Control Systems

Block Diagram
Lecture 5
 Block Diagram
 For a complicated system, it is easy to find the transfer function of each and
every element, and output of a certain block may act as an input to other
block or blocks.
 Therefore, the knowledge of transfer function of each block is not sufficient in
this case.
 The interrelation between the elements is required to find the overall transfer
function of the system.
 There are two methods: (i) block diagram and (ii) signal flow graph.

Block diagram: it is a pictorial representation of each system. Each element of a

complicated system is represented by a block. Each block is functional block.
 Basic Elements of Block Diagram
Block diagram: The shorthand pictorial representation of the cause-and-effect relationship
between the input and output of a physical system is known as block diagram.

Output: The value of input multiplied by the block gain is known as output.
 Summing Point
Summing point: At summing point, two or more signals can be added or subtracted.
 Take off Point
Take off point: The point at which the output signal of any block can be applied to two or
more points is known as take-off point.
 Forward Path
Forward path: The direction of flow of signal from input to output is known as forward
path.
 Feedback Path
Feedback path: The direction of flow of signal from output to input is known as feedback
path.
 Cannonical Form of Closed Loop System
Block diagram which consists of a forward path having one block, a feedback
path having one block, a take-off point, and a summing point.
R(s) is Laplace transform of reference input r(t); C(s) is Laplace transform of
controlled output c(t); E(s) is Laplace transform of error signal e(t); B(s) is Laplace
transform of feedback signal b(t); C(s) is equivalent forward path transfer
function; H(s) is equivalent feedback path transfer function.
Rules For Block Diagram Reduction
Rule 1: Associative law
Rule 2: For blocks in cascade (series)
Rule 3: For blocks in parallel
Rule 4: Eliminate feedback loop
Rule 5: Shifting a summing point before a block
Rule 6: Shifting of summing point after a block
Rule 7: Shifting of take-off point before a block
Rule 8: Shifting of take-off point after a block
Rule 9: Shifting of take-off point before summing block
Rule 10: Shifting of take-off point after summing block
 Rule 1: Associative law

Note: If any block is present in between the summing points, by interchanging the summing points, it can be
shown that output will not be equal.
Rule 2: For blocks in cascade (series)

Blocks in cascade

Equivalent block
 Rule 3: For blocks in parallel
This rule cannot be applied directly if a
take-off occurs as shown in Fig.

Parallel blocks

Take-off point in between a

block and a summing point

Equivalent block
 Rule 4: Eliminate feedback loop

for positive feedback

Feedback control system

In general
Rule 5: Shifting a summing point before a block
Rule 6: Shifting of summing point after a block
Rule 7: Shifting of take-off point before a block
Rule 8: Shifting of take-off point after a block
Rule 9: Shifting of take-off point before summing block
Rule 10: Shifting of take-off point after summing block
 Procedure For Reduction of Block Diagram

 Step 1: Reduce the cascade blocks.

 Step 2: Reduce the parallel blocks.

 Step 3: Reduce the internal feedback loops.

 Step 4: It is advisable to shift take-off points towards right and summing points
towards left. It is always better to avoid rule 9 and rule 10.

 Step 5: Repeat steps 1 to step 4 until the simple form is obtained.

 Step 6: Find transfer function of the overall system using the formula
C(s)/R(s).
 Example 2.1
Obtain transfer function using Block diagram reduction rules for the following
 Example 2.1…solution
Combining blocks in series

Reducing the minor loop

Combining G1,G2(series) & G3,G4,G5(parallel)

Reducing the minor loop

Combining blocks in series & TF
 Example 2.2
Find C(s)/R(s) using Block diagram reduction rules for the following

Hint: move take off point to the right.

 Example 2.2
Find C(s)/R(s) using Block diagram reduction rules for the following

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3
=
Hint: move take off point to the right. 𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐻2 − 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻1 + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3
 Example 2.3
Find C(s)/R(s) using Block diagram reduction rules for the following

Hint: move take off point to the right.

 Example 2.3

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4
=
Hint: move take off point to the right. 𝑅(𝑠) 1 + 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐻3 + 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐻2 + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐻1
 Example 2.4
Find C/R using Block diagram reduction rules for the following

Hint: take summing point to the left and take off point to the right.
Also use associative law.
 Example 2.4

𝐶 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4
Hint: take summing point to the left and take off point to the right. =
𝑅 1 + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐻1 + 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐻2 + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐻1 𝐻2 + 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐻3
Also use associative law.
 Example 2.5
Find C/R using Block diagram reduction rules for the following

Hint: move take off point to the right.

 Example 2.5

𝐶 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3
=
𝑅 1 + 𝐺3 𝐻2 + 𝐺3 + 𝐺2 𝐻3 + 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐻2 𝐻3 + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐻1
Hint: move take off point to the right.
Example 2.6
 Signal Flow Graphs
 Signal-flow graph is a pictorial representation of a system which displays graphically the
transmission of signals in it.
 S.J. Mason introduced the signal-flow graph for representing the cause and effect of linear
systems which are modelled by algebraic equations.
 In a signal-flow graph, all dependent and independent variables are represented by the nodes,
and the lines joining the nodes are known as branches.
 A branch is associated with transmission gain and an arrow.

 A is the transmission gain and the arrow shows the flow of signal.
 The branches of any SFG are always unidirectional.
 All the branches of a signal-flow graph represent the cause-and-effect relationship existing
between the various variables.
 Basic Definitions in SFG

Input or source node: The node having only outgoing branches is called input or source node. In Fig. X1
is the input or source node.

Output or sink node: The node having only incoming branches is called sink node or output node. In Fig.
x9 is the sink or output node.
Chain node: The node having both incoming and outgoing branches is know as chain node. In Fig., x2, x3
x4, x5, x6, x7 and x8 are all chain nodes.
Forward path: A path from input to output is known as forward path.
 Forward Paths
there are four forward paths as follows:

Note: In determining forward path, any node should not

be traded twice.
 Feedback Loop/Paths & Self Loop
Feedback Loop/Feedback Path: If a loop originates and terminates at the same node, it is known as feedback
loop. In Fig. there are three feedback loops or feedback paths as follows:

Self-Loop: A loop that consists of only one node is known as self-loop. In determining forward path or
feedback path, the self-loop should not be taken into account. In Fig., t55, at x5, is the self-loop.
 Path Gain
Path Gain: The product of gains going through a forward path is called path gain. In Fig., the path gain for the
