284] Buxtorf. Synagog. Jud. cap. 10. ex Talmud.

In old time[285] they proclamed the Preparation with noise of Trumpets, or Horns; but now the
modern Jews proclaim it by the Sexton, or some under Officer of the Church, whom they call ‎‫‏שליח‬
‫צבור‏‬‎Scheliach tsibbur, The Messenger of the Congregation.
[285] Buxtorf Synagog. Judaic. ibid.
Concerning the sanctification of the Sabbath day it self, in corrupter times some things the Jews
added over and above that which God commanded. In other things they took liberty where God granted
none. In the first they were superstitious, in the second sacrilegious.
They took liberty: There were two thousand Cubits between the Ark and the Camp, when they
marched; Josh. 3. 4. and in probability the same proportion was observed when they rested: this
distance of ground some interpret to be one mile, some two; some measuring it according to a lesser,
others according to a longer Cubit, which they term a Geometrical Cubit: But all agree in this, that these
two thousand cubits was a Sabbath days journey, though none, as I know, have observed the reason
why it was so called, which I take to be this: On the Sabbath day they were all to repair to the place of
God’s publike worship, which was two thousand cubits distant from those who camped nearest: Hence
follow four Propositions. First, That two thousand Cubits any where, by proportion, might be called a
Sabbath dayes journy. Secondly, That to those who dwelt in the Camps more remote from the Ark, a
Sabbath daies journy was more than two thousand Cubits. Thirdly, That it is now lawful on the Sabbath
day, to joyn with the Congregation in the place of God’s publick worship, though remote. Fourthly, That
it was unlawful for the Jews hereupon to take liberty to walk idlely whither they would, if it were not
more then two thousand Cubits, pretending it to be but a Sabbath daies journey.
They added unto that which God commanded, 1. God said, Remember to keep holy a seventh day: in
which words, God sanctified one day to be Sabbatum,[286] they added Sabbatulum, so they termed that
additament of time which they annexed to the Sabbath. This addition of time was two-fold: some began
the Sabbath sooner than others; this was done by the Jews dwelling at Tiberias, because they dwelling
in a Valley, the Sun appeared not to them so soon as it did to others. Some again continued the
Sabbath longer than others: this was done by those dwelling at Tsepphore, a City placed upon the top
of a Mountain, so that the Sun shined longer to them, than it did to others. Thus both of these did
Addere de profano ad sacrum; add somewhat of the working day, immediately going before, or
immediately following after: none diminished of the Sabbath. Hence[287] R. Jose wished that his portion
might be with those that began the Sabbath, with those of Tiberias, and ended with those of
Tsepphore.
[286] Hospinian. de Orig. fest. c. 3.
[287] Buxtorf. Comment. Masoret. cap. 4, ex Musar.
2. God said, To morrow is the rest of the holy Sabbath unto the Lord, bake that ye will bake, and
seethe that ye will seethe, Exod. 16. 23. This Command was proper to the time of Manna:[288] the
reason is there alledged, why they should prepare that day for the morrow, because upon the Sabbath
day they should not find it in the field. The Jews extend this Command to all Ages; and therefore they
dressed no meat this day: this haply was the reason, that the Heathen people thought they fasted[289]
on the Sabbath, though I deny not but this error might be occasioned in part from that phrase, Jejuno
bis in Sabbato.
[288] Jun. & Tremel. in Exod. 16.
[289] Sueton. August. c. 76 de jejun. Sabbat. Vid. Martial. l. 4. Epig. 4.
3. God said, Ye shall kindle no fire throughout your habitations on the Sabbath day, Exod. 35. 3. This
commandment was only concerning fire for the furtherance of the work of the Tabernacle,[290] for
therefore is the Sabbath mentioned in that Chapter, to shew, that the work of the Tabernacle ought to
give place to the Sabbath. The Jews hence gather, that it is unlawful to kindle any fire at all on this day.
[290] Vatablus in hunc locum Item. Trem. & Junius.
4. God said, In it thou shalt do no manner of work. This the Jews understood without any manner of
exception.[291] Hence they held it unlawful, to roast an apple, to tuck an herb, to clime a tree, to kill or
catch a flea. Hence they thought it unlawful to defend themselves, being assaulted by their enemies on
the Sabbath day: By this means, twice they became a prey unto the enemy.[292] First, unto Antiochus;
whereupon Mattathias made a Decree, that it should be lawful upon the Sabbath to resist their
enemies; which Decree again they understanding strictly, as if it did only give leave to resist,[293] when
they were actually assaulted, and not by any labour that day to prevent the enemies raising of Rams,
settling of Engines, underminings, &c. they became a prey, the second time, to Pompey. For the right
understanding therefore of this Command, we are to know, that three sorts of servile works were
allowed.
[291] Hospinian. de Orig. fest. c. de Sabbato.
[292] Joseph. l. 12. cap. 8.
[293] Joseph. l. 14: cap. 8.
 1. Works of Charity: God, that allowed them to lead their Oxe and Ass to water on the Sabbath, Luke
13. to make their lives more comfortable, much more allowed man liberty to dress convenient food for
himself and his Family, that they might the more comfortably perform holy duties. Christ healed on the
Sabbath, therefore, visiting the sick, and the use of the Physitian, was both then and now lawful.
2. Works tending directly to Gods Worship: not only killing of sacrifices, and circumcising of children
on that day was allowed; but the Priests might lawfully blow their Trumpets and Horns on the Sabbath
day; for the assembling of the people, Numb. 20. 2. And the people might warrantably go from their
Houses to the place of Gods publick worship. By proportion it is now warrantable for Christians, to ring
bells to assemble the people together on the Lords day; to take journeys, to joyn with the publick
Congregation, or Preach the Word. Of these we may say, though they are in their own natures bodily
labors, yet the Temple which was sanctified did change the nature of them, and make them holy, Mat.
23. 17. Or as the Jews say concerning the overthrow of Jericho, which according to their writings fell on
the Sabbath day:[294] He which commanded the Sabbath to be sanctified, commanded it also to be
prophaned.
[294] ‎‫‏מי שצות על השבת צות לחלל שבת‏‬‎R. D. Kimchi in Josh. 6.
3. Works of absolute necessity, as the defending ones self against his enemy, and others of like
nature: concerning which the Jews have a saying,[295] Peril of life drives away the Sabbath. And the
Christians with a little change of a more common Proverb, say, Necessitas non habet ferias; Necessity
hath no Holy days.
[295] ‎‫‏מסכנות נפש דוחה שבת‏‬

CHAP. IV.
Of their Passover, and their Feasts of Unleavened Bread.

