electronics

Review
Bio-Inspired Hybrid Optimization Algorithms for Energy
Efficient Wireless Sensor Networks: A Comprehensive Review
Rajiv Yadav 1, * , Indu Sreedevi 1 and Daya Gupta 2

1 Electronics and Communication Engineering Department, Delhi Technological University, Delhi 110042, India;
[email protected]
2 Computer Science Engineering Department, Delhi Technological University, Delhi 110042, India;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Researchers are facing significant challenges to develop robust energy-efficient clustering
and routing protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) in different areas such as military,
agriculture, education, industry, environmental monitoring, etc. WSNs have made an everlasting
imprint on everyone’s lives. The bulk of existing routing protocols has focused on cluster head
election while disregarding other important aspects of routing including cluster formation, data
aggregation, and security, among others. Although cluster-based routing has made a significant
contribution to tackling this issue, the cluster head (CH) selection procedure may still be improved by
integrating critical characteristics. Nature-inspired algorithms are gaining traction as a viable solution
for addressing important challenges in WSNs, such as sensor lifespan and transmission distance.
Despite this, the sensor node batteries cannot be changed when installed in a remote or unsupervised
area due to their wireless nature. As a result, numerous researches are being done to lengthen the life
of a node span. The bulk of existing node clustering techniques suffers from non-uniform cluster
head distribution, an imbalanced load difficulty within clusters, concerning left-out nodes, coverage
Citation: Yadav, R.; Sreedevi, I.;
area, and placement according to a recent study. Metaheuristic algorithms (DE, GA, PSO, ACO, SFO,
Gupta, D. Bio-Inspired Hybrid
and GWO) have the advantages of being simple, versatile, and derivation-free, as well as effectively
Optimization Algorithms for Energy
utilizing the network’s energy resource by grouping nodes into clusters to increase the lifespan
Efficient Wireless Sensor Networks:
of the entire network. In this paper, we explore recently used hybridization techniques (DE-GA,
A Comprehensive Review. Electronics
2022, 11, 1545. https://doi.org/
GA-PSO, PSO-ACO, PSO-ABC, PSO-GWO, etc.) for bio-inspired algorithms to improve the energy
10.3390/electronics11101545 efficiency of WSNs. This paper also discusses how critical issues can be addressed by speeding
up the implementation process, how more efficient data can be transferred, as well as how energy
Academic Editor:
consumption can be reduced by using bio-inspired hybrid optimization algorithms.
Piotr Zwierzykowski

Received: 23 March 2022 Keywords: hybridization; nature-inspired algorithms; energy utilization; WSNs
Accepted: 2 May 2022
Published: 12 May 2022

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

with regard to jurisdictional claims in
1. Introduction
published maps and institutional affil- Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN) can detect, store, and transmit data in real-time.
iations. These tasks must be completed efficiently to avoid wasting the limited sensor battery life.
We cannot extend the sensor’s life by providing external or extra energy since most sensors
are placed in difficult-to-reach locations. With a lot of work, the sensor node’s lifespan has
been prolonged. In addition to the energy limitation, WSNs confront a variety of problems,
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. including precise sensing and non-redundant information. There are three types of WSN
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
significant issues: energy efficiency, security, and service quality (QoS). Many of these
This article is an open access article
concerns are subject to trade-offs such as network lifetime for a better QoS. The same is true
distributed under the terms and
for the security parameters. Individually solving these problems has taken a considerable
conditions of the Creative Commons
amount of time and effort. When dealing with these problems separately, there are several
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
flaws. As a result, to create better WSNs, we must address all of these problems at the
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
same time.
4.0/).

Electronics 2022, 11, 1545. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11101545 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

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On the other hand, meta-heuristics methods are problem-independent. They can be

On the other hand, meta-heuristics methods are problem-independent. They can be
utilized as a black box since they are non-adaptive and non-greedy. These algorithms
utilized as a black box since they are non-adaptive and non-greedy. These algorithms fre-
frequently allow temporary deterioration of the solution to reach the global optima. Meta-
quently allow temporary deterioration of the solution to reach the global optima. Meta-
heuristic or intelligent optimization algorithms are sometimes known as nature-inspired
heuristic or intelligent optimization algorithms are sometimes known as nature-inspired
algorithms. The natural environment serves as inspiration for these algorithms. There are
algorithms. The natural environment serves as inspiration for these algorithms. There are
four types of nature-inspired/meta-heuristic algorithms: bio-inspired, physics-inspired,
four types of nature-inspired/meta-heuristic algorithms: bio-inspired, physics-inspired,
geography-inspired, and human-inspired. Biological systems are the source of the great
geography-inspired, and human-inspired. Biological systems are the source of the great
majority of nature-inspired algorithms. As a result, bio-inspired algorithms (biology-
majority of nature-inspired algorithms. As a result, bio-inspired algorithms (biology-in-
inspired) comprise a large portion of nature-inspired algorithms as shown in Figure 1.
spired) comprise a large portion of nature-inspired algorithms as shown in Figure 1.

Figure1.1. Classification
Figure Classification of
of Nature-inspired Optimization Algorithm.
Algorithm.

The
The goal
goal of of the
the optimization process is
optimization process is to
todiscover
discoverthe thebest
bestsolution
solutiontotoa agiven
givenissue.
issue.
The
The selection
selection of of an
anappropriate
appropriatealgorithm
algorithm is critical
is critical for for achieving
achieving this this
goal.goal. However,
However, cer-
certain issues
tain issues areare complicated,
complicated, and and finding
finding all feasible
all feasible solutions
solutions is challenging.
is challenging. SeveralSeveral
meta-
meta-heuristic
heuristic algorithmsalgorithms havecreated
have been been created in the literature
in the literature to simulate to the
simulate the biological
biological behavior
behavior
of animalofor animal
insectorgroups
insect groups by creating
by creating deterministic
deterministic or random or random
rules torules to be used
be used in ad-in
addressing various
dressing various optimization
optimization issues.
issues.
Nature-inspired
Nature-inspired hybridhybrid algorithms are designed
designed to toovercome
overcomedifferent
differentconstraints
constraintsinin
WSNs.
WSNs. ManyMany researchers have have implemented
implemented different
different meta-heuristic
meta-heuristicalgorithms
algorithmsininthe the
past
pasttotoimprove
improve the the lifetime, stability, and performance
performance of of the
theentire
entireWSN.
WSN.Hybridization
Hybridization
techniques
techniques in in optimization algorithms have
optimization algorithms have helped
helpedin inimproving
improvingthe thenetwork
networklifetime,
lifetime,
stability
stability period,
period, throughput, numbernumber of of dead
dead nodes
nodesper periteration,
iteration,andandresidual
residualenergy
energyofof
the
the network.
network. Sometimes, these bio-inspired
Sometimes, these bio-inspired algorithms
algorithmsevaluate
evaluateincorrect
incorrectsolutions
solutionsforfor
some
some real-time
real-time applications. Convergence speed,
applications. Convergence speed, multiple
multipleobjective
objectiveproblems,
problems,dynamic
dynamic
problems,
problems,and andlocal
localoptima
optimaconvergence
convergenceare arehothotresearch
researchproblems
problemsnowadays.
nowadays.Hybridiza-
Hybridi-
tion of algorithms
zation of algorithms requires a large
requires number
a large number of functions
of functionsto betoevaluated,
be evaluated,resulting in more
resulting in
accuracy and improved
more accuracy performance
and improved of WSNs.
performance Researchers
of WSNs. have suggested
Researchers the usethe
have suggested of creat-
use
ing and optimizing
of creating a multi-objective
and optimizing functionfunction
a multi-objective with a suitable
with a mathematical function-based
suitable mathematical func-
optimizer
tion-basedor hybridization
optimizer technique technique
or hybridization to solve challenging, dynamic,dynamic,
to solve challenging, and multi-objective
and multi-
problems in WSN. This
objective problems paper
in WSN. mainly
This paperfocuses
mainly on how on
focuses different hybrid hybrid
how different metaheuristic
metaheu- ap-
proaches play an important
ristic approaches role in enhancing
play an important the overall
role in enhancing theperformance of WSNsofand
overall performance WSNstheir
comparative analysis followed
and their comparative analysisbyfollowed
contributions given by researchers
by contributions given by in this field. We
researchers also
in this
discuss
field. We and compare
also discussvarious techniques
and compare to choose
various techniquesthe cluster head.
to choose theThe problems,
cluster head. open
The
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issues, and open

