4.

1 Networks
4.1.1 Common network devices and terms
We will begin this section by defining four important terms you will often come
across in this chapter:
» network interface card (NIC)
» media access control (MAC) address » internet protocol (IP) address
» data packet.
Network interface card (NIC)
A network interface card (NIC) is needed to allow a device to connect to a network.
An NIC turns binary data into an electrical signal that allows access to a network.
The NIC is usually integrated into the motherboard on most modern computers.
Each NIC is given a unique hardwired (or hard-coded) media access control (MAC)
address at the manufacturing stage. When installed in a device, this uniquely
identifies that device.
Wireless network interface cards (WNICs) are the same as NICs in that they are used
to connect devices to the internet or other networks. However, they use wireless
connectivity, utilising an antenna to communicate with networks via microwaves.
They would normally plug into the USB port or be part of an internal integrated
circuit.
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NN – NN – NN – DD – DD – DD manufacturer’s code device serial

number
4.1 Networks
Media access control (MAC) address
The media access control (MAC) address is a number which uniquely identifies a
device when it is connected to a network. The MAC address is made up of 48 bits
which are shown as six groups of hexadecimal digits with the general format:
For example, , where the first six hex digits identify
a device made by Apple and the second set of six hex digits are the unique serial
number of the device itself. If the NIC card is replaced, the MAC address will
also change. The MAC address is sometimes referred to as the physical address
because it uniquely identifies a device. MAC addresses are useful when trying
to identify network faults because they never change, which makes it a more
reliable method of identifying data senders and data receivers on a network.
Internet protocol (IP) addresses
Whenever a computer connects to the internet it is given an internet protocol (IP)
address. This is usually assigned to the computer by the internet service provider
(ISP). Because the operation of the internet is based on a set of protocols
(rules), it is necessary to supply an IP address. Internet protocols define the
rules that must be agreed by senders and receivers of data communicating through
the internet. An IP address essentially identifies the location of a device on a
network.
This means that if you are using your laptop at home, it will have been given an IP
address when it connected to the internet. If you now take your laptop to a coffee
shop, and log into the internet again, it will be assigned a new IP address. Unlike
the MAC address which remains constant, the IP address changes each time you log in
at different locations.
There are two versions of IP: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is based on 32 bits and the
address is written as four groups of eight bits (shown in denary format); for
example:
Because there are now so many devices connected to the internet, and this number is
growing, in the future 32 bits will no longer be enough to give each of them a
unique address. Therefore, a newer version called IPv6 is now being used. This uses
a 128-bit address, which take the form of eight groups of hex digits; for example:
Note the use of colons (:) and hexadecimal numbering. IPv6 has been designed to
allow the internet to grow in terms of the number of hosts and potential increase
in the amount of data traffic.
00 – 1C – B3 – 4F – 25 – FF
254.25.28.77
A8FB:7A88:FFF0:0FFF:3D21:2085:66FB:F0FA

4 NETWORKS AND THE EFFECTS OF USING THEM

Data packets
Data is moved around networks in the form of data packets. Whenever a user sends
some data, it is split up into a number of packets and each packet is transmitted
separately. Packets of data will usually have a header which contains:
» the sender’s IP address
» the receiver’s IP address
» the sequence/identity number of the packet (this is to ensure that all the
packets can be reassembled into the correct order once they reach the
destination)
» the packet size (this is to ensure the receiving station can check if all of the
packets have arrived intact)
» how many data packets make up the whole message.
When a router (see later) receives a packet of data, it checks the destination IP
address against the stored routing table, which allows the router to determine the
packet’s next step in the path. A data packet will pass through a number of routers
before it reaches its final destination. All the information in the data packet
headers allows the data packets to be reassembled in their correct order, according
to the sequence/identity number, by the receiving station.
Exercise 4a
Try finding and running a program called ‘tracert’ which shows the ‘hops’ data
packets take from sender to receiver. The screen printout will show the routers
used in the path and the ‘hop’ numbers. (You can find 'tracert' utilities using a
search engine.)
Hubs
Hubs are hardware devices that can have a number of other devices connected to
them. They are used primarily to connect devices together to form a local area
network (LAN), often in the same building. A hub will take a data packet received
at one of its ports and broadcast it to every device connected to it.