Some of the Fathers have derived[296] the word Paschal, from a Greek Verb, signifying to suffer,
because the sufferings and Passion of our Saviour; are celebrated about that time. This Opinion
Augustine justly confuteth,[297] for the word is originally an Hebrew word, signifying to pass by, to leap,
or pass over. The Etymology is God’s own. It is the sacrifice of the Lord’s Passover, which passed over,
&c. Exod. 12. 27.
[296] Tertul. advers. Judaic. c. 10 It. Ambros. lib. de Myster. Pasch. cap. 1.
[297] Aug. in titul. Psal. 68.
The word Passover in Scripture hath three acceptions. First, it is taken for that yearly solemnity which
was celebrated upon the fourteenth day of Nisan,[298] otherwise called Abib; you may call it the
Passover of the Lamb, because on that day toward the evening, the Israelites were commanded
according to their Families to roast a Lamb, and eat it in their private houses. Secondly, it signifieth that
yearly Festivity which was celebrated on the fifteenth of Nisan: it may be called the Passover of sheep
and Bullocks, Deut. 16. 2. Otherwise we may call it the Feast of the Passover; as the fourteenth of
Nisan was called simply the Passover. In the fourteenth day of the first moneth, is the Passover of the
Lord, and in the fifteenth day of this moneth is the Feast, Num. 28. 16, 17. Toward this Feast we are to
understand that Josiah gave unto the people such a multitude of Sheep, Lambs, Kids, and Bullocks.
Thirdly, it is taken for the whole solemnity, beginning the Fourteenth of Nisan, and ending the one and
twentieth of the same moneth. Now the Feast of unleavened bread drew nigh, which is called the
Passover, Luk. 22. 1. So that in this acception is contained the Feast of unleavened bread also,
notwithstanding, in proper speaking, the Feast of unleavened bread was a distinct Feast from the
Passover.
[298] E Theologia non pauci omnia quæ ad 14. noctem pertinent 15. attribuunt quem errorem
hauserunt ex turbidis Rabbinorum lacunis qui hodie eundem errorem errant, teste Scaliger. de
 emend. Temp. l. 6 p. 270.
First, the Passover was to be kept on the fourteenth day of the first month, at even. This was their
second Sacrament, in which although they were enjoyned to eat unleavened bread with the Lamb, yet
the Feast of the unleavened bread began not till the morrow following, being the fifteenth day of the
same moneth, and lasted seven daies of which only the first and last were holy Convocations, wherein
they might do no servile work, Levit. 23. 5, 6, 7, 8.
Secondly, the Passover, in the age following its first institution, might not be killed and eaten in any
other place, save only where the Lord did choose to place his name, which afterward was at Jerusalem:
but the feast of unleavened bread, the Hebrews thought themselves bound to keep in every place
wheresoever they dwelt, if they could not be at Jerusalem: and eating of it, they say,[299] depended not
upon the eating of the Passover, but it was a commandment by it self.
[299] ‎‫‏לא תלה אבי לת זר בקרבן הפסח אלא זו מצות עצמה‏‬‎ Maimon. de fermento & Azymo c. 6.
sect. 1.
The Rites and Ceremonies observed by the Jews in the eating of this Sacrament, their Paschal Lamb,
agreed with those general Ceremonies used in their solemn Feasts. They blessed the cup, and blessed
the bread, and divided amongst the guests, and washed the feet of those that sate at the table, as is
shewn in the Chapter of Feasts. The particulars in which it differed from other Feasts, are delivered in
those interrogatories, or questions proposed in way of Catechism, by some child, at the time of eating
their Passover, or rather in the answer made unto the child by him that blessed the table. The question
was thus: What meaneth this service? The form of the answer was,[300] How different is this night from
all other nights, for all other nights we wash but once, in this twice (thus Christ when supper was ended
washed his Disciples feet.) In all other nights we eat either leavened or unleavened bread, in this only
unleavened: In other nights we eat any sort of herbs, in this night bitter herbs: In all other nights we
eat and drink either sitting or lying, but in this we lye along. Then he proceeded to declare, that the
Passover was in respect that the Lord passed over the houses of their Fathers in Egypt. Secondly, He
held up the bitter herbs in his hand, and said; These bitter herbs which we eat, are in respect that the
Egyptians made the lives of our Fathers bitter in Ægypt. Thirdly, he held up the unleavened bread in his
hand, and said, This unleavened bread which we eat, it is in respect that the dough of our Fathers had
not time to be leavened, when the Lord appeared unto them, and redeemed them out of the hand of
the enemy. This kind of Catechising they say, is commanded, Exod. 12. 26. They called it ‎‫‏הגדה‏‬‎
Haggada, (i.) Annunciatio, the declaration or shewing forth of the Passover. Hence the Apostle
borroweth this phrase; As often as ye shall eat this bread, and drink this cup, ye shall declare, or shew
forth, the Lord’s death, 1 Cor. 11. 26.
[300] Scalig. de emend. Temp. l. 5. p. 270.
Concerning this Lamb they are charged thus: Upon the tenth of Abib every one shall take a Lamb for
an house, a male of the first year, without blemish, and this be kept until the fourteenth day of the
same month, Exod. 12. 3. &c. The Lamb, it was either of Sheep or Goats. For an house, the whole body
of the Israelites, was divided into twelve Tribes, the Tribes into Families, the Families into Houses: if the
House were too few for the eating of the Lamb, then the next Neighbour joyned with them in the eating
thereof. The whole Company was termed φρατρία, in the same sense S. Mark useth συμπόσια, and
πρασιαὶ, Mark the sixth. All these words signifie a society, or company of guests, so many as can sit at
the same table: the latter word properly signifieth, a bed in a Garden; and thus in the Gospel, the whole
multitude sitting on the grass, seem to be compared unto a Garden; and their several societies or
companies, unto so many beds in the Garden. The number of Communicants in this Paschal society was
never less than ten, nor more than twenty.[301] It followeth in the Text, A male, to note the masculine
and peerless vertue of our Saviour, whom it did typically shew forth. Of the first year;[302] which phrase
they interpret thus, That the lamb, after it was eight daies old and forward, was allowable to be offered
for the Passover, but not before; because it is said, When a bullock, or a sheep, or a goat is brought
forth, then it shall be seven daies under the dam, and from the eighth day, and thenceforth, it shall be
accepted for an offering made by fire unto the Lord, Levit. 22. 27. And the reason of this Law, some of
the Hebrews have thought to be,[303] because in their Opinion nothing in the world was absolutely
perfect, until a Sabbath had past over it. Moreover if it were an hour elder then a year, it was unlawful,
because it is said, A male of the first year, without blemish, as well to admonish the Israelites of their
own personal integrity, as to signifie the absolute perfection of him who was in truth the Lamb of God.
And this he kept till the fourteenth day of the same month. The Rabbines affirm[304] four causes of this:
First, because otherwise through the multitude of businesses, at the time of their departure, they might
forget the Paschal Lamb. Secondly, that in this four daies space they might have the more certain
knowledge of the Lamb’s perfection. Thirdly, that by beholding the Lamb so long before their eyes, they
might have the better occasion, in that space, both to recount with themselves Gods mercy in their
deliverance from Ægypt, and also to instruct and Catechise their children in that point: for which respect
it was a received Tradition amongst the Jews, that during the space of these four daies, their Lamb was
tyed to their bed-posts. Lastly, that in this time of preparation, they might throughly sit and address
themselves for the Oblation.
[301] Ioseph. de bello Jud. l. 7 c. 17.
[302] Hebraice ‎‫‏בן שנה‏‬‎ Filium anni. Sunt qui distinguunt inter Filium anni & Filium anni sui, filium
anni interpretantur, qui annum unum agit, nec minor, nec major. Filium vero anni sui, qui est in
anno primo, licet eum nondum absolverit. Sed Aben Esra negat absque Cabala posse sciri quis sit
filius anni sui, nam fieri potest, inquit, ut sit Vau addititium sive paragogicum, quale in ‎‫‏חיתו‏‬‎ &
similibus.
[303] Vid. Munster ad Levit. 22.
[304] Hospinian. de Orig. fest. cap. 5.
The time when the Paschal Lamb was to be slain, was at the Evening, Exod. 12. 6. Or, as the Original
reads, between the two evenings. Here Divines move the question, what part of the day should be
understood by this phrase. Some distinguish the two evenings thus,[305] That there was Vespera Solis,
the evening of the Sun; namely, when the body of the Sun setteth: and Vespera luminis, the evening of
the light, when the beams and shining of the Sun is also gone from off the earth; The space or interim
between these two Evenings, is thought to be one hour, and the third part of an hour; in which space of
time, they say, the Paschal Lamb was slain. Others[306] admit a greater latitude, and distinguish thus:
There is say they, Vespera declinationis, the Evening of the Sun declining; and Vespera occasus, the
Evening of the Sun setting; and their meaning is, that their Passover was offered in this intermediate
time, between noon and night. This latter answer seemeth most agreeable to the truth. First because
by this speech we must understand a latitude of time wherein might be offered not only the Passover,
but the daily Evening Sacrifice also, for even that likewise was commanded, Inter duas Vesperas,
between the two evenings, Num. 28. 4. Now this might be offered in the former part of the after-noon.
The manner of their sacrificing, in regard of this time, we find thus registred,[307] if we count the hours
according to our usual computations: the daily sacrifice of the evening Lamb was usually slain between
two and three, it was offered between three and four: upon the Passover Eve it was slain between one
and two, it was offered about half an hour before three; but if their Passover Eve hapned to be the
same with their Sabbath Eve, then the daily Evening Sacrifice was slain between twelve and one, it was
offered half an hour before two; and afterward the Passover. Secondly, this agreeth with the Oblation of