problems, challenges
issues,faced in Bio-inspired
and challenges facedoptimization
in Bio-inspired techniques have been
optimization elaborated
techniques have
with
beenvarious solutions
elaborated followed
with various by concluding
solutions followed remarks.
by concluding remarks.
This
Thispaper
paperhas hasdiscussed
discussed the the three
three main
main types
types ofof bio-inspired
bio-inspired algorithms:
algorithms: evolution-
ary,
ary,swarm-based,
swarm-based,and andplant-based
plant-basedoptimization.
optimization.These Thesegroups
groupsarearefurther
furthersubdivided,
subdivided,as as
indicated in Figure 2. Under the evolutionary techniques, Genetic
indicated in Figure 2. Under the evolutionary techniques, Genetic Algorithm (GA) and Algorithm (GA) and
Differential
DifferentialEvolution
Evolution(DE) (DE)areareplaced.
placed.A AGA GAisisan anevolutionary
evolutionaryalgorithm
algorithmthatthatgenerates
generates
solutions
solutions toto optimization
optimization and and search
search problems.
problems. To To achieve
achieve the
the best
best results,
results, itit employs
employs
techniques
techniques that
that are
are influenced
influenced by bynatural
naturalselection.
selection. Selection,
Selection, cross-over,
cross-over, and
and mutation
mutation
are
are examples
examples of of such
such techniques.
techniques.Researchers
Researchers have
have also
also utilized
utilized hybridized
hybridized GAGA withwith
dif-
different bio-inspired algorithms. Differential Evolution-Genetic
ferent bio-inspired algorithms. Differential Evolution-Genetic Algorithm (DE-GA) is moreAlgorithm (DE-GA) is
more accurate and requires less time to complete. The technique works
accurate and requires less time to complete. The technique works well in terms of accuracy well in terms of
accuracy
and timeand time complexity
complexity due to the duerisetoin
thetherise in the population
population vector
vector size. size. By carefully
By carefully selecting
selecting the design parameters and employing superior
the design parameters and employing superior hybrid methods, efficiency hybrid methods, efficiency and
and forecast
forecast
accuracyaccuracy
might be might be improved.
improved. UnderUnder the Swarm-based
the Swarm-based techniques,
techniques, four four different
different and
and unique techniques are listed. In terms of network lifespan and
unique techniques are listed. In terms of network lifespan and packet delivery ratio, the packet delivery ratio,
the Genetic
Genetic Algorithm-Particle
Algorithm-Particle Swarm
Swarm Optimization(GA-PSO)
Optimization (GA-PSO)method
methodisis found
found superior.
superior.
When compared to the shortest path, PSO, and GA approaches,
When compared to the shortest path, PSO, and GA approaches, hybrid GA-PSO increased hybrid GA-PSO increased
the
thelifetime
lifetime from
from12 12percent
percentto to2323percent,
percent,fromfrom88percent
percentto to15
15percent,
percent,from
from55percent
percentto to
13 percent, and packet delivery ratio from 9 percent to 16 percent, from 6 percent to
13 percent, and packet delivery ratio from 9 percent to 16 percent, from 6 percent to 11
11 percent, and from 5 percent to 9 percent for large scale networks. Particle Swarm
percent, and from 5 percent to 9 percent for large scale networks. Particle Swarm Optimi-
Optimization-Ant Colony Optimization (PSO-ACO) hybrid optimization technique eval-
zation-Ant Colony Optimization (PSO-ACO) hybrid optimization technique evaluates the
uates the shortest path for data transfer from the cluster head to the base station. This
shortest path for data transfer from the cluster head to the base station. This proposed
proposed technique also evaluates more average remaining energy, a greater number of
technique also evaluates more average remaining energy, a greater number of alive nodes,
alive nodes, and better throughput when simulated by taking 100 sensor nodes. The par-
and better throughput when simulated by taking 100 sensor nodes. The particle Swarm
ticle Swarm Optimization-Grey Wolf Optimization (PSO-GWO) approach has enhanced
Optimization-Grey Wolf Optimization (PSO-GWO) approach has enhanced the explora-
the exploration ability by preventing PSO from falling into local minima. This hybrid
tion ability by preventing PSO from falling into local minima. This hybrid technique also
technique also improved the performance of the network as compared to ABC, PSO, and
improved the performance of the network as compared to ABC, PSO, and GWO meta-
GWO meta-heuristic methods [1–7].
heuristic methods [1–7].

Figure2.2.Taxonomy
Figure Taxonomyof
ofBio-inspired
Bio-inspiredOptimization
OptimizationTechniques.
Techniques.

Similarly,different
Similarly, differentbio-inspired
bio-inspiredalgorithms
algorithmsas
asshown
shownininFigure
Figure2,2,are
arehybridized
hybridizedwith
with
each other
each other based
based on on their
their contribution
contribution and
and limitations
limitations and
and have
have been
been discussed
discussed in
in the
the
subsequent
subsequentsections.
sections.

2.2. Problem
Problem Domains
Domainsin inEnergy-Efficient
Energy-EfficientandandLoad
LoadBalanced
BalancedWSNsWSNs
Individually
Individually resolving these concerns has taken a substantial amount
resolving these concerns has taken a substantial amount ofof time
time and
and
effort;
effort; hence, researchers have focused on addressing both of these challenges at thesame
hence, researchers have focused on addressing both of these challenges at the same
time.
time. The
The development
development ofof aa multi-objective
multi-objective function
functionfollowed
followedby byits
itsoptimization
optimizationwith
withan
an
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appropriate
appropriate optimizer
optimizer or
or algorithm
algorithm isis one
one such
such technique.
technique. The
The behavior
behavior ofof the
the algorithm,
algorithm,
the
the kind of issue, the time restriction, resource availability, and required accuracyare
kind of issue, the time restriction, resource availability, and required accuracy arealso
also
known to influence the algorithm’s selection. Figure 3 shows the various
known to influence the algorithm’s selection. Figure 3 shows the various optimizationoptimization
problems
problems in
inWSNs
WSNsincluding
including clustering,
clustering, routing,
routing, area
area coverage,
coverage, sensor
sensor localization,
localization, and
and
data aggregation techniques.
data aggregation techniques.

Figure3.3. Problem
Figure Problemdomains
domainsfound
foundin
inthe
theactive
activeresearch
researcharea
areaof
ofWireless
WirelessSensor
SensorNetwork.
Network.

