LESSON 2.

4 SPECIAL DIODES

Rectifier diodes are the most common type of diode. They are used in power supplies to convert ac voltage to dc voltage. But
rectification is not all that a diode can do. Now we will discuss diodes used in other applications.

 ZENER DIODE
 The ZENER DIODE is a HIGHLY DOPED silicon pn junction devices that differs from rectifier diodes because it is
designed for operation in the REVERSE-BREAKDOWN REGION.
 The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is set by carefully controlling the level during manufacture.
 The basic function of zener diode is to maintain a specific voltage across it’s terminals within given limits of line or load
change.
 Typically it is used for providing a stable reference voltage for use in power supplies and other equipment.

The symbol for a zener diode is shown in the figure. Instead of a straight line representing the cathode, the zener diode
has a bent line that reminds you of the letter Z (for zener).

The Zener diode is like a general-purpose signal diode. When biased in the FORWARD direction it behaves just LIKE A
NORMAL SIGNAL DIODE, but when a REVERSE voltage is applied to it, the VOLTAGE REMAINS CONSTANT for a wide
range of currents.

 ZENER BREAKDOWN
Two types of reverse breakdown:

1. AVALANCHE EFFECT, occurs in both rectifier and zener diodes at a sufficiently high reverse voltage. Those designed
to operate more than 5 V operate mostly in avalanche breakdown range.

2. ZENER BREAKDOWN occurs in a zener diode at low reverse voltages. Low voltage zeners less than 5V operate in the
zener breakdown range.

Note: Zener diodes are commercially available with voltage breakdowns less than 1 V to more than 250 V.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 17

 A zener diode is heavily doped to reduce the breakdown voltage. This causes a very thin depletion region. As a result, an
intense electric field exists within the depletion region. Near the zener breakdown voltage (V z), the field is intense enough
to pull electrons from their valence bands and create current. The zener diodes breakdown characteristics are determined
by the doping process

Figure below represents the practical model of a zener diode, where the zener impedance (Z Z) is included.

 APPLICATIONS

 VOLTAGE LIMITER
Zener diodes can be used in ac applications to limit voltage swing to desired levels.

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
9. Determine the output voltage for each zener limiting circuit.

Since input is an alternating current, therefore we will have 2 polarities

@ + half cycle
VZ1 = 0.7 V (act as ordinary diode)
VZ2 = 5.1 V (act as zener diode)

@ - half cycle
VZ1 = 3.3 V (act as zener diode)
VZ2 = 0.7 V (act as ordinary diode)

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 18

  BASIC REGULATOR

 OPTICAL DIODES
Optoelectronics is the technology that combines optics and electronics. This field includes many devices based on the
action of a pn junction. Examples of optoelectronic devices are light-emitting diodes (LEDs), photodiodes, optocouplers, and
laser diodes.

A. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

 LEDs have replaced incandescent lamps in many applications because of the LED’s lower energy consumption,
smaller size, faster switching and longer life time
 The light-emitting diode (LED) emits photons as visible light. It’s purpose is for indication and other intelligible
displays.
 Various impurities are added during the doping process to vary the color output.

 LED Biasing
 LED operates in forward biased.
 The forward voltage across an LED is considerably greater than for a silicon diode. Typically, the maximum VF
for LEDs is between 1.2 V and 3.2 V, depending on the material. Reverse breakdown for an LED is much less
than for a silicon rectifier diode (3 V to 10 V is typical).

 LED Operation
 When the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the pn junction from the n-type material and recombine with
holes in the p-type material.
 The free electrons are in the conduction band and at a higher energy than the holes in the valence band.
 The difference in energy between the electrons and the holes corresponds to the energy of visible light.
 When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release energy in the form of photons.
 The emitted light tends to be monochromatic (one color) that depends on the band gap (and other factors).

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 19

 A large exposed surface area on one layer of the semiconductive material permits the photons to be emitted as
visible light.
 This process, called electroluminescence. Various impurities are added during the doping process to establish
the wavelength of the emitted light.
 The wavelength determines the color of visible light.
 Some LEDs emit photons that are not part of the visible spectrum but have longer wavelengths and are in the
infrared (IR) portion of the spectrum.
 Depending on the material used, the light is red, orange, yellow, blue, white or some are invisible (infrared)

Photons (from Greek φως, meaning light), in many atomic models in physics, are particles which transmit light.
In other words, light is carried over space by photons.

Electroluminescence (EL) is an optical phenomenon and electrical phenomenon in which a material emits light
in response to the passage of an electric current or to a strong electric field.

The color of the light, which corresponds to the wavelength energy of the photons, is primarily determined by
the energy band gap of the semiconductor materials that are used. By using elements like gallium, arsenic, and
phosphorus, a manufacturer can produce LEDs that radiate red, green, yellow, blue, orange, white or infrared
(invisible) light. LEDs that produce visible radiation are useful as indicators in applications such as
instrumentation panels, internet routers, and so on. The infrared LED finds applications in security systems,
remote controls, industrial control systems, and other areas requiring invisible radiation.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 20

  LED Common Applications:
a. Typical small LEDs as indicators

b. Bright LEDs for lighting

A typical LED for lighting can deliver 50–60 lumens per watt, which is approximately five times greater efficiency
than a standard incandescent bulb. LEDs for lighting are available in a variety of configurations, including low-
wattage bulbs for outdoor walkways and gardens. Many LED lamps are designed to work in 120 V standard
fixtures.

c. LED Displays
Standard LEDs are used for indicator lamps and readout displays on a wide variety of instruments, ranging from
consumer appliances to scientific apparatus. A common type of display device using LEDs is the seven-segment
display. By forward-biasing selected combinations of segments, any decimal digit and a decimal point can be
formed. Two types of LED circuit arrangements are the common anode and common cathode as shown.