the true Paschal Lamb; for, as the time of his crucifying began in the third hour of the day, with the
daily morning sacrifice, Mark 15. 25. so it ended at the ninth hour, Mark 15. 34. which was the time of
their ordinary evening sacrifice: but upon their Passover Eve, it was the time when their Paschal Lamb
was slain.
[305] Aben Ezra, Exod. 12.
[306] R. David. in Radic. Hoc etiam colligi potest ex Pirk. Aboth. c. 5.
[307] Talmud. tract. de paschate. c. 1. in initio.
Furthermore, the Lamb was to be eaten with bitter herbs: the reason of this command is, that
thereby they might be moved to thankfulness towards God, for their deliverance from the Egyptian
bondage, in which their lives were made bitter unto them, Ex. 1. 14.
 These bitter herbs they dipt in a certain sauce thick like Mustard, called Charoseth,[308] which thick
sauce (say they)[309] was a memorial of the day wherein they wrought in Egypt. This is thought of
some[310] to be that wherein Christ diped the sop which he gave to Judas. Of this sauce the Hebrews
write thus;[311] they used to dip the unleavened bread in that sauce Charoseth, and to eat; then they
dipt the bitter herbs in the Charoseth, and did eat them. It was made[312] of the Palm-tree branches, or
of dry Figs, or of Raisins, which they stamped and put Vinegar thereto, and seasoned it, and made it
like Clay; and brought it unto the Table in the night of the Passover.
[308] ‎‫‏חרוסת‏‬‎
[309] Moses Kotsensis, fol. 118
[310] Scalig. de emend. temp. l. 6. p. 272.
[311] Maim. de fermento. c. 8. sect. 7.
[312] Maimon. in ‎‫‏חמץ ומצה‏‬‎c. 7. sect, 11.
The other seven daies following the fourteenth of Nisan, were in strictness of speech a distinct Feast,
as is above-shewed; namely, the Feast of unleavened bread because in that space of time, no leavened
bread ought to be found in their houses;[313] their degrees[314] of preparation to this feast are four. 1.
Expurgatio fermenti, the cleansing of all their houshold stuff and vessels, unto which leaven might haply
cleave; and this was done two or three daies before the Passover. 2. Inquisitio fermenti, the searching
after leaven throughout all the rooms of their houses, even to the Mouse-holes: this they did with a
waxen Candle, and as Buxtorfus noteth, upon the night before the Passover: and Scaliger delivereth it
in other words to the same purpose, namely,[315] that this search was made, Ineunte quarta decima,
usque ad quartam horam post ortum solis. At the beginning of the fourteenth day, until the fourth hour
after the rising of the Sun. Now, the beginning of the fourteenth day was the night going before; for the
Jews, in the computation of their Holy-daies, counted their day from even to even. 3. There was
Exterminatio, or Conflagratio fermenti, A burning of the leaven; and this was done from the fourth to
the sixth hour, about dinner-time; at which time followed the last degree, which Scaliger hath ommitted,
namely, Execratio fermenti, the cursing of the leaven, in this form:[316] Let all that leaven, or
whatsoever leavened thing is in my power, whether it were seen of me, or not seen, whether cleansed
by me, or not cleansed; let all that be scattered, destroyed, and accounted as the dust of the earth.
[313] Huius moris vestigia quædam sunt reperta in Roman. Flamine Diali. A. Gell. noct. Attic. lib.
10. c. 15.
[314] Buxtorf. Synag. Judaic. c. 12. p. 317.
[315] Scalig. de emend. Temp. in prolegom.
[316] Buxtorf. Synag. c. 12. p. 325.
In case any did eat leavened bread those seven daies, the penalty was, that such a soul should be cut
off from Israel, Exod. 12. 15. Which penalty hath amongst Expositors a three-fold interpretation.[317]
Some understand thereby such a man to be cut off from his heavenly inheritance: others, that God
would cut off such from the living by an untimely death: others, that he should die without children,
leaving no posterity behind him: To this purpose their Proverb is,[318] A man childless is lifeless.
[317] Vid. P. Fag. in Exod. 12.
[318] Vid. P. Fag. ibid.
Of these three, the first is most probable in this place, though the same Text may admit the second
interpretation in other places of Scripture, as is declared in the Chapter of Circumcision.
Notwithstanding here let the judicious Reader determine, whether these words do not imply, besides
the secret actions of God touching the soul of such a Delinquent, a direction unto the Church how to
deal with parties thus offending by censuring them with Excommunication, which kind of censure
elsewhere the Scripture calleth, A casting out of the Synagogue, John 16. 2. A speech much like this, A
cutting off from Israel.
 Three things may be here demanded. First, who killed the Paschal Lamb? Secondly, where it was
killed? Thirdly, where it was eaten? First, it was killed by the Priests, 2 Chron. 35. 6. Secondly, it was
killed after the first time in the Court of the Temple, the place which God had chosen. Deut. 16. 6.
Thirdly, the owner of the Lamb took it of the Priest, and did eat it in his own house at Jerusalem, Christ
with his disciples kept the Passover in an upper-chamber at Jerusalem.[319]
[319] Maimon. in Korban Pesach c. 1. sec. 6.
It may further be demanded, whether the Passover consisted of two suppers, one immediately
succeeding the other? Some affirm it, and their reasons are these: First, say they, the Passover was
eaten standing, but Christ used another gesture. This argument of all other is the weakest, for Christ
used the gesture of lying on his body, as well in the eating of the Passover, as at the consecration of the
Sacrament, and the Jews, generally after the first institution, in all their Passovers, used rather this
posture of their body, than the other of standing, in token of rest and security, as appeareth in the
Chapter of Feasts. Secondly, they say, the Paschal Lamb was wont to be rosted; but in the last Passover
which our Saviour celebrated, there was Jus cui intingebatur panis, Broth into which he dipped the
bread. This reason is as weak as the former, because though there was a command to eat the Paschal
Lamb rosted; yet there was no prohibition to joyn their ordinary supper with the eating thereof, and
that might admit broth: but, as it is shewn above, the matter into which the sop was dipped, was
thought to be the sauce Charoseth. Thirdly, they urge John 13. 2. That the first supper was done, when
Christ arose and washed his Disciples feet, and after that he gave Judas the sop, which must argue a
second sitting down. This foretelling his Disciples, that one of them should betray him, is likewise by
Saint Luke recited after the consecration of the Sacrament. This is the strongest argument, and yet not
of sufficient validity, because by a kind of Prolepsis, or anticipation of time, it is not unusual, in the
Scripture, to relate that first, which according to the truth of the History, should be last. Thus John 11.
mention is made of Mary which anointed the Lord, yet her anointing of him followeth in the next
Chapter. And this same History of betraying Christ, Saint Matthew, and Saint Mark recite it before the
consecration of the Sacrament. Whence the Jews have a Proverb,[320] Non esse prius aut posterius in
scriptura; That first and last, must not be strictly urged in Scripture. Together with these answers,
consider how improbable it is, that ten persons (for sometimes they were so few) should eat a second
supper, after they had eaten A Lamb of the first year, which might be an year old. It is evident also by
that of Barabbas, that it was a received custom on the Passover, to let loose and enlarge one Prisoner
or other. Concerning the reason hereof, the conjecture is three-fold, Some think this custom to have
been used in memory of Jonathan the son of Saul, when the people rescued him from the hands of his
Father. Others say that the reason hereof was, that the Feast might be celebrated with the greater joy
and gladness. Others more probably think, it was done in remembrance of their deliverance from the
Egyptian bondage.
[320] ‎‫‏אין מוקדם ומאוחר בתורה‏‬‎Salom. Iarchi. in Gen. 6. 3.
Again, here is to be observed, that the Jews, speaking of their Passover, did sometimes speak
according to their civil computation, wherein they measured their days from Sun-rising to Sun-rising:
sometimes according to their sacred computation, which was from Sun-set to Sun-set. This serveth for
the reconciliation of that, Numb. 12. 18. which seemeth to make the fourteenth day of the first month,
the first day of unleavened bread. And Josephus[321] telleth us that they numbered eight days for that
Feast. In like manner the Disciples are said to come unto Christ the first day of unleavened bread,
saying unto him, Where wilt thou that we prepare for thee to eat the Passover? Mat. 26. 17. as if the
first day of unleavened bread, were before the Passover. All these are true according to the
computation of their civil days, though according to the computation of their Holy-days, the feast of
unleavened bread began the fifteenth day, and continued seven days only, and the Passover was before
the feast of unleavend bread.
[321] Joseph. Antiq. l. 2. c. 5. p. 65.
In the last place we must know, that there was permitted a second Passover to those who could not
be partakers of the first, by reason either of their uncleanness by a dead body, or of their far distance
from the place where it was to be offered. This was to be observed in the second month, the fourteenth
day thereof, according to all the Ordinances of the first Passover, Numb. 9. Touching that permission of
a second Passover, to those that were in a journey far off: the Hebrew of this word far off, hath
extraordinary pricks over it, for special consideration. Hereby the Lord might intimate, that we Gentiles
which were unclean, even dead in trespasses and sins, and far off, Ephes. 2. 13. should be made nigh
by the blood of Christ, and so partakers of him, the second Passover. Of this legal Ordinance the
Hebrews say,[322] What is this journey far off? fifteen miles without the walls of Jerusalem, who so is
distant from Jerusalem, on the fourteenth day of the first month, fifteen miles or more, when the Sun
riseth, Lo, this is a journey far off; if less than this, it is not a journey far off, for he may come to
Jerusalem by after midday, though he go on foot, easily. The Agreement between the Paschal Lamb and
Christ standeth thus,
[322] Maimon. in Korban. Pesach c. 5. sect. 8, 9.