2.1.
2.1. Energy
Energy Efficient
EfficientClustering
Clusteringand andRouting
Routingin inWSNs
WSNs
Energy-efficient
Energy-efficient infrastructure is essential as sensors have a finite amount of energy.
infrastructure is essential
The
Thebulk
bulkofofsensor
sensorresources
resourcesis isusedusedto to
transmit
transmitthethe
detected data.
detected As the
data. As transmission
the transmissiondu-
ration
durationgrows,
grows,the the
amount
amountof energy required
of energy for data
required transmission
for data increases
transmission exponentially.
increases exponen-
As a result,
tially. As a multi-hop communication
result, multi-hop communicationis used isin used
sensorindata transfer.
sensor In WSNs,
data transfer. Inrouting
WSNs,
refers
routing refers to the path traveled by data packets from the source node to the sink.the
to the path traveled by data packets from the source node to the sink. In this, In
sensors
this, theare first sorted
sensors into
are first categories
sorted based on based
into categories CH and onNon-CH. The CH sensors
CH and Non-CH. The CHare then
sensors
chosen
are then and collected
chosen andfrom the non-CH
collected from the sensors.
non-CHThissensors.
collectedThis
datacollected
are subsequently
data are sent to
subse-
the sink using the most efficient routing choices available. Owing to
quently sent to the sink using the most efficient routing choices available. Owing to this this process, it can be
noticed
process,that the be
it can selection
noticedofthat
the CHthe is of high of
selection importance.
the CH isThe mainimportance.
of high issues in thisThedomain
main
are primarily the optimal routing path in each cycle, data maximization
issues in this domain are primarily the optimal routing path in each cycle, data maximi- with increased
network
zation withlifespan,
increased and contact
networkdistance
lifespan,reduction.
and contact distance reduction.
2.2. Requirement of Sensor Localization in WSNs
2.2. Requirement of Sensor Localization in WSNs
Sensor localization is the process of estimating a sensor’s location in a network. There
Sensor localization is the process of estimating a sensor’s location in a network. There
are two parts to it, i.e., distance measurement and location computation. To localize the
are two parts to it, i.e., distance measurement and location computation. To localize the
other nodes in the WSNs, several localization methods are utilized to use the existing
other nodes in the WSNs, several localization methods are utilized to use the existing
knowledge about distances and locations. Minimizing the localization error and improving
knowledge
the precisionabout distances node
of the unknown and position
locations.areMinimizing
the two mostthedifficult
localization error
problems and
in this
improving the precision of the unknown node position are the two
sector. The anchor or beacon node has a known position that may be determined via themost difficult
problems
Global in this sector.
Positioning SystemThe anchor
(GPS) or beacon node
or automatically has a known before
pre-programmed position that may of
deployment be
determined
a WSN. via the Global Positioning System (GPS) or automatically pre-programmed
before deployment of a WSN.
2.3. Requirement of Optimal Coverage in WSNs
2.3. Requirement of Optimal
Optimal Coverage Coverage
is prime in development
in the WSNs of a WSN and has become a hot issue
in thisOptimal Coverage
field. Finding is prime in
a collection ofthe development
sensors to cover aofspecified
a WSN and hasregion
target becomeora all hotofissue
the
in thispoints
target field. Finding a collection
is referred of sensors
to as coverage to cover
in a given a specified
target target region
area of WSN. Optimal orcoverage
all of the
target points
entails is referred
using the to as coverage
fewest number in a to
of sensors given
covertarget area ofregion
the whole WSN.or Optimal coverage
all of the target
entails
sites. Theusing the fewest
geometry of thenumber
detectingofzone
sensors to cover
is one of the the
mostwhole region
important or all of
aspects of athe target
sensor’s
sites. The in
coverage geometry
WSNs. of Duethetodetecting zone is one
topographical of the
factors andmost
solidimportant
buildings,aspects of a sensor’s
the shape of the
coverage
sensing in WSNs.
zone is unevenDue andtointricate
topographical factors
in real life. The and
onlysolid buildings,
difficulty in this the
areashape of the
is to reduce
the number
sensing zoneofisoverlapping
uneven andsensing
intricatepatches
in real with no detection
life. The void. in
only difficulty The more
this areaoverlapping
is to reduce
regions
the numberthereofare, the more redundant
overlapping information
sensing patches with no the sensors
detection willThe
void. detect,
more wasting more
overlapping
regions there are, the more redundant information the sensors will detect, wasting more
Electronics 2022, 11, 1545 5 of 22

battery life. Optimizing the sensor node location, which is a single-objective optimization
problem, is one way to remove redundancy. By including the other network elements, we
may make a single aim multi-objective WSN.

2.4. Requirement of Data Aggregation in WSNs

Data aggregation is the second strategy for decreasing redundant content detection
and is also considered an energy-efficient approach in WSN. When sensors track a region,
they capture local data and send them as fully processed or partially processed data to a
data aggregation center. Based on the data collected, the data aggregation center makes a
clear choice to extend the sensor lifespan by decreasing the sensing of overlap or common
locations. There are four types of data aggregation strategies: tree-based, cluster-based,
grid-based, and chain-based. The major concerns focus on addressing the challenge of
optimum power allocation, identifying the least number of aggregation points while routing
the data, and establishing consistency for wide-ranging and complicated WSNs.

3. Related Work
J. H. Holland [8] investigated the GA, a metaheuristic algorithm based on natural
selection and generational reproduction of the fittest humans. Initialization, fitness, selec-
tion, cross-over, and mutation are the phases of the GA algorithm. Two extensions of GA
are adaptive genetic algorithms and coarse-grained parallel genetic algorithms. They are
utilized for a variety of tasks, including feature extraction, its sub-set selection, engineering
designs of CAD, and the traveling salesman dilemma for optimization. The two most
essential elements that determine the algorithm’s efficiency are the fitness function and the
number of iterations. By combining the parents you have chosen, you will be able to create
new genetic algorithms from the current generation (often referred to as parents) to generate
offspring in the subsequent generation. They have the advantage of being able to achieve
faster convergence, have a simple implementation procedure, and are optimized for a wide
range of functions. They have several drawbacks, such as a proclivity for concentrating on
local optima rather than global optima. For decision-making issues, GA is inefficient and
ineffective. M. Dorigo [9] studied the foraging technique of ant species used in ACO. The
ants leave a pheromone, a route marker that may be followed by others, to indicate a good
path. The constructive greedy heuristic approach for finding excellent pathways through
networks eliminates issues. Authors use a simple phenomenon by using ants’ pheromones
as their path tracker by which they interact with each other. Edges and node weights are
dynamically updated by the agent using the random probabilistic pheromone-based model.
The used algorithm continuously repeats iterations to keep updating the path. Multiple
paths are created from which the optimum path is to be selected.
D. Karaboga [10] studied an Artificial Bee Colony (ABC) algorithm, another meta-
heuristic algorithm that includes a food source, jobless, and employed FB. Honey bees
benefit from forager feedback on food sources because it allows them to adapt and share
knowledge. Employed, scout, and spectator bees are the three categories of bees. The food
supply is the same as a feasible solution. The amount of nectar calculated is proportional
to the solution’s fitness in this algorithm. A specific operation is performed just once for
a single unit of scouts, hired, and onlookers, and similarly for the other categories. D.
Simon [11] studied a population-based evolutionary algorithm that, hypothetically and
repeatedly, improves any mathematical function. It also improves the candidate solutions
in terms of fitness function and provides a quality control technique. It is easily able to
break out from local optima and obtain a fast convergence rate.
H. Shah-Hosseini [12] implemented an intelligent water drop (IWD) robust algorithm
for fast convergence to the global optimization problem in WSN. In IWD, each water drop
has a velocity and soil present in this journey. The velocity and the soil are determined
by the quantity of soil and the time it takes to traverse the field, respectively. In its course,
an IWD always favors low soil content. Each IWD passes through it, producing the
best solution that is utilized to update the global best solution regularly. E. Rashedi [13]
Electronics 2022, 11, 1545 6 of 22

presented a Gravitational Search Algorithm (GSO) in which the active gravitational mass
(GM), inertial mass (IM), location, and passive GM of each object are listed. GM and IM
regulate the velocity of an object. The software navigates by modifying the mentioned
masses until all of the masses are drawn to the heaviest mass, which is often considered the
best choice.
X. S. Yang [14] presented a Bat Algorithm (BA) in which bats change their wavelength
and rate of emission depending on how close they are to their prey. Echolocation is a method
that is utilized to figure out where they are. They can tell the difference between loudness
and the intensity of a pulse that should be within a specified range. A global optimization
meta-heuristic approach was developed by employing bat echolocation with different pulse
rates. As the bat gets closer to the location where the answer should be discovered, the
frequency and strength of the pulse are modified. A. Kaveh [15] presented a Charged
System Search (CSS) algorithm in which the charged particles are dispersed randomly.
Well-charged particles can attract badly charged particles and vice versa. It is important
to start with a modest level of investigation and gradually raise it. An examination of
the global search space suggests an area in which the optimal answer is most likely to be
discovered, which is subsequently exploited.
M. Clerc [16] performed an easy implementation in which the PSO algorithm can
search through a huge number of potential solutions and find a suitable one over time. In a
search space for candidate solutions, it also seeks the best response rather than utilizing
gradients as other optimization algorithms do. The method searches the candidate solution
space for the best-known solution, which is based on the particle’s best-known location
as well as the swarm’s most advantageous position. S. Goel [17] proposed a Cuckoo
Search (CS) algorithm that utilized levy flights for global search and quick convergence.
Each cuckoo egg represents a fresh solution in this algorithm. The less-than-ideal cuckoos
are replaced by better ones as time goes on. The eggs that survive act as solutions that
are further handed down for the next iteration. With each iteration, a single algorithm
iterates through the solutions in the search space, which helps in enhancing the quality
of the solutions. Its purpose is to develop better and fresh ideas, the quality of which is
determined by an objective function that is often maximized.
X. S. Yang [18] presented a robust Flower Pollination Algorithm (FPA) using levy
flights. The cross-pollinators do global pollination, while local pollination is comparable
to local search. Floral similarity influences reproduction with the fittest surviving and
reproducing optimally in terms of numbers and fitness. This is an iterative approach that
uses local and global pollination to find the best result. A. Sabry Eesa [19] studied the
Cuttlefish Optimization Algorithm (COA) in which reflection and visibility are achieved by
using the multiple layers of the fish. Pattern matching is simulated by visibility, whereas
matching light is simulated by reflection. The algorithm uses reflection and visibility to try
to hide the fish in the surroundings, and the resulting pattern is the global optimal solution.
Global search with a random component is represented by the first two solution groups,
while local search and solution comparison is represented by the last two.
S. Mirjalili [20] presented a Gray Wolf Optimization (GWO) algorithm that equilib-
riums the state of exploration and exploitation. It consists of a hierarchy of wolves i.e.,
alpha, beta, delta, omega. The three finest solutions will always lead you to the ideal search
space, but we must strike a balance between exploration and exploitation. The basis of an
optimization technique is a series of randomly generated solutions, which encircle the prey
and pursue the target in the search space to find the global optimum. Mirjalili [21] empha-
sized exploration via global search. Every quest is an attempt to find the neighborhood’s
best solution. Encircling the prey is simulated by updating the location vector. The goal
function determines the convergence behavior. Exploration of the search space for the best
potential answer is based on the cycled position of search agents. S. Gao [22] presented a
divided algorithm called as Improved Artificial Fish Swarm (IAFS) algorithm. It is based
on searching a mathematical function, its swarming and chasing through various means,
and finally its leaping behavior. Random behavior is strongly influenced by the visual
Electronics 2022, 11, 1545 7 of 22