Because data packets are delivered to every device on the network:

» hubs are not very secure because every device will receive every data packet
» there will be unnecessary traffic on the network, which results in reduced
bandwidth.
HUB

4.1 Networks
Switches
Switches are ‘intelligent’ versions of hubs. As with hubs, they connect a number of
devices together to form a LAN. However, unlike a hub, a switch stores the MAC
addresses of all devices on the network. Each port on the switch connected to a
device will have
a matching MAC address (called a look-up table).

Using the look-up table, a switch matches the MAC address of an incoming
data packet arriving at one of its ports, and directs it to the correct device.
None of the other devices will see this data packet. Thus, if a data packet arrives
at port 2, and the MAC address in the data packet is a4-00-22-b2-24-11, then the
switch will connect the data packet to port 4 only.
 data packet sent to one of the switch ports

Consequently, switches are more secure than hubs (because only the intended device
is sent the data) and do not waste bandwidth (because network traffic is reduced).
In conclusion, hubs and switches are used to exchange data within their own local
area networks. They are unable to exchange data with outside networks (such as the
internet). To exchange data outside their own LAN, a device needs to be able to
read an IP address. Therefore, we need another device to allow communication with
external networks.
In summary:
» both a hub and a switch are used to connect devices in a LAN
» both hubs and switches use data packets
» hubs send data packets to every device on the network; whereas switches
send data packets to a specific device only
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4 NETWORKS AND THE EFFECTS OF USING THEM

» security is lower with hubs than with switches
» a switch uses a look-up table to determine the destination device » switches use
MAC addresses to locate the destination device.
Bridges
Bridges are devices that connect one LAN to another LAN that uses the same protocol
(communication rules). They are often used to connect together different parts of a
LAN so that they can function as a single LAN.

4.1.2 Routers
Routers are used to route data packets from one network to another network, based
on IP addresses. It can do this because each router has its own IP address. Routers
are used to join a LAN to the internet.
Figure 4.6 Use of a bridge to connect two LANs together
Unlike routers, bridges cannot communicate with other external networks, such
computer
computer
computer
server
LAN
HUB/SWITCH
ROUTER
When a data packet is received at one of its ports, the router inspects the IP
address and determines whether the data packet is meant for its own network or for
another, external network. If the data packet is meant for its own network, then
the data packet is routed to the local switch or hub. Otherwise, the data packet is
transmitted to a different router (and therefore to an external network).
Routers know where to send data packets by consulting a routing table (stored on
the router’s RAM). The routing table will contain information about the
▲ Figure 4.7 Router
internet
▲ Figure 4.8 Router used to connect a LAN to the internet
80

router’s immediate network (such as computer addresses) and information

about other routers in its immediate vicinity. When a data packet reaches a router,
it examines the IP address. Because the routing table contains computer addresses
of all the computers/devices on its network, it will be able to work out that the
data packet is intended for a computer on its network. Routers however, do not
store the MAC addresses of devices (only IP addresses of all computers and devices
are stored). The router does not need the MAC address because the data packet will
be sent by the router to the switch on the recipient local network. The switch can
then use its look-up table to send the data packet to the correct device.
Suppose, in Figure 4.9, computer C1 wishes to send data to computer C10:
» Data packets are sent from C1 to R1.
» R1 checks the IP addresses and notes the data packets are not intended for
any devices on Network 1.
» The data packets are then forwarded onto the internet (R0).
» The IP address (in the header of the data packet) matches that of R4; this
ensures that each data packet is eventually forwarded to R4.
» R4 recognises that the IP address of each data packet refers to Network 4, and
forwards them to S4 which then directs each data packet to C10.
Many modern broadband ‘routers’ actually combine the functions of a router and a
switch – this means that they store MAC addresses and IP addresses to enable data
packets to be sent to the correct network and then to the correct device on the
network.