B. PHOTODIODES
The photodiode is used to vary current by the amount of light that strikes it. It is placed in the circuit in reverse bias. As
with most diodes when in reverse bias, no current flows when in reverse bias, but when light strikes the exposed junction
through a tiny window, reverse current increases proportional to light intensity.

The photodiode allows essentially no reverse current (except for a very small dark current) when there is no incident
light. When a light beam strikes the photodiode, it conducts an amount of reverse current that is proportional to the light
intensity (irradiance).

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 21

OTHER SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODE

 LASER DIODE
 The laser diode (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) produces a monochromatic (single color) light.
 Laser light is also called coherent light, a single wavelength, as compared to incoherent light, which consists of a wide
band of wavelengths. The laser diode normally emits coherent light, whereas the LED emits incoherent light.
 Laser diodes in conjunction with photodiodes are used to retrieve data from compact discs.

 LASER Diode Biasing

The laser diode is forward-biased by an external voltage source.

 Photodiode and LASER Diode Applications

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 22

LESSON 2.5 DIODE APPLICATIONS

LESSON 2.5.1 RECTIFIER

 is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC),
which flows in only one direction.
 The process is known as rectification, since it "straightens" the direction of current.

INPUT: AC VOLTAGE
OUTPUT: PULSATING DC VOLTAGE

Types of Rectifier:
1. HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER (1 diode)
2. FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER
 CENTER-TAPPED (CT) (2 diodes)
 BRIDGE RECTIFIER (4 diodes)

 POWER SUPPLY UNIT

 Circuit inside electronic equipment that converts the ac input voltage to an almost perfect dc output voltage.
 DC POWER SUPPLY converts the standard 220 V, 60 Hz AC voltage available at wall outlets into a constant DC voltage.
 The DC power supply is one of the most common circuits you will find, so it is important to understand how it works.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 23

 • Transformer
• Rectifier
a. Half Wave Rectifier
b. Full wave rectifier
1. Center-tapped
2. Bridge type
• Filter
a. Choke Input Filter
b. Capacitor Input Filter
• Regulator

 SINUSOIDAL WAVE
A mathematical curve that describes a smooth repetitive oscillation.

Faraday's work in the 19th

century showed that a changing current
in a conductor (e.g. a transformer
primary winding) sets up a changing
magnetic field around the conductor. If
another conductor (secondary winding)
is placed within this changing magnetic
field a voltage will be induced into that
winding.

 INSTANTANEOUS VOLTAGE ( V INS ) Value of voltage at any instant.

 PEAK VOLTAGE ( V P ) Highest value of voltage on half of the cycle.

Measured by an oscilloscope.

 AVERAGE VOLTAGE (DC VOLTAGE) Voltage measure by a DC VOM.

( V AVE or V DC) Mathematically it is the area under the curve over a full cycle.

 RMS VOLTAGE ( V RMS ) Voltage measure by an AC VOM.

Amount of AC power that produces the same heating effect as an
equivalent DC power

 TRANSFORMER
Transformer changes ac voltages based on the turns ratio between the primary and secondary.

INPUT: AC VOLTAGE Schematic Symbol:

OUTPUT: AC VOLTAGE

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 24

2 TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
1. STEP-UP TRANSFORMER
Example: 110V to 220V
N1 < N2
N2 / N1 > 1 (Turn Ratio)
V2 > V1

2. STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER – usual

Example: 220V to 110V
N1 > N2
N2 / N1 < 1 (Turn Ratio)
V1 > V2

IDEAL
***No power losses
***100% power transfer

P1=P2
Power in Primary Winding = Power in Secondary Winding

I1 V1 = I2 V2

=
V1 I2
V2 I1

= =
V1 I2 N1
V2 I1 N2
where: N is the number of turns in windings

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
10. Calculate the voltage output by the secondary winding of a transformer if the primary voltage is 35 volts, the secondary
winding has 4500 turns, and the primary winding has 355 turns.

11. Calculate the load current and load voltage in this transformer circuit

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 25

 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

 IDEAL APPROXIMATION

1. The AC source produce a SINUSOIDAL voltage.

2. The positive half of the AC source will forward biased the diode (switch closed), and the positive half cycle of the
source will appear across the load resistor.
3. On the negative half cycle of the source, the diode is reverse biased (open switch) and no voltage will appear across
the load

 SECOND APPROXIMATION

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 26

 SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
12. Determine the peak value of the output voltage for the circuit if the turns ratio is 0.5. Use ideal and 2 nd approximation.

 FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

 CENTER-TAPPED RECTIFIER
- A center-tapped rectifier is a type of full-wave rectifier that uses two diodes connected to the secondary of a center-
tapped transformer.
- This is equivalent to 2 half wave rectifier. Because of the center tap, each of these rectifiers has an input equal to half
of the secondary voltage.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 27

SAMPLE PROBLEM:
13. Solve Vout for below circuit. Draw the input and output (1 st and 2nd approx) waveform.

 BRIDGE RECTIFIER
The bridge rectifier uses four diodes connected as shown.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
14. A certain unfiltered Bridge rectifier has a transformer that is specified to have a 12Vrms secondary voltage. Determine the
load voltage in peak value using 1st and 2nd approx.

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 28

Unit 2: Diode Characteristics and Circuits 29