scope. Swarming takes place only when the current function value is better than the prior
one. One algorithm iterates repeatedly and updates the swarming behavior. To discover
the global optimum or optimal solution, a fish simulation behavior is done through a
randomized parallel algorithm. Y. Y. Hao [23] proposed an improved Glow-worm swarm
optimization (IGSO) algorithm to enhance the performance of multi-dimensional problems
and convergence rate. A population of glowworms with an identical quantity of luciferin is
dispersed across the search space. The value of luciferin is determined by the glowworm’s
location. Brighter light in the field indicates more luciferin. To update the position of
the glow-worm, a randomized algorithm based on parameter adaptation is used which is
followed by the luciferin update.
T. Shankar [24] proposed a Harmony Search Algorithm (HSA) PSO-based hybrid
algorithm to overcome the different local search constraints and exploration-exploitation
trade-offs. This hybrid scenario also obtained a fast convergence rate in global search and
has improved the lifetime of sensor nodes due to its dynamic capability and high search
efficiency. S. Su [25] presented a GA-PSO hybrid approach that explores the distributed
clustering levels for large-scale WSNs. At the lower level, GA is used in independent
subgroups for a global search, and, at the upper level, the PSO algorithm is used for the
local search of individuals. The proposed technique also reduces energy consumption and
accelerates convergence speed.
J. Kapoor [26] proposed an improved protocol of LEACH which is inspired by Low-
energy adaptive clustering with the collaboration of GA and Bacteria Foraging (BF) im-
plementation to overcome the disadvantages of former conventional protocols. The pro-
posed algorithms also reduce energy dissipation and improve the network’s lifetime. B.
Farnad [27] presented a new hybrid approach by combining GA, PSO, and Symbiotic
Organisms Search (SOS) based on the natural selection phenomenon. GA creates and picks
the best population for the future phases, PSO accumulates and updates experience for
each appropriate solution, and SOS builds on prior phases and executes symbiotic interac-
tion update phases in the real-world population. S. Potthuri [28] proposed DE-SA hybrid
approach for best cluster head selection. It is utilized to extend the life of the network by
delaying the death of cluster heads. The cluster head’s remaining energy and the distance
between the nodes are taken into account by the fitness function concerning the differential
evolution and simulated annealing concept (DESA). In this technique, the authors have
tried to keep the maximum no. of sensor nodes alive, as the network’s lifetime is directly
proportional to the number of nodes alive.
B. Pitchaimanickam [29] proposed Firefly Algorithm with Particle Swarm Optimiza-
tion (HFAPSO) which is provided in the LEACH-C approach for selecting the optimal
cluster head selection. The hybrid method optimizes firefly global search behavior and
achieves optimal cluster head positioning using PSO. The suggested methodology’s perfor-
mance is measured by the number of live nodes, available energy, and performance. L. Na-
garajan [30] proposed a Hybrid GWO-based Sunflower optimization (HGWSFO) technique
for optimum CHS under particular factor constraints such as energy consumption and
separation distance, to extend network longevity. Balancing the exploration-exploitation
trade-off increases network performance in terms of total throughput, node residual en-
ergy, dead nodes, alive nodes, network survivability index, and convergence rate. Table 1
provides a comprehensive comparison of algorithms based on their strengths, drawbacks,
performance influencing variables, and application areas.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1545 8 of 22

Table 1. A comprehensive comparison of nature-inspired algorithms in WSNs.

Algorithm Advantages Nature of Solution Disadvantages Applications

Based on natural
selection and
Enables us to explore a More computational
generational Data clustering and
search space without time, large complexity
reproduction of the mining, Traveling
losing partial solutions, in network structure,
fittest humans, Salesman Problem
explores various parts difficulty in showing
Genetic Algorithm initialization, fitness, (TSP), neural networks
of the solution space branching and looping.
(GA) selection, cross-over, Wireless sensor
simultaneously, and For decision-making
(J. H. Holland 1992) [8] and mutation are all networks, medical
effectively combines issues, genetic
phases in the algorithm, science, Vehicle
novel combinations algorithms are
follows a constructive Routing Problem
with existing inefficient and
greedy heuristic (VRP).
information. ineffective.
approach for finding
excellent pathways.
The algorithm explores The challenges faced in
PSO has a few
the candidate solution PSO are low-quality
Particle swarm parameters to adjust, it Price and load
space for the solutions, initial design
optimization takes a small amount of prognostication,
best-known solution parameters are quite
(PSO) time to compute, volatile power
and is based on the best difficult to define, and
(Kennedy in terms of discovering management, ideal
location of the entire cannot perform in the
and Eberhart global optima, PSO has power flow, neuronal
swarm, as well as the problems of a
1995) [16] a greater likelihood and network training.
particle’s most known non-coordinated
efficiency.
position. system.
The probability
ACO can be used in distribution might
Model-based on
dynamic applications, change with each
pheromones that are Job shop forecast
Ant colony it can adjust to new iteration, which is one
random and problem, retro vehicle
optimization distances and other of ACO’s problems,
probabilistic, the agent steering problem,
(ACO) (Dorigo et al. changes, and it may ACO’s theoretical
dynamically updates the antenna optimization,
1996) [9] also search for a large analysis is complex, it
weight of nodes and image dispensation.
population at the same will take an unknown
edges (ant).
time. amount of time to reach
a point of convergence.
The nutrition supply is Image Processing,
The challenges in ABC
Artificial bee ABC has a simple comparable to a Clustering and facts
are slow speed of
Colony (ABC) structure. It also uses a potential resolution, and mining, fiscal
convergence and low
Algorithm (Karaboga few parameters, strong the volume of nectar is communication
QoS, and the precision
2005) [10] robustness. proportional to the problems, job
of optimization is low.
solution’s suitability. forecasting.
Exploration of the
solution space is
Species extinction,
Convergence occurs inadequate, there is no
Biogeography based migration, and
quickly, can easily way to save each TSP,
optimization speciation are all factors
break out from local generation’s finest Feature Extraction.
(BBO) (Simon 2008) [11] that influence the
optimum conditions. work, and many
evolution of species.
unworkable ideas are
devised.
For big enough
Intelligent Simple to use, union to In terms of minimum iterations, the best Traveling Salesman
water drop (IWD) the comprehensive direction and maximum solution is discovered, Problem, multiple
(Shah- Hosseini 2009) optimum is a foregone velocity, we are looking and probability is used knapsacks, workflow
[12] conclusion, Robust. for a global optimum. to choose the next scheduling.
node.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1545 9 of 22

Table 1. Cont.

