Lecture one

1. Introduction

1.1.1 Material
A material is defined as a substance that is intended to be used for certain applications. The
traditional examples of materials are metals and ceramics. New and advanced materials that
are being developed include semiconductors, nanomaterials and biomaterials

1.1.2 Materials Science and Engineering

Materials science and engineering can be divided into two subdisciplines, i.e. materials
science and materials engineering.

Material science involves studying the synthesis, structure, properties and performance of
materials. It incorporates elements of physics and chemistry. It involves investigating the
relationships that exist between the structures and properties of materials.

Materials engineering is the designing or engineering the structure of a material to produce

a predetermined set of properties.

The role of a materials scientist is to develop or synthesize new materials, whereas a

materials engineer is called upon to create new products or systems using existing materials,
and/or to develop techniques for processing materials.

The structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal components.
Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions with
their nuclei. On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms or
molecules relative to one another. The next larger structural realm, which contains large
groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated together, is termed “microscopic,” meaning
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that which is subject to direct observation using some type of microscope. Finally, structural
elements that may be viewed with the naked eye are termed “macroscopic.”

While in service use, all materials are exposed to external stimuli that evoke some type of
response. For example, a specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation, or a
polished metal surface will reflect light.

A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of response to a specific
imposed stimulus. Generally, definitions of properties are made independent of material
shape and size.
The most important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different
categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative. For each
there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of provoking different responses.

▪ Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force; examples

include elastic modulus and strength.
▪ For electrical properties, such as electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the
stimulus is an electric field.
▪ The thermal behavior of solids can be represented in terms of heat capacity and
thermal conductivity.
▪ Magnetic properties demonstrate the response of a material to the application of a
magnetic field.
▪ For optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic or light radiation; index of
refraction and reflectivity are representative optical properties.
▪ Deteriorative characteristics relate to the chemical reactivity of materials.
▪ etc

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In addition to structure and properties, two other important components are involved in the
science and engineering of materials—namely, “processing” and “performance.” With
regard to the relationships of these four components, the structure of a material will depend
on how it is processed.

The performance of a material depends on its properties. The interrelationship between

processing, structure, properties, and performance is as depicted in Figure 1.1.

1.1.3 Historical perspective

Since the earliest days of the evolution of mankind, the main distinguishing features between
human beings and other mammals has been the ability to use and develop materials to satisfy
our human requirements.

The selection and use of materials can be traced from the history of man. Material selection
and use has been evolving over time. The material of choice of a given era is often a defining
point. Terms such as stone age, bronze age and iron age are great examples. Material science
is one of the oldest forms of engineering and applied science.

We start by looking at material selection and use from a Historical Perspective.

Historically, the development and advancement of societies have been tied to their ability to
produce and manipulate materials to fulfil their needs.

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Early civilizations have been designated by the level of their materials development. The
earliest human beings had access to a very limited number of materials which occurred
naturally. These included stone, wood, clay, skins, etc. With time they discovered techniques
for producing materials that had properties superior to those of the natural ones; these new
materials included pottery and various metals.

With time, man discovered that the properties of a material could be altered by heat
treatments and by the addition of other substances. At this point, materials utilization was
totally a selection process that involved deciding from a given list of materials, the one best
suited for an application by virtue of its characteristics.

Historical Perspective: Summary of material era

▪ Stone age: Stone and clay used to make tools

▪ Bronze age: bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. First introduced in the far east
▪ Iron age: began about 3000 years ago and continues today
▪ Advanced materials: semi-conductors, composites, nanomaterials and biomaterials

In recent times scientists have come to understand the relationships between the structural
elements of materials and their properties. This knowledge has empowered scientists to
fashion, to a large degree, the characteristics of materials. Thus, tens of thousands of
different materials have evolved with rather specialized characteristics that meet the needs
of our modern and complex society. These include metals, plastics, glasses, fibers etc.

1.1.4 The Engineer

An Engineer is that person who by virtue of training is able to harness the resources of
nature for the benefit of the society. Engineers use materials to solve societal problems.
Nowadays we use many types of materials, fashioned in many different ways, to satisfy our
requirements for:

▪ Housing
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 ▪ Furniture
▪ Industrial machinery
▪ Energy
▪ Clothing
▪ Transportation
▪ Entertainment
▪ Medical Care
▪ Defense and all the other trappings of a modern, civilized society
▪ Etc

1.1.5 Why Study Materials Science and Engineering

Engineers, whether mechanical, civil and structural, chemical, electrical and electronics,
electrical and telecommunication or industrial and textile will at one time or another be
exposed to a design problem involving materials.
Examples might include a transmission gear, the superstructure for a building, an oil refinery
component, an integrated circuit chip etc.

Many times, a materials problem is one of selecting the right material from the many
thousands that are available. There are several criteria on which the final decision is
normally based. First of all, the in-service conditions must be characterized, for these will
dictate the properties required of the material. On only rare occasions does a material possess
the maximum or ideal combination of properties. Thus, it may be necessary to trade off one
characteristic for another. The classic example involves strength and ductility; normally, a
material having a high strength will have only a limited ductility. In such cases a reasonable
compromise between two or more properties may be necessary.
A second selection consideration is any deterioration of material properties that may occur
during service operation. For example, significant reductions in mechanical strength may
result from exposure to elevated temperatures or corrosive environments.
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Finally, probably the overriding consideration is that of economics: What will the finished
product cost? A material may be found that has the ideal set of properties but is prohibitively
expensive. Here again, some compromise is inevitable. The cost of a finished piece also
includes any expense incurred during fabrication to produce the desired shape.
The more familiar an engineer is with the various characteristics and structure–property
relationships, as well as processing techniques of materials, the more proficient and
confident he or she will be to make judicious materials choices based on these criteria.

1.1.6 Summary of reasons as to why we need to study material science and Engineering

1. To be able to select a material for a given use based on considerations of cost and
performance.
2. To understand the limits of materials and the change of their properties with continued
use.
3. To be able to create a new material that will have some desirable properties to suit a given
application.

1.1.7 Range of materials available

The range of materials available for the Engineer to choose/select and use include:

▪ Timber
▪ Stone
▪ Clay
▪ Metals
▪ Composites
▪ Ceramics
▪ Polymers
▪ Semiconductors
▪ Magnetic materials
▪ Medical implant materials

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 ▪ Biological materials and nanomaterials
▪ Etc

Examples of Modern Material's Needs

▪ Engine efficiency increases at high temperatures: requires high temperature

withstanding materials
▪ Hypersonic flight requires materials that are light, strong and resist high temperatures
▪ Optical communications require optical fibers that absorb light negligibly
▪ Civil construction – materials for unbreakable windows
▪ Structures: materials that are strong like metals and resist corrosion like plastics.
▪ Etc

End of lecture one

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