Christ is our Passover, 1 Cor. 5.

The Paschal Lamb was, Christ was,
1 One of the flock. 1 Perfect man, John 1.
2 Without blemish. 2 Without sin.
3 To be sacrificed and roasted. 3 Suffered and died.
4 His bones were not broken. 4 They brake not his legs, John 19. 33.
5 About the Evening. 5 In the end of the world, Heb. 9. 26.
6 Their door-posts were to be sprinkled with the 6 The Blood of Christ purgeth our consciences.
blood.
7 That the punishing Angel might pass over them. 7 That sin and death might not prevail against
8 It was eaten in their several families. 8 He is applied by Faith.
9 The whole Lamb. 9 According to all the Articles of the Creed.
10 Without Leaven. 10 Without Hypocrisie, 1 Cor. 5.
11 With bitter herbs. 11 With patience under the Cross.
12 In haste, and in the manner of Travellers. 12 With an earnest and longing expectation of li
eternal.
13 Only by the Circumcised. 13 Only by the faithful, 1 Cor. 11.

CHAP. V.
Of their Pentecost

This Feast was called πεντεκοστὴ, the Pentecost; which word signifieth the fiftieth day, because it
was observed upon the fiftieth day after the second of the Passover, which was the sixteenth of Nisan.
Here in the first place we must note, that the fourteenth of Nisan was τὸ πάσχα, the Passover; the
fifteenth ἑορτὴ τοῦ πάσχα, the Feast of the Passover: or πρώτη τοῦ πάσχα,[323] the first of the
Passover: the sixteenth was δευτέρα τοῦ πάσχα, the second of the Passover; or the morrow after the
Passover, Levit. 23. 11. which is all one, as if it had been said, the morrow after the feast of the
Passover; for in those feasts which consisted in many daies, the first and the last were termed
Sabbaths. Now these fifty daies were in truth the appointed time of their Harvest, their Harvest, being
bounded as it were, with two remarkable daies, the one being the beginning, the other the end thereof:
the beginning was δευτέρα τοῦ πάσχα the second of the Passover; the end was πεντεκοστὴ, the fiftieth
day after, called the Pentecost. Upon the δευτέρα, then they offered[324] a sheaf of the same fruits of
their harvest, Levit. 23. 10. Upon the Pentecost, then they offered two wave loavs, Levit. 23. 17. the
sheaf being an Oblation offered in the name of the whole Congregation, whereby all the after-fruits
throughout the Land were sanctified,[325] it being from thence afterward lawful, and not before, to reap
the Corn, the two loavs being not only an Eucharistical Oblation, but also a token of the Harvest finished
and ended. In the second place we are to know, that they did count these fifty daies by numbring the
Weeks from the δευτέρα, whence it was called a Feast of weeks. The manner how they counted the
weeks, was, according to the number of the Sabbaths following the δευτέρα. Thus the first Sabbath
following they called δευτερόπρωτον σάββατον: the second, δευτεροδεύτερον: the third δευτερότριτον,
&c. So that[326] all the Weeks and Sabbaths, during the time of the Pentecost; as the first, second,
third, and fourth, &c. took their denomination from δευτέρα, which observation giveth light to that of S.
Luke, Luke 16. 1. where there is mention of a Sabbath termed δευτερόπρωτον, that is, the second first
Sabbath, and by it is meant the Sabbath next after the sixteenth of Nisan, which was the δευτέρα.
Seeing that these fifty daies did measure out the time of their Harvest, it will not be amiss to observe
the difference betwixt their Harvest and ours, which chiefly consisted in their anticipation of time; for
both the Canaanites and the Ægyptians began their Harvest about the first of April,[327] it was quite
finished in May.
[323] Seniores appellabant hunc diem, πρώτην τῶν σαββάτων. Lev. 23. 11.
[324] Scalig. de emend. temp. l. 6.
[325] Καὶ τότε λοιπὸν δημοσίᾳ ἔξεστι πᾶσι καὶ ἰδίᾳ θερίζειν, Joseph. Antiq. l. 3. c. 10.
[326] Scalig. lib. 6. de emend. temp. p. 260.
[327] Plin. l. 18. cap. 18. Illud ipsum confirmat Leo Afr. testis αὐτόπτης Descript. Afr. lib. 8. c. 4.

CHAP. VI.
The Feast of Tabernacles

The Greek word used to express this Festivity, properly signifieth the making of Tabernacles:[328] the
Hebrew word, a Feast of Tabernacles.[329] The reason of both is, because all the time of this Feast,
which was full seven daies, (from the fifteenth of Tisri, untill the one and twentieth thereof) the people
remained in Tabernacles and Booths made of Boughs, in manner of Arbors and Bowers; yet so, that the
first day of those seven, and the last, were after a more special manner to be observed as holy
Convocations.
[328] Jansen. Concord. cap. 73. Item Tollet. in Joan. 7. σκηνοπαγία, non σκηνοφαγία.
[329] ‎‫‏חג הסכות‏‬‎Chag hasuccoth.

Concerning these Booths, the Jews write thus:[330] They ought to be made in the open Air, not within
doors, nor under the shelter of a Tree; they ought not to be covered with cloaths, nor to be made too
close with the thickness of the Boughs, but with such holes that the Sun and the Stars might be seen
thorow them, and the rain likewise descend thorow them. In these they ought to dwell those seven
days, as in their houses; they ought to furnish them with houshold-stuff to ly under them, and sleep
under them; only in rainy weather, then they had liberty to eat and sleep in their houses, untill the rain
was over-past. Feeble persons also, which could not endure the smell of the earth, were permited to
stay at home. In Nehemiah’s time they made their Booths, some upon the roof of their houses (for their
houses were made flat above) Deut. 22. 8. Some in their Courts, some in their streets, Nehem. 8. 15.
[330] Munster Levit. 23.