Algorithm Advantages Nature of Solution Disadvantages Applications

Intensely
The program navigates Renewable micro-grid,
computational, the
Adjustable learning by modifying commercial
Gravitational beginning population
rate, algorithm with gravitational and consignment
search algorithm and its size have an
less memory, results are inertial masses until the communication,
(GSA) (Rashedi et al. impact on performance,
more consistent and masses are drawn to the regulator strategy,
2009) [13] in the most recent
precise. heaviest mass, which is wireless sensor
editions, searching is
the best option. networks.
sluggish.
Switching from A large variety of
exploration to objective function
exploitation is possible, The echo sounding of evaluations are
offering control over bats with different beat available, initial Clustering cataloging,
Bat algorithm
parameters, using rates was used in a parameters have no facts withdrawal,
(BA) (Yang 2010) [14]
echolocation and global optimization values specified, and image processing.
frequency fluctuation, metaheuristic method. during iterations, the
and frequency pace of convergence is
tweaking is possible. mercurial.
During exploration, it The computation cost
An ideal explanation for
is difficult to become rises as the quantity of
Charged system search optimization that Water dispersal
imprisoned in the local charged particles rises,
(CSS) (Kaveh and mimics electrostatic networks, operational
minimum, simple to only a few charged
Talatahari services between mutilation
implement, initially, particles are required
2010) [15] particles and their recognition.
there are just a few for preemptive
dependency on distance.
settings to tweak. convergence to occur.
Convergence occurs
quickly, and is simple Its purpose is to develop Exercise of neural
It is possible to get
to put into practice, novel and better system, conniving a
Cuckoo Search stuck in a local
global optimums are solutions, the quality of wind turbine edge,
(CS) (Goel et al. 2011) optimum along the
guaranteed if enough which is determined by statistics synthesis in
[17] border, lack of
time is given, and Levy an objective function wireless sensor
effectiveness.
flights are used for that is often maximized. networks.
worldwide searches.
Flights on Levy might
Easily able to break out lead to domain
from local minima, exploration outside of
Optimal reproduction Design pressure
Flower fitness function made it the search space, it is
and survival of the pitchers, image
Pollination (FPA) (Yang easy to survive, not possible to use it for
fittest in terms of firmness, chart
2012) [18] robustness to issues binary optimization,
numbers and fitness. coloring.
involving continuous and there are no default
optimization. values for the initial
parameters.
Two of the solution
Control systems,
Cuttlefish Can easily break out groups are for global
signal dispensation,
optimization from local optimum search with a random Intensely
information mining,
(CFO) Algorithm conditions, ensured component, while the computational,
biomedical
(A. Sabry Eesa 2013) global optimal location, other two are for local slow conjunctional.
engineering, power
[19] vigorous. search with solution
systems.
comparison.
Only single-objective
Grey wolf A collection of random
Simple to contrivance, issues are allowed,
optimizer solutions is used in the Design and alteration
flexible, mountable, local optima stagnation
(GWO) optimization process, of controllers,
exploration, and occurs when there are a
(Mirajlili with each result being a clustering, and
extraction are in a state large number of variables,
et al. 2014) vector that reflects the robotics.
of equilibrium. and performance
[20] parameter values.
suffers as a result.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1545 10 of 22

Table 1. Cont.

Algorithm Advantages Nature of Solution Disadvantages Applications

Exploration via global
Starts with a random
Whale search is emphasized
solution, then updates Low rate of merging, Workflow planning of
optimization by the global optimizer,
its position using a low precision, and creation sites, image
algorithm (WOA) there are fewer settings
randomly selected randomness affects the segmentation, optimal
(Mirjalili and that may be changed,
search engine or the best convergence phase. power flow problem
Lewis 2016) [21] simple to put into
approach so far.
practice.
At each level, the
starting settings are Convergence rates start
Searches at a higher
modified. The goal is to to drop in
rate, allowing for
provide an high-dimensional
speedier exploration Feature selection,
energy-efficient cluster problems, it is tough to
H-HSA PSO Algorithm and exploitation, training neural
head selection that also fine-tune the basic
(T. Shankar 2016) [24] moving from one place networks, economic
demonstrates high HSA settings, its full
to another in quest of dispatch problems.
search efficiency and potential, and
the best answer is a
dynamic PSO restrictions have yet to
dynamic capacity.
capabilities, extending be determined.
sensor node lifespan.
In large-scale WSNs, it The algorithm looks for
Dependent on the
is effective for the most well-known
initial parameters such
distributed clustering, solution in the candidate
as location, inadequate
H-GA PSO Algorithm the algorithm’s solution space is Clustering, robotics
speed, and acceleration,
(Shengchao Su 2017) convergence speed will determined by the neural network
in a high dimensional
[25] be significantly particle’s finest position training.
space, it is possible to
increased, over time, as well as the most
fall into the trap of local
you will come up with appropriate position of
optima.
suitable answers. the entire swarm.
Energy and Physical
Obtained optimal
parameter are to be
coverage with a
initialized, during Dependency of fitness
minimum no. of nodes Biomedical
iterations, if the node is functions on various
H-GA BFO Algorithm in large-scale WSNs, engineering, wireless
dead, calculate NCH parameters, is difficult
(J. Kapoor 2017) [26] reduced average power sensor
energy. The route is to implement on large
consumption i.e., networks.
updated after one scale WSNs.
increases the lifespan of
algorithm repeats
the entire network.
repeatedly.
Each fish’s visual range
Ability to make a A randomized parallel
is unique and cannot be
Improved Artificial fish proper junction, method that models fish Job scheduling,
generalized, there is a
swarm (IAFS) suppleness, present behavior to get the image processing,
discrepancy between
(S. Gao 2018) [22] with great precision worldwide finest or clustering.
global and local
and fault tolerance. topmost solution.
minima.
For many peaks, an
adaptive local Positioning
To update position, a For high-dimensional
Improved Glowworm judgment is made, for numerous mobile
distributed algorithm issues, performance is
swarm issues with a constant signal bases,
based on luciferin poor, convergence
optimization domain, this method communal transport
apprise uses the occurs gradually, and
(IGSO) (Y. Y. Hao works well. The report systems, and
statistics accessible in Inadequate local search
2018) [23] process used less wireless sensor
the nearby vicinity. capability.
memory during networks.
iterations.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1545 11 of 22

Table 1. Cont.

Algorithm Advantages Nature of Solution Disadvantages Applications

In the real-world Searching the solution
Improve search
population, it runs with logarithmic spirals
performance by Job scheduling,
symbiotic interactions which is a deterministic
H-GA PSO SOS introducing data mining, path
to update stages. dynamical system.
Algorithm (B. Farnad randomization, initial planning, statistics
Superior in terms of Natural selection
2018) [27] parameter selection has synthesis in wireless
convergence, success inspired the notion of
a significant impact on sensor networks.
rate, and execution merging three
performance.
speed. evolutionary algorithms.
Extend the lifespan of Multidimensional
the network by Iteratively improves a Low convergence rate, global optimization
extending the cluster potential solution based randomness during the problems over
H-DE SA Algorithm (S.
heads’ death, improved on an evolutionary selection of initial continuous spaces,
Potthuri 2018) [28]
the selection rate of process to optimize a parameters, and less training of integer
genes of DNA problem. robustness. weight neural
microarrays. networks.
Set the FF and PSO
parameters to their
Initial characteristics
default values. Calculate
Flexible, scalable, such as position, Automatic data
your fitness level based
H-FF PSO Algorithm providing parameter velocity, and clustering, machining
on the amount of light
(B. Pitchaimanickam control statistics, not acceleration showed parameter
you are exposed to after
2020) [29] easily trapped in the randomness. Difficult optimization, optimal
initializing the
local minima. to implement on large power flow.
parameters. Update the
scale WSNs.
velocity and position of
the population.
Automates the setting
of a collection of Low solving precision.
An array of random
parameters in such a The unpredictability of
solutions is used in the
way that the weight is the starting input Engineering design
optimization process.
evenly distributed. determines the problems, design and
F-GWO SFO Algorithm The energy
In comparison to convergence phase. In controllers tuning,
(L. Nagarajan 2021) [30] consumption and
previously employed a high-dimensional robotic and path
separation distance are
algorithms, it also space, it is possible to planning.
considered for selecting
enhances the stability fall into the trap of local
optimal CHs.
and energy efficiency of optima.
WSNs.