Plutarch making mention of this Festivity, saith,[331] that these Booths were made principally of Ivy
boughs: but the Scripture reckoneth up four distinct kinds, Levit. 23. 40. which are thought to be, 1.
The Cittern tree. 2. The Palm-tree. 3. The Myrtle tree. 4. The willow of the brook. The Rabbins teach,
[332] that every man brought every morning his burden of the boughs of these four Trees, otherwise he

fasted that day. And this burden they termed[333] Hosanna: in allusion unto this the people cutting
down branches from the Trees, and strewing them in the way when our Saviour did ride into Jerusalem,
cried, saying, Hosanna to the Son of David, Mat. 21. 9. Plutarch scoffing the Jews, compares this Feast
with that drunken Festival in the honour of Bacchus, in which the Bacchides ran up and down with
certain Javelings in their hands, wrapped about with Ivy, called θυρσοὶ and in this respect he termeth
this feast of the Jews θυρσοφορίαν A bearing about of these Thyrsi. That feast which the Athenians
term Εἰρεσιώνη, was not much unlike.
[331] Plutarch. Sympos. 4. Problem. 5.
[332] P. Fag. Levit. 23.
[333] Elias Thisbit.

Moreover on the next day after this feast, they compassed the Altar[334] seven times with Palm-
boughs in their hands, in the remembrance of the overthrow of Jericho: for which reason, or else
because that Palm branches were the chief in the bundle, it was called Dies Palmarum, Palm Feast.
[334] Hospinian. de Orig. fest. cap. 7. It. Munst. in Calendar. p. 150.
Concerning the reason of this Feast; some are of opinion, that it was instituted in memory of that
protection which the Lord vouchsafed the Israelites by the Cloud, when they travelled thorow the
Wilderness, under the shadow of which they travelled, as under a safe Booth or Tent. Onkelos in his
Chaldee Paraphrase, seemeth to incline to this opinion. Where the Hebrew readeth; That your posterity
may know, that I have made the children of Israel to dwell in Booths, Lev. 23. 43. The Chaldee
rendereth it, That your posterity may know that I have made the children of Israel to dwell in the
shadow of Clouds.[335] Others think[336] it was instituted as a solemn thanksgiving unto God for their
Vintage, which was gathered in at that time of the year; thence it is that they conceive those Psalms of
David, which are entituled ‎‫‏על הגתית‏‬‎ pro torcularibus, to have been composed for this feast. Others
speak more probably, who assign the cause to be in memory of their Fore-fathers dwelling in Tents and
Tabernacles; the Text is clear, Levit. 23. 43.
[335] ‎‫‏במטלת עננין‏‬‎
[336] Theophylact. John 5.
The Sacrifices which were offered these seven daies, are prescribed: Numb. 29. from the thirteenth
verse to the thirty fourth, where we shall read every day the like Sacrifice, but only with this difference,
that upon the first day they offered thirteen young bullocks, upon the second twelve, upon the third
eleven, and so forward, ever diminishing the number by one. The reason of which diminution, the Jews
deliver to be this:[337] the whole number of bullocks to be offered at this solemnity was seventy,
according to the Languages of the seventy Nations, (for whom, as they teach, these sacrifices were
performed) signifying thereby, that there should be a diminution of those Nations, until all things were
brought under the government of the Messias who was the expectation and Hope of the Gentiles.
[337] Hospinian. de Orig. hujus fest.
The two and twentieth of the month Tisri, was in truth a distinct feast, as appeareth, Neh. 8. 18. but
yet because this immediately followed the Feast of Tabernacles, it hath been always counted the last
day of that Feast. And not only the boughs, but the days of this whole feast of Tabernacles were
termed[338] Hosannoth, from the usual acclamations of the people, whiles they carried Boughs up and
down. And this eighth day was called Hosanna Rabba, the great Hosanna, or the great day of the feast.
John 7. 37. Upon this day[339] they did read the last Section of the Law, and likewise began the first,
least they might otherwise seem more joyful in ending their Sections, than willing to begin them. Upon
this day also,[340] by the Institution of the Prophet Haggæus and Zachary, and such like Prophetical
men, they did with great solemnity and joy, bring great store of water from the River Shiloah to the
Temple, where it being delivered unto the Priests, it was poured upon the Altar, together with Wine, and
all the people sung that of the Prophet Esay. 12. 13. With joy shall ye draw water out of the Wells of
salvation. Our Saviour is thought to have alluded unto this, in that speech which he used on this very
day, John 7. 38. He that believeth in me, out of his belly shall flow rivers of waters of life.
[338] Talmud. tract. de fest. Tabernaculorum, cap. ‎‫‏הלול‏‬‎Vid. Tremel. John 7. 37.
[339] Buxtorf. in abbreviatur. p. 253.
[340] Tremel. Joh. 7. 37. ex Talmud.
It is worth our noting also, that whereas God commanded the Observation of this Feast on the
fifteenth of the seventh month Tisri; Jeroboam, that he might work in the people a forgetfulness of the
true Worship of God, appointed[341] the celebration of a Feast in the eighth month, on the fifteenth day
thereof, which is thought to be this very feast of Tabernacles.
[341] Hospinian. de Orig. hujus fest. p. 24.

CHAP. VII.
Of the Feast of Trumpets, and their New Moons.

For the understanding of the time when this Feast was to be observed, we must note, the month Tisri
was the seventh month, according to their sacred Computation; and therefore it is commanded to be
celebrated the first day of the seventh month, Levit. 23. 24. But according to their Civil Computation it
was their first month, so that this Feast may be termed their New-years-day.
The first day of every month had its solemnities. First, when they repaired to the Prophets for the
hearing of the word, as on other Sabbaths. Wherefore wilt thou go to him to day? It is neither New
Moon, nor Sabbath day, 2 Kings 4. 23. Secondly, It was then unlawful to buy and sell: When will the
New Moon be gone, that we may sell corn? Amos 8. 4. Thirdly, They had then special sacrifices over
and above their daily sacrifices.
Notwithstanding, this feast of Trumpets differed from other New Moons. First, in respect of their
sacrifices; in their ordinary New Moons they offered (besides the daily sacrifice) two Bullocks, one Ram,
seven Lambs, for burnt-offerings; with their meat and drink-offering, and a Goat for a sin-offering, Num.
28. 11, 15. But at this New-Moon, which was the beginning of their year, they offered all the aforesaid
sacrifices, and over and besides them, one Bullock, one Ram, and seven Lambs, for burnt-offerings, and
a Goat for a sin-offering, umb. 29. 1, 6. Secondly, in Other New Moons they blowed no Trumpets: In
this they blowed[342] from the Sun rising till night: whence we learn what New Moon it is that David
speaketh of, Psal. 81. 3. Blow the Trumpet in the New Moon, in the time appointed, at our feast day.
[342] Sheindler, in voce ‎‫‏שפר‏‬‎
The reason in general of this blowing, and great noise of Trumpets, I take to have been, to make
their New-years-day the more remarkable, because from it all their deeds and contracts bore date, and
their Sabbatical years and Jubilees were counted thence: But why it should be made remarkable by the
sound of Trumpets, or Cornets, there are three conjectures.
First, the Hebrews think[343] it was done in memory of Isaac his deliverance, and that they did
therefore sound Rams horns, because a Ram was sacrificed instead of him. Secondly, Basil[344] is of
opinion, that the people were hereby put in mind of that day, wherein they received the Law in Mount
Sinai with blowing of Trumpets. Thirdly, others think it was to put them in rememberance of the
Resurrection, which shall be with the sound of Trumpets; He shall send his Angels with a great sound of
a Trumpet, Mat. 24. 31.
[343] P. Fag. Levit. 23.
[344] Basil. in Psal. 80.
 There are three things considerable in New Moons.[345] First, σύνοδος, the conjunction of the Moon
with the Sun. Secondly, ἐξαυγασμὸς, the waxing of the Moon. Thirdly, σχῆμα μηνοειδὲς, the prime of
the Moon. In the first it was quite dark; in the second it did open it self to receive the Sun-beams: In
the last it did appear, corniculata, horned.
[345] Scalig. de emend. temp. pag. 26. It. p. 105.
Because in all these three degrees of the change, there was a kind of mutual participation both of the
Old and New Moon: Hence the Jews observe two daies,[346] namely, the last of every moneth, and the
first day of the next following. Now because the thirtieth was the last in their longest months; Hence
Horace calleth these last days, Tricesima Sabbata: The first days they termed, Neomenias, new Moons.
[346] Hospin. de Orig. fest. c. 4. p. 15. Eadem ratio tenet etiam in illis mensibus qui constant 29.
diebus.
For certain reasons the Jews used a kind of change, or translation of daies; which translation, though
it were of use in other months also, yet the greatest care was had in translating the beginning of their
year, or their first day in their month Tisri; and he that shall diligently calculate these changes, shall
find, that all other translations depended on this first.
Translation of daies was threefold.[347] First, Lunary: Secondly, Politik: Thirdly, Mixt.
[347] Scalig. de emend. temp. l. 2. p. 85.
The reason of Lunary translation, was, that they might not observe the Feast of the New Moon, until
the old were quite over-past. For the understanding of this, note these three rules.
First, The Hebrews counted their Holy-daies from night to night, beginning at six of the clock; so that
from six of the clock the first night, till the next noon, were just eighteen hours.
Secondly, Always before the New Moon, there is a conjunction between the Sun and the Moon; during
this conjunction she is called Luna silens, by reason of her darkness, and all this time there is a
participation of the New Moon.
Thirdly, When the conjunction was over past before noon-tide, namely, in any of those first 18 hours,
then the New Moon was celebrated the same day.[348] But if it continued but one minute after twelve of
the clock at noon, then the feast was translated to the day following, because otherwise they should
begin their Holy-day in the time of the old Moon. And this translation they noted with this abbreviation
‎‫‏יה‏‬‎, that is, 18, because of those eighteen hours which occasioned it.
[348] Munster. Calend. Heb. p. 46.
The reason of Politick translation, was, that two Sabbaths, or feast-days might not immediately follow
each other: because say they,[349] it was unlawful those two daies to dress meat, or bury the dead; and
it was likewise inconvenient to keep meat dressed, or the dead unburied two daies. Yet here two
exceptions must be remembred, when the meeting of two Sabbaths could not be avoided.
[349] Munst. Calend. p. 139.
First, When the Passover, or the fifteenth day of Nisan, fell on Saturday; for then the Pentecost must
needs fall on Sunday.
Secondly, When the Passover fell on Sunday; for then their Passover immediately followed their
weekly Sabbath.
The first Author of this Politick translation was a certain chief man amongst them, named Eleazar;
[350]
three hundred and fifty years before Christ his Nativity.
[350] Hospinian. de Orig. fest. p. 6.
The several species or kinds of Politick translation, were five. The first, ‎‫‏אדו‏‬‎ Adu. The second, ‎‫‏בדו‏‬‎
Badu. The third, ‎‫‏גהז‏‬‎ Gahaz. The fourth, ‎‫‏זבד‏‬‎ Zabad. The fifth, ‎‫‏אגו‏‬‎ Agu. For the understanding of these
abbreviatures, we must know, that in these made words the letters only stand for numbers, and are
applied to the seven daies of the week, thus ‎‫‏א‏‬‎1. Sunday. ‎‫‏ב‏‬‎2. Munday. ‎‫‏ג‏‬‎3. Tuesday. ‎‫‏ד‏‬‎4. Wednesday.
‎‫‏ה‏‬‎5. Thursday. ‎‫‏ו‏‬‎6. Friday. ‎‫‏ז‏‬‎7. Saturday: which was the Jews Sabbath.
Their rules touching Politick translation, stood thus.[351] First, that neither their New-years-day, which
was the first of the month Tisri, neither their Feast of Tabernacles, which was the fifteenth day of the
same month, should be celebrated on Adu, that is on Sunday, or Wednesday, or Friday. Not on Sunday,
or Friday, because then the weekly Sabbath must needs concur with it, either going immediately before,
or following after: not on Wednesday, because then the Feast of expiation, which is the tenth of that
month, would fall on Friday the day going immediately before their weekly Sabbath. This instance is
only concerning the first of Tisri, which is called the Feast of Trumpets: but it holdeth also, by way of
consequence, in the fifteenth day, which is the Feast of Tabernacles, because the fifteenth must always
necessarily be of the same day of the week that the first is. Therefore if the first be not Adu, the
fifteenth cannot be Adu.
[351] Adu.

The second rule was,[352] that the Passover should not be observed on Badu; that is on Munday,
Wednesday, or Friday.
[352] Badu.

The third rule is,[353] that Pentecost was not observed on Gahaz; that is, on Tuesday, Thursday, or
Saturday.
[353] Gahaz.

The fourth rule is,[354] that the Feast of Purim, or casting lots, was not observed on Zabad, that is, on
Munday, Wednesday, or Saturday.
[354] Zabad.