4. Analysis of Considered Bio-Inspired Algorithms

Recent advances in bio-inspired optimization algorithms seek to solve the issues
of classical optimization methods, which are potentially providing solutions to tackle
complicated optimization problems. Below are some important algorithms selected from a
large number of nature-inspired algorithms. Based on the merits of these algorithms and
their linkages to self-organization, the following algorithms play an important role in the
hybridization of algorithms in WSN research.

4.1. Genetic Algorithm (GA)

GA was proposed by John Holland in 1960. It is an adaptive heuristic algorithm used
in machine learning and artificial intelligence. This algorithm is based on natural selection
and is also focused on generating optimal global solutions for optimization problems.
Individual and population are two basic terms used in GA. In terms of GA, the individual
is considered as a possible solution for a given problem, and a group of these possible
solutions is considered as a population. Such a population of individuals is maintained
within a search space. Initialization, selection, cross-over, and mutation are some important
operators used by GA [31–33].
Electronics 2022, 11, 1545 12 of 22

4.2. Differential Evolution (DE)

DE was proposed by Rainer Storm and Kenneth Price in 1997. Ever since this algorithm
has been widely used in different areas like engineering science, decision sciences, material
sciences, energy, etc. DE is a population-based stochastic approach in which each solution
is referred to as a genome or chromosome. Each chromosome goes through mutation and
recombination. DE uses terms such as target vector, donor vector, and trail vector. Only
after all trail vectors have been generated is a superior solution chosen. This method also
does greedy selection between the target and trail vector [34–36].

4.3. Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)

J. Kennedy and R. Eberhard proposed PSO in 1995. It is a swarm intelligence approach
that uses the collective behavior of birds and animals to solve optimization issues. Self-
organization and division of work are two essential characteristics of swarm intelligence
activity. Interactions in self-organization are carried out only based on local knowledge,
with no regard for the global pattern. Positive and negative feedback, oscillations, and
numerous interactions are all part of it. Tasks done concurrently by specialized persons
are referred to as division of labor. The social behavior of PSO is modeled by bird flocking
and fish schooling, in which each particle/bird has a position and velocity. To escape
predators or find optimal environmental conditions, these particles may alter their location
by changing their velocity. The velocity of the particles may be changed by modifying the
particle’s/or bird’s group’s flying experience [37–39].

4.4. Ant Colony Optimization (ACO)

In 1992, Marco Dorrigo suggested ACO. Ant colonies are socially complicated, with
the queen as the leader and the workers hunting for food and defending the colony. Ant
colonies refer to not only the physical structure in which ants reside but also the social
principles by which they organize themselves and the job they accomplish. Ants have been
able to use their surroundings because of their cooperation and division of work, as well as
their well-developed communication systems. Ants are attracted to the pheromone trails
made by other ants. If there is any obstacle on the way then ants quickly find the shortest
diversion. Ant colony optimization is an optimization method that takes inspiration from
the bio-semiotic communication between ants. Each constructs a solution using a stochastic
greedy method using a combination of a heuristic function and pheromone trail following.
ACO is related to the class of algorithms known as swarm optimization used to solve the
graph search problems [40–42].

4.5. Artificial Bee Colony (ABC)

Dervish Karaboga proposed ABC in 2005, drawing influence from honey bees. The
employed bee phase, spectator bee phase, and scout bee phase are the three periods in
which bee movement is recorded in ABC. In the employed phase, the number of employed
bees is equal to the number of food sources. During the employed bee phase, all solutions
have the possibility of developing a novel solution. A partner is chosen at random, but the
partner and the present solution should not be the same. As in the onlooker phase, the
probability value of all solutions is determined before the onlooker phase. A solution with
a greater fitness value has a better chance of succeeding. A fitter solution may undergo the
onlooker bee phase more than once. In the scout bee phase, we have to find an abandoned
solution based on the value of the limit. If some iterations exceed the defined limit, the
process enters into the scouting phase and generates a new solution randomly [10,43,44].

4.6. Gray Wolf Optimization (GWO)

Mirjaliali Mohammad and Lewis presented GWO as a meta-heuristic method in
2014. The social hierarchy and hunting methods of grey wolves inspired this algorithm.
These wolves lived in well-structured packs, with several wolves ranging from 5 to 12. The
members of the pack are divided into four categories i.e., α-wolves, β-wolves, δ-wolves, and
Electronics 2022, 11, 1545 13 of 22

ω-wolves. Alpha wolves are the leaders of the pack and the rest of the pack follow alpha.
Alpha wolves are in charge of making decisions regarding hunting, sleeping, and waking
up times, among other things. There are beta wolves who are the greatest contenders to
be alpha at the second level. Delta wolves are present in the pack to supply food and to
protect the pack in times of danger. Omega wolves (Scouts, Elders, and Caretakers) are at
the bottom of the food chain, serving as scapegoats and the last to eat. The following are
the main phases in the GWO hunting process: (1) searching for prey; (2) tracking, pursuing,
and approaching the prey; (3) encircling and tormenting the prey till it finally comes to a
halt; (4) taking on the prey [45–48].

5. Selective Bio-Inspired Algorithms with Hybrid Optimization

The present meta-heuristic techniques have several drawbacks, including sluggish
convergence and limited accuracy. Scholars have progressively turned their attention to
the swarm intelligence algorithm in recent years. Swarm intelligence algorithms are widely
used because of their simplicity, adaptability, non-derivation mechanism, and avoidance
of local optimality. The features and trends of scientific growth are reflected in the rapid
development of swarm intelligence algorithms. In this paper, we are looking at some
new hybridization approaches to nature-inspired algorithms to make the algorithm more
resilient and enhance simulation analysis and outcomes statistics.

5.1. Hybrid GA-DE Algorithm

GA includes solutions regarding non-convex and nonlinear problems. As we know,
different operators like initialization, selection, and cross-over are used by GA. In hybridiza-
tion of GA-DE, mutation operation is performed by DE. DE also solves non-differential
and non-continuous real-world problems. So, hybridization of GA-DE would be able to
provide better global optimal solutions [49,50].
The design procedure for the GA-DE algorithm is:
• First sensor node control variables are selected like genes;
• Initialize the population of sensor nodes;
• Using the localization function, calculate the fitness of sensor nodes;
• Use the roulette wheel selection method for mating;
• GA performs cross-over operations;
• Mutation operation is performed by DE;
• Select a new population for the upcoming generation;
• Repeat steps four, five, six, and seven;
• Print estimate of location.
In the performance research of a hybrid GADE localization algorithm with localization
function, the hybrid technique’s precision and time complexity in the context of varying
population vector sizes with localization function are reported. In comparison, when the
size of the population vector grows larger, the accuracy improves and the time complex-
ity performance improves. Additionally, when the hybrid GADE localization algorithm
employs the average localization function instead of the basic localization function, it
outperforms the better competition in terms of temporal complexity and accuracy.

5.2. Hybrid GA-PSO Algorithm

The fundamental goal of hybrid GA-PSO is to enhance cluster head selection and
routing between deployed nodes and the base station. There are two steps to the proposed
method. In the first phase, the PSO algorithm holds passed population and fittest individu-
als. In the second phase, these fittest individuals are operated by the GA operators who are
selection, cross-over, and mutation. Hybridization of GA and PSO combines the merits of
both algorithms, which provide us better convergence rate and avoid the problem of local
optima [51,52]. The major contribution of both algorithms has been shown in Table 2.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1545 14 of 22

Table 2. Combination of GA-PSO techniques in WSNs.

Algorithms GA PSO
Operators used Selection, cross-over, mutation. Inertia, cognitive, social.
Ability to search global optima High Low
Implementation Hard Simple
Trapped on local optimum Sometime Often
Computer efficiency Low efficient Highly efficient

This method combines the benefits of both algorithms, such as PSO’s rapid conver-
gence rate and GA’s problem of trapping in local optima. The primary purpose of this
PSO-GA strategy is to steadily raise the number of decent people across generations.
The design procedure for the GA-PSO algorithm is:
• Initialization;
• Generation of the initial population;
• Selection;
• Cross-over;
• Mutation;
• Growth;
• Generation of a new population;
• Repeat until no. of generation (Ng) evaluates.
The hierarchical sensor network model is used in the PSO, GA, and PSO-GA ap-
proaches for small and large size networks. In a hierarchical WSN paradigm, each cluster
contains one base station and one relay node. In this WSN configuration, the relay node
serves as the cluster head. The most significant assumption is that base stations offer
routing pathways and that each relay node’s average data volume is known. Each relay
node’s leftover energy is replenished at the end of each generation, and current energy is
utilized to determine the next routing path. When comparing the shortest path method,
PSO approach, GA approach, and hybrid PSO-GA approach for large-scale networks,
we observed that the hybrid PSO-GA strategy has the best network lifespan and packet
delivery ratio.

5.3. Hybrid ACO-PSO Algorithm

The main aim of ACO-PSO hybridization is to improve inter-cluster data aggregation
in WSNs. This proposed technique also improves the network’s lifetime over many op-
timization techniques. In this approach, ACO results in local updates, and PSO gives a
better outcome for global updates. The combination of ACO–PSO enhances the durability
and performance by 6% over previously used optimization techniques like an ant colony,
cuckoo search, flower pollination, etc.
The design procedure for the ACO-PSO algorithm is:
• Step 1. Initialize the number of wireless sensors;
• Step 2. Calculate the energy level for each sensor node;
If E > 0, there will be a selection of CH otherwise, go to Step 2 again. After CH selection,
implement the ACO-PSO algorithm to find a new path.
• Step 3. Calculate the energy dissipation for each sensor node.
If a dead node is found, evaluate otherwise, go to Step 2. For different parameters,
evaluate the performance of the network.
Hybrid ACO-PSO-based data aggregation is used to increase the inter-cluster data
aggregation. Extensive investigation shows that the suggested approach significantly
increases network lifespan when compared to previous strategies. It divides the sensor
network into several pieces, referred to as clusters, with cluster heads chosen for each
Electronics 2022, 11, 1545 15 of 22

cluster. Then, using short-distance connections, tree-based data aggregation is used to

acquire sensory data directly from cluster heads. The use of compressive sensing decreases
the size of the packets that are sent across the sensor network. The ACO-PSO algorithm
determines the shortest path between the sink and cluster heads. For simulation, the
MATLAB simulation tool is generally utilized by researchers. It helps in comparing the
proposed approach’s performance to that of existing technology, GSTEB, in terms of stability
period, network lifespan, residual energy (average remaining energy), and throughput.

5.4. Hybrid PSO-GWO Algorithm

The aim of hybridizing PSO and GWO is to obtain more optimal results with a
lesser number of iterations. This approach successfully merged the powerful merits of
both algorithms to get better efficiency. Simplicity, fast convergence speed, and high
exploitation ability are some of the advantages of this algorithm. When these merits of PSO
collaborated with GWO of high exploration ability, it enables higher stability and shows
better performance with more optimal solutions [53–55].
The design procedure for the PSO-GWO algorithm is as follows:
• Set the overall population and the A, C, and a value to their defaults;
• Create people for the population;
• Find the fitness value of each individual;
• Calculate the value of α, β, and δ by shortening the order according to size;
• Calculate nonlinear controlled parameters and update the value of A and C;
• Detect the location of individuals and again calculate fitness values;
• Update the values of α, β, and δ.
The PSO approach has been utilized to address almost any real-world problem. How-
ever, there must be a mechanism to reduce the chances of the PSO algorithm catching itself
at a local minimum. Recommended techniques to reduce the likelihood of falling into a
local minimum have introduced the GWO algorithm to support the PSO algorithm. To
avoid risks, the GWO algorithm’s exploration ability is employed to send certain particles
to sites that are somewhat enhanced by the GWO method rather than random positions.
Since the GWO method is used in addition to the PSO algorithm, the running duration is
also increased. The PSO–GWO algorithm incorporates nonlinear control parameters. Other
algorithms have inadequate nonlinearity in their control parameters, resulting in a lack
of balance between local and global search abilities and an easy fall into local optimum
throughout the search phase.

6. Comparative Analysis Based on Recent Literature

A comparison of the various methodologies and criteria utilized in recent articles to
choose the cluster head has been conducted. Each of the measures has been explained
in terms of percentage, utilization, and progress [56]. These measures are packet loss,
network lifetime, energy, throughput, delay, and overhead. Packet loss occurs when one or
more data packets fail to arrive at their intended destination. Network lifetime is based
on the number of alive nodes, connectivity, and sensor coverage. The energy of WSNs is
evaluated based on the packet received at the destination. Throughput is the actual amount
of information that is efficiently sent/received via a communication channel. Delay is the
time taken by the packets from sensor nodes to sink and is proportional to the number
of hopes. Overhead is the total amount of energy consumed to transmit the data for a
given time.
Table 3 compares several approaches offered by notable scholars in terms of parameters
employed, tools used, and difficulties handled.
Electronics 2022, 11, 1545 16 of 22

Table 3. Comparative analysis of various conclusions based on recent literature.

Tool N/w Energy QoS

Reference Parameters Used Security Results
Used Life Efficiency Increased
Residual energy,
The overall delay is reduced by
node’s capability √ √ √
Thenmozhi 23%. The rate of packet loss is
assembly MATLAB ×
et al. [57] reduced by 11%. Residual
compactness,
energy improved by 38%.
node’s gradation
In comparison to LEACH and
Area Coverage, life
√ √ DEEC, network lifespan
Jia et al. rotation, dynamic
MATLAB × × increased by 50% and 30%,
[58] nodes, average
respectively. Clustering
remaining energy.
overhead was reduced by 42%.
Network lifetime increased by
Remoteness to the
√ √ 30%. In comparison to LEACH
Aggarwal sink, enduring
MATLAB × × and EAUCF, prolonged energy
et al. [59] energy, sensor node
increased by 155.18% and
concentration
35.75%, respectively.
The network’s lifespan has
Residual energy,
√ √ increased by 28%. The
Neamatollah gradation of the
MATLAB × × overhead of clustering was
et al. [60] sensor node,
decreased by 57%. A 13%
distance SNs to BS.
reduction in energy utilization.
Residue power, In comparison to LEACH,
base station’s √ network lifespan raised by
Mehra et al.
remoteness, MATLAB × × × 15%, 11.38% with BCSA, and
[61]
concentration of the 8.1% with CAFL. Energy
SNs. conservation raised by 79%.
Concentration, √ √ In comparison to LEACH,
Jeong et al.
centrality, overhead, MATLAB × × there is a 42.7% increase in
[62]
average delay power and local distance.
N/w lifetime,
throughput, Average left overpowers and
Krishna distance between √ √ alive nodes improved by 62%.
MATLAB × ×
et al. [63] SN to CH, number Overall, this is a 45%
of neighboring improvement over LEACH.
nodes.
Remaining energy,
TOPSIS has a 151.2% percent
the route followed
√ √ √ longer network lifespan than
Azad et al. between sensor
MATLAB × LEACH.
[64] nodes and sink.
Overall, 40% better than
Number of
LEACH.
neighbor nodes.
Network’s coverage,
Packet loss rate reduces by 8%.
Total number of
√ √ √ Throughput has increased by
Behra et al. sensor nodes, entire
MATLAB × 60%, lifetime has increased by
[65] network energy
63%, and residual energy has
consumption,
increased by 61%.
energy degeneracy.
Usual enduring In comparison to 19% for
energy number of √ √ LEACH, 5% of the increase in
Tamizharasi
the active nodes, NS2 × × energy utilization. Increase in
et al. [66]
entire nominated the number of living nodes
cluster head. with a longer lifespan.
 energy degeneracy.
Usual enduring en- In comparison to 19% for
ergy number of the LEACH, 5% of the increase in
Tamizharasi
active nodes, entire NS2 √ √ × × energy utilization. Increase in
et al. [66]
nominated cluster the number of living nodes with
Electronics 2022, 11, 1545 17 of 22
head. a longer lifespan.

During comparative analysis, researchers implemented different deterministic and

During
probabilistic comparative
approaches. Theseanalysis, researchers
techniques performedimplemented
well in termsdifferent deterministic
of increasing network and
probabilistic approaches. These techniques performed well in terms of increasing
longevity and energy efficiency but failed spectacularly in terms of improving QoS and network
security. A comparison of the various methodologies and performance metrics is shown and
longevity and energy efficiency but failed spectacularly in terms of improving QoS
security.
in Figure 4. A comparison of the various methodologies and performance metrics is shown
in Figure 4.

Figure
Figure 4. Comparison
4. Comparison of theofvarious
the various methodologies
methodologies and performance
and performance metrics [57–61].
metrics.