The fifth rule is,[355] that the Feast of expiation was not observed on Agu; that is, on Sunday,
Tuesday, or Friday.
[355] Agu.
Mixt translation is, when both the Lunary and the Politick meet in the changing of daies. And the
translation occasioned by this mixture or meeting of both these two, is twofold. First, Simple. And
secondly, Double.
Simple translation is, when the Feast is translated to the next day following. For examples sake, If the
Moon changed after noon-tide on Sunday, here the Feast must be translated, for two reasons: the first
is Lunary, because the point of the change was after eighteen hours; the second, Politick, because the
rule Adu forbids Sunday to be kept: notwithstanding, in as much as the very next day, namely Munday,
was observed; I term this translation simple. Of this sort was that translation which they called Batu
takphat.
‎ ‫‏בטו תקפ‬‎ Batu Takphat,[356] is a word invented for help of memory; each letter is a numeral, and
‫ט‏‬
‎ ‫‏תקפ‬‎ 589. The meaning is, that in the year following Annum
may be thus resolved, ‎‫‏ב‏‬‎ 2. ‎‫‏טו‏‬‎ 15. ‫ט‏‬
Embolymæum (wherein one whole month was ingrafted) if the point of the change happened upon the
second day of the week, that is, Munday not before the fifteenth hour, and the 589 moment, the Feast
of the New Moon was translated unto Tuesday. How both the Lunary and Politick translation work in this
change, read Scaliger, de emend. temp. lib. 2. pag. 87.
[356] Batu takphat.
Double Translation, is, when the Feast is translated not to the next, but to some further day: as if the
first day of the month Tisri should happen upon Saturday; here, if the Moon hath not overpast her
conjunction before the afternoon, Lunary translation removeth this Feast till Sunday, because of ‎‫‏יח‏‬‎, that
is, the eighteen hours: Politick translation removeth it till Munday, as appeareth by the rule Adu,
forbidding Sunday; of this sort is Gatrad.
 ‎‫‏גטרד‏‬‎Gatrad, is a made word, each letter is a numeral, and it may be thus resolved, ‎‫‏ג‏‬‎3. ‎‫ט‏‬‎‫‏‬9. ‎‫‏רד‏‬‎204.
The meaning thereof is thus: In their common year (when a whole month is not inserted) if the point of
the change happen upon the third day of the week, that is, Tuesday, not before the ninth hour, and the
204 moment of an hour, then the New Moon shall be translated to Thursday.
Note in the last place, that 1080 moments make an hour.[357]
[357] Munst. Calend. pag. 45.
The Feast of Tabernacles was observed in the month Tisri, and therefore that could not be observed
the morrow after the Sabbath, as appeareth by the rule Adu. The Passover was observed in the month
Nisan, and therefore that might be observed the morrow after the Sabbath, as appeareth by the rule
Badu. If any ask the reason why the Passover might be observed the next day after the Sabbath, seeing
the Feast of Tabernacles might not? I take it to be thus; All the after translations depended upon the
first translation of the first New Moon in Tisri; but that could not be so changed, as to prevent all
concurrence of two Feasts; and thus to have their Passover sometimes to follow their Sabbath, they
thought the most convenientest ordering of the year, because though not all meetings of two Sabbaths,
yet most were hereby prevented.
This tract of translation of Feasts, it serveth partly to open the customs of the Jews: partly to give
light for the understanding of that great dispute among Divines, whether our Saviour did anticipate the
Passover. The Greek Church holds,[358] that he kept a Passover by himself with his Disciples, on the
thirteenth day of the month, when unleavened bread was not yet to be used; and thence they do both
use and urge a necessity[359] of leavened bread in the Lords supper: But this opinion we reject. First,
because it accordeth not with the truth of Evangelical History. Secondly, because it plainly maketh Christ
to be a transgressor, not a fulfiller of the Law. Others say,[360] that because that year their Passover fell
on Friday, hence the feast was translated unto Saturday by the rule Badu. Their inference is that Christ
kept the fourteenth day of the month, which was Friday, and the Jews kept Saturday. He kept Gods
Command, they the tradition of the Elders. Lastly, others more probably hold,[361] that both Christ and
the Jews did eat the Passover the same day and hour; namely, on Friday, or the fourteenth day of the
month, if we count the beginning of Friday according to the manner of the Jews, from six a clock at
night on Thursday. Friday morning he was judged, and crucified; and in the afternoon, about three of
the clock, when the preparation of the Sabbath began, he was buried; There laid they Jesus, because of
the Jews preparation, John 19. 24.
[358] Epiph. l. 2. Tom. 1. c. 51. p. 147.
[359] Usum fermentati panis in cœna Dominica Ecclesia Romana olim non damnavit. Casaubon.
exercit. 16. p. 65.
[360] Munster. in Mat. cap. 26.
[361] Joseph. Scalig. de emend. temp. lib. 6. p. 266.
For reconciling the Evangelists in this point, we must note these particulars, which are more at large
proved in the Chapter of the Passover. 1. The fourteenth day of the month, on which the Paschal Lamb
was eaten, was called the first day of unleavened bread; the Feast of unleavened bread drew near,
which is called the Passover, Luke 22. 1.
The fourteenth day was not holy, but the fifteenth was. In the fourteenth day of the first month is the
Passover of the Lord, and in the fifteenth day of this month is the Feast, Numb. 28. 16, 17. Some of
them thought, because Judas had the bag, that Jesus had said unto him, Buy those things that we have
need of against the Feast, John 13. 29.
The Sheep and Bullocks offered upon this day, are called the Passover, Deut. 16. 2. And of this we
are to understand S. John, Joh. 18. 28. They themselves went not into the common Hall, lest they
should be defiled, but that they might eat the Passover. So that this eating of the Passover is not
understood of the Paschal Lamb. But some may question, How they should have been defiled by entring
into the common Hall? The answer is,[362] that upon Holy-day-eves, which they termed days of
preparation, they held it unlawful for their Judges to sit on life and death. Hence it is that they brought
Jesus to Pilate the Roman Deputy. Secondly, they withdrew themselves out of the common Hall.
Thirdly, for this reason they said, It is not lawful for us to put any man to death, Joh. 18. 31. that is,
upon this, or such like day;[363] for though their high Court of Sanedrim were put down at this time, yet
all power in cases of life and death was not taken from them, as is implied in the words following; It
was that the word of Jesus might be fulfilled, which he spake signifying what death he should die, ver.
32. Which text intimateth, that that unlawfulness was urged by the special providence of God, that he
might be crucified, being judged by Pilat: for if the Jews had judged, they used no such kind of death
towards Malefactors. Again, Stephen was condemned by them to be stoned, Act. 7. And they
complained before Felix, that when they were about to proceed against Paul according to their own
Law, the chief Captain Lysias with violence took him out of their hands, Acts 24. Which argueth, that all
power in causes capital was not taken from them: But of this see the Chapter, Of their capital
punishments.
[362] ‎‫‏אין דנין דיני נפשות לא בערב שבת ולא בערב יום טוב‏‬‎ Moses ben Maimon. li. ult. Iad. c.
Sanedrin. Sect. 11.
[363] August. tract. 114. In Ioann. ita hunc locum exponunt etiam Cyrill. lib. 12. in Ioan. c. 6.
Chrys. hom. 12. in Joan. Beda in c. 18. Joan.

CHAP. VIII.
The Feast of Expiation.

Upon the tenth day of the month Tisri, answering to September with us, the Feast of Expiation was
commanded to be celebrated, Levit. 13. It was called the Feast of Expiation, because the High-priest did
then confess unto God both his own sins, and the sins of the people: and by the performance of certain
Rites and Ceremonies expiate them, and make an attonement unto God for them.
The Ceremonies at this time to be performed, concerned either the People and the Priest, or the
Priest alone. Those which concerned the People and the Priest, consisted in the afflicting of their souls
by fasting. Whence this Feast was also called[364] Dies Jejunii, the Fasting Day, Jer. 36. 6. Which
serveth for the understanding of that, Act. 27. 9. Sailing was now dangerous, because the Feast was
already past; that is, the Feast of Expiation was now past, and Winter was at hand.
 [364] Joseph. de bel. Jud. pag. 43.
Those Ceremonies which concerned the Priest alone, were two: First, then the High-priest entred into
the Holiest of Holies, which was peculiar unto this day. Secondly, he being about to sacrifice for himself
and his house, he took unto him a young Bullock for a sin-offering, and a Ram for a burnt offering,
putting on his Priestly Robes: After he had washed himself in water; he took of the Congregation two
He-goats for a sin-offering, and a Ram for a burnt offering. The two He-goats he presented before the
Lord at the door of the Tabernacle, casting lots which of them should be sacrificed, which let scape
alive. This last was termed[365] the scape Goat, because the other being slain, this was sent alive into
the Wilderness. The Greek Interpreters call this Goat ἀποπομπαῖον, Malorum depulsorem, A defender
from evils; which name the Heathens applied to their Tutelar Gods. They intimated, that when the
scape Goat carried away the sins of the people into the Wilderness, he likewise carried away all those
evils which belonged unto those sins. And for the securing the people in this point, the Lord
commanded the High priest to confess in the name of all the people, and to disburden the sins of the
whole Congregation upon the head of the scape Goat. The form of Confession, according to the relation
of the Hebrew Doctors, was this:[366] O Lord, thy People, the House of Israel, they have sinned, they
have done wickedly, they have transgressed before thee; I beseech thee now, O Lord, pardon the sins,
iniquities, and transgressions, with which the People, the House of Israel have sinned, done wickedly,
and transgressed before thee, as it is written in the Law of thy servant Moses: that in that day he shall
make Attonement for you, that he might cleanse you, and that you might be clean from all your
iniquities before the Lord.
[365] ‎‫‏עזאזל‏‬‎Gnaz azl. ex ‎‫‏עז‏‬‎Gnez. capra & ‎‫‏אזל‏‬‎Azal, abiit R. D. Kimchi in Radic.
[366] P. Fag. Lev. 16.
The modern Jews now (because there can be no proper sacrifice, the Temple of Jerusalem being
destroyèd) the men they take a white Cock on this day, the women a Hen.[367] This Cock they swing
three times about the Priests head, saying, Gallus Gallinaceus hic commutatio erit pro me: that is, This
Cock shall be a propitiation for me. After that they kill the Cock; acknowledging themselves worthy of
death; and then they cast the intrals upon the top of the house, that some Raven or Crow might carry
both them, and together with them, their sins into the Wilderness. And least they might seem to be
mad without reason, they assign the cause why they make choice of a Cock, at this time, to be this:
This word[368] Gebher in the Holy Language signifieth a Man, in their Talmud it signifieth a Cock. Now,
say they, the Justice of God requires, that as Gebher sinned, so Gebher should make satisfaction. From
this Feast of Expiation it is probable, that the Grecians used a yearly Expiation of their Cities, which was
performed on this manner: Certain condemned persons were brought forth with Garlands upon their
heads, in manner of sacrifices, these they would tumble from some steep place into the Sea, offering
them up to Neptune, using this form of words,[369] περίψημα ἡμῶν γενοῦ, Sis pro nobis peripsema: As
if he had said, Be thou a Reconciliation or Propitiation for us. The like kind of Expiation was used among
them in time of any Pestilence, or contagious infection; for removal of such diseases, they then
sacrificed certain men unto their Gods, such men they termed καθάρματα.[370] These two words are
used by the Apostle, 1 Cor. 4. 13. and they are translated filth and off-scouring: We are made as the
filth of the World, and as the off-scouring of all things. The words signifie properly the filth or dirt
scraped off mens shooes, or from the pavement of the ground: But in Budæus his opinion,[371] the
Apostle had allusion unto those kinds of Expiations in use amongst the Heathens. As if he had said, We
are as despicable and as odious in the sight of the people, as much loaded with the revilings and
cursings of the multitude, as those condemned persons, who were offered up by way of publick
Expiation.
[367] Buxtorf. Synagog. cap. 20.
[368] ‎‫‏גבר‏‬‎
[369] Suidas in voce περίψημα.
[370] Καθάρματα ἐλέγοντο οἱ ἐπὶ καθάρσει λιμοῦ τινὸς ἤ τινὸς ἑτέρας νόσου θυόμενοι τοῖς θεοῖς,
Vetus Scholiast. in Aristophan. Plut. pag. 48.
 [371] Budæus annot. reliq. in Pandect. De pœnis, p. 334.
Now, seeing at this Feast principally the High-Priest was a Type of Christ, it will not be amiss to note
the agreement between the Type and the Truth.

Aaron. Christ.
1. The High-priest went into the Holiest of all, Levit. 1. Christ our High-Priest went into the Holy place
16. 3. namely, the Heavens, Heb. 9. 12.
2. He went once a year, Exod. 30. 10. 2. He entered once, Heb. 9. 12.
3. He with the blood of Goats and Calves, Heb. 9. 12. 3. He by his own blood, Heb. 9. 12.
4. He alone, Heb. 9. 4. He alone hath trodden the Wine-press, Isay. 6
5. He, clothed with his Priestly Robes, Levit. 16. 4. 5. He, ordained and sealed to this Office, by his F
from all Eternity.
6. He took two Goats, Levit. 16. 6. He took two natures: the impassibility of his G
head was shadowed by the Scape goat: his
sufferings in his Manhood, by the Goat that wa
sacrificed, Theod. Qu. 12. in Lev.
7. The Goat did bear the Peoples iniquities. 7. Christ was made sin for us, 2 Cor. 5. 22.

CHAP. IX.
The Sabbatical year, or Seventh years rest

As every seventh day was a Sabbath day, so every seventh year was a Sabbatical year, Levit. 25. And
as the Sabbath day signified that they themselves were the Lords, and therefore they abstained from
their own work to do the Lords: So the Sabbatical year was to signifie, that both they and their land
was the Lords.
The observation of this Feast consisted chiefly in two things. First, in the not tilling or manuring of
their ground, whence it was called Scabath Haarets,[372] the Sabbaths of the Land, Levit. 25. 6.
Secondly, in the Creditors discharging their debtors, and releasing their debts, and thence it was called
Shemita laihova,[373] The Lords release, Deut. 15. 2.
[372] ‎‫‏שבת הארץ‏‬‎
[373] ‎‫‏שמיטה ליהוה‏‬‎
Seeing they were that year forbid to till their ground, here a question might be made; what they
should eat in the time of this intermission?
Answ. I will command my blessing upon you in the sixth year, and it shall bring forth fruit for three
years, Levit. 25. 20, 21. saith the Lord.
Seeing every seventh year, debts, according to Gods Command were to be remitted, some might
demand whether this might not much endamage their Estates if they did lend? or harden their hearts
not to lend?
Answ. It could not endamage their Estates, for it is a most infallible Maxime: No man is a loser by
serving God. Whence the Hebrews themselves interpret this to be rather Mandatum probationis, A
command of tryal, such as Abrahams offering up of Isaac was, which God commanded, not intending
that he should be sacrificed, but that Abrahams love might be tryed; rather than Mandatum obedientiæ,
A command of obedience. To this purpose speaketh Aben Ezra, interpreting these words, Save when
there shall be no poor among you. Deut. 15. 4. That is, saith he,[374] as if the Lord had said, Know that
that which I have commanded thee, that thou shouldest not exact of thy Brother, will be needless. If all
Israel, or the greater part obey the voice of God, then there shall be no poor amongst you, to whom it
shall be needful for thee to lend; yea, all of you shall be able to lend to many Nations.
[374] Aben Ezra. Deut. 15. 4.
The reasons why this Feast was instituted, are thought to be: First, to teach the people to depend
upon Gods providence by faith; for though the owner of the field might gather, even on that year, for
the maintenance of himself and his family, Levit. 25. 6. yet he was neither to sow his field, thereby to
make his Harvest the greater; nor to hedge his field, or lock up his Corn-yard, thereby to enjoy the
propriety, but to let all be common, and every mans hand equal in every place. Secondly, they were
hereby put in mind of that happy estate which Adam enjoyed in his Innocency, when the earth brought
forth her encrease without manuring. Lastly, it shadowed forth that everlasting Sabbath which we
expect in the Heavens. And some conjecture[375] this to be the ground of Rabbi Elias his opinion,[376]
that the world should continue for six thousand years, but the seventh thousand should be the great
Sabbatical year. The six thousand years answered the six working daies of the week, the seventh
answered our Sabbath, according to that, A thousand years are but as one day with the Lord, 2 Pet. 3.
8. Elias his words are these; Six thousand years the world shall be, and again it shall be destroyed: Two
thousand shall be void, two thousand under the Law, and two thousand under the Messias.[377] The
substance of this Prophecy, howsoever we reject it as too curious, yet seeing that a Jew spake it, it may
serve to prove against them: First, That the Messias is already come: Secondly, That Moses his Law
ceased at his coming.
[375] Vid. Hospin. de Orig. hujus festi.
[376] Talmud. in Sanedrin. c. Hiel.
[377] ‎‫‏ב אלפי חוהו ב אלפי תורה ב אלפי ימות המשיח‏‬‎ Duo millia inanitatis, duo millia dierum
Messiæ, Talmud. in Sanedrin. c. Halec.

CHAP. X.
Of their Jubilee.

This is the last Festival which God commanded the Jews, it was celebrated every fiftieth year. It is
commanded, Lev. 25. 8. Thou shalt number seven Sabbaths of years unto thee, &c. The English word
Jubilee is derived from the Hebrew ‎‫‏יובל‏‬‎Jobel, signifying a Ram; it signifieth a Rams horn. Seven Priests
shall bear before the Ark seven Trumpets of Rams horns, Josh. 6. 4. Where the word Jobelim is used,
and is expounded by the Chaldee Paraphrast, Rams-horns. Marbachius is of opinion, that this year was
called their Jubilee, from Jubal,[378] the first inventer of musical instruments, of whom we read, Gen. 4.
21. Jubal was the Father of all such as handle the Harp and Organ. Other Authors deliver other reasons
of the name, but it is most probable that this year was termed the year of Jubilee from Jobelim, the
Rams-horns then sounded. There were five main uses of this Feast.
[378] Marbach. in Levit. 25.
First, for the general release of Servants. Secondly, for the restoring of Lands and Tenements unto
their first Owners, who formerly sold them. Thirdly, hereby a true distinction of their Tribes was
preserved, because Lands returned unto their Owners in their proper Tribe, and Servants to their own
Families. Fourthly, some are of opinion,[379] that as the Grecians did compute their times by the number
of Olympiads, the Romans by their Lustra, the Christians by their Indictions: So the Jews by their
Jubilees. Lastly, it did mystically shadow forth that spiritual Jubilee, which Christians enjoy under Christ,
by whose blood we have not only a re-entry into the Kingdom of Heaven, which we had formerly
forfeited by our sins (and this was haply signified by the Israelites re-entry upon their Lands formerly
sold) but also the sound of the Gospel, which was in this Feast typed out unto us by the noise of the
Trumpets, is gone thorowout the world. And thus the Lord God hath blown the Trumpet, as Zacharies
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