In Figure
In Figure 4, researchers
4, researchers tried totried to reduce
reduce the packetthe loss
packet
andloss and overhead.
overhead. Moreover,Moreover,
they
they have made an effort to enhance the lifetime of the network
have made an effort to enhance the lifetime of the network i.e., it depends on energy con- i.e., it depends on en-
ergy consumption. Thenmozhi et al. [57] reduced the packet
sumption. Thenmozhi et al. [57] reduced the packet loss by 11%. In comparison to LEACH loss by 11%. In compari-
son to LEACH
and DEEC, network and DEEC,
lifespan network
increased bylifespan
50% andincreased by 50% and
30%, respectively, to 30%,
Jia et respectively,
al. [58]. In to
comparison to LEACH and EAUCF, Prolonged Energy increased by 155.18% andincreased
Jia et al. [58]. In comparison to LEACH and EAUCF, Prolonged Energy 35.75%, by
155.18% and 35.75%, respectively, to Aggarwal et al. [59].
respectively, to Aggarwal et al. [59]. Neamatollah et al. [60] and Mehra et al. [61]Neamatollah et al. also
[60] and
improved the overall performance with a high reduction in delay and overhead, respec- and
Mehra et al. [61] also improved the overall performance with a high reduction in delay
overhead, respectively.
tively.
In Figure 5, researchers tried to improve the lifespan of the network by taking energy
In Figure 5, researchers tried to improve the lifespan of the network by taking energy
and throughput into their account. The authors also compared their results with the
and throughput into their account. The authors also compared their results with the ex-
existing algorithms. Jeong et al. [62] and Krishna et al. [63] improved in energy and
isting algorithms. Jeong et al. [62] and Krishna et al. [63] improved in energy and overall
overall performance by 43% and 45%, respectively, as compared to LEACH. Azad et al. [64]
performance by 43% and 45%, respectively, as compared to LEACH. Azad et al. [64] im-
improved the maximum energy residual and network longevity, according to the results.
proved the maximum energy residual and network longevity, according to the results.
Behra et al. [65] and Tamizharasi et al. [66] also boosted the maximum energy and network
Behra et al. [65] and Tamizharasi et al. [66] also boosted the maximum energy and network
longevity. The algorithm improved the life of the network and preserved residual energy
longevity. The algorithm improved the life of the network and preserved residual energy
in the search space.
in the search space.
Electronics 2022, 2022,
Electronics 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
11, 1545 18 of 22
18 of 22

Figure 5. WSNs
Figure performance
5. WSNs comparison
performance basedbased
comparison on recently reviewed
on recently articles.
reviewed articles [62–66].

7. Open
7. Open Issues
Issues and Challenges
and Challenges
Following
Following a thorough
a thorough examination
examination of theofabove-discussed
the above-discussed literature,
literature, we have
we have formu-
formu-
lated various outstanding concerns and obstacles with
lated various outstanding concerns and obstacles with WSNs. WSNs.

7.1. Network Stability

7.1. Network Stability
The network’s survival is contingent on the presence of active sensors. Due to the
The network’s survival is contingent on the presence of active sensors. Due to the
limited processing capabilities of nodes, optimizing transmission costs, data gathering, and
limited processing capabilities of nodes, optimizing transmission costs, data gathering,
load tolerance of nodes to extend their life is a difficult challenge. Clustering optimization,
and load tolerance of nodes to extend their life is a difficult challenge. Clustering optimi-
which involves selecting the best energy path for routing, can assist in extending the
zation, which involves
network’s lifespan selecting
[67]. the best energy path for routing, can assist in extending
the network’s lifespan [67].
7.2. Network’s Dynamic Character
7.2. Network’s Dynamic Character
Sensor nodes have long been thought to be stationary by many researchers. However,
Sensor nodes
because have network
of variable long beensizes,
thought to be
sensor stationary
node by many changes,
moves, topology researchers.
andHowever,
unanticipated
because of variable network sizes, sensor node moves, topology changes,
operational problems, it is necessary to address the dynamic character of WSN. and unantici-
Even node
patedoroperational
sink mobility problems,
might beitdifficult,
is necessary to address
necessitating the dynamic
clusters character
to alter over of WSN.
time [68].
Even node or sink mobility might be difficult, necessitating clusters to alter over time [68].
7.3. Secure Data Transmission
7.3. SecureThe
DataCH Transmission
is in-charge of data gathering and compilation. Because clustering in WSN
captures
The CH extremely
is in-charge sensitive
of datadata from aand
gathering hostile environment,
compilation. it must
Because be conveyed
clustering without
in WSN
any malicious
captures extremely intent, attack,
sensitive or change.
data from a hostileIt environment,
is important to avoidbe
it must hostile attacks
conveyed on the
with-
network
out any and critical
malicious intent, to use stringent
attack, and
or change. It powerful
is importantauthentication procedures.
to avoid hostile WSNs
attacks on the are
vulnerable
network to a variety
and critical to use of attacks,and
stringent including
powerful denial of service and
authentication manipulation,
procedures. WSNs which
are can
cause nodes, CHs, or whole networks to be disconnected [69,70].
vulnerable to a variety of attacks, including denial of service and manipulation, which can
cause nodes, CHs, or whole networks to be disconnected [69,70].
7.4. Cluster Head Replacement during Iterations
Most
7.4. Cluster Headprevious methods
Replacement ignore
during the CH rotation, which might be included further in
Iterations
recent studies by employing relevant parameters such as coverage rate and residual energy.
Most previous methods ignore the CH rotation, which might be included further in
These nodes are used in tough and dangerous environments where sensor node failure is a
recent studies by employing relevant parameters such as coverage rate and residual en-
possibility. Sensor nodes that are malfunctioning can result in inaccurate sensing results,
ergy. These nodes are used in tough and dangerous environments where sensor node fail-
wrong data processing, and inappropriate data transmission. The research on CH rotation
ure is a possibility. Sensor nodes that are malfunctioning can result in inaccurate sensing
might result in a reduction in the lifetime of networks [71].
results, wrong data processing, and inappropriate data transmission. The research on CH
rotation might result in a reduction in the lifetime of networks [71].
Electronics 2022, 11, 1545 19 of 22

7.5. Improvement in QoS

WSN is the backbone of cutting-edge technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT)
and the Internet of Everything (IoE), which rely on the quality of experience (QoE) and
QoS as prerequisites. When choosing CH in WSN, several criteria like bandwidth, latency,
end-to-end delay, throughput, and dependability are almost completely neglected. As a
result, in cluster-based protocols for real-time IoT applications, these QoS characteristics
must be taken into account [72].

7.6. Distance from CHs to CHs and CHs to SNs

The energy consumption of its members is determined by the position and positioning
of CH in a zone. Clusters with a greater intra-cluster distance spend more energy than
clusters with a smaller intra-cluster distance. This must be taken into account by a clustering
method, and a cluster should be established so that intra-cluster distance is less than inter-
cluster distance [73,74].

8. Conclusions
This study provides a comprehensive review of Bio-inspired Hybrid Optimization
Algorithms for Energy-Efficient Wireless Sensor Networks (WSN). Various advanced tech-
niques in bio-inspired optimization algorithms have been proposed till now, to solve the
problem domains in WSN such as data aggregation, sensor location, and routing and
coverage area. We have aimed to discuss and compare various newly adopted, hybrid,
and conventional methodologies for establishing a robust energy-efficient WSN wherein
parameters like packet loss, energy, throughput, delay, and overhead have been utilized.
Various open issues and challenges in WSN development using bio-inspired optimization
techniques such as network stability, network dynamic character, secure transmission
lines, methods to improve QoS, etc., have been addressed through this review. Further
investigation and extensive experimental work in this research field will aid in advancing
and developing robust Energy-Efficient WSNs.

Author Contributions: R.Y.: Lead author of the manuscript (Corresponding author), Conceptual-
ization and methodology, writing—original draft preparation, investigation, editing; I.S. and D.G.:
Second author, research design, guidance, and reviewing. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were
generated or analyzed during the current study. Data for this research are unavailable.
Acknowledgments: This work has been carried out under the supervision of Indu Sreedevi, Depart-
ment of ECE, and Daya Gupta, Department of CSE, Delhi Technological University, New Delhi, India,
and I (Rajiv Yadav) pay immense gratitude to my guides and UGC for enlightening me through
the process.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. The authors declare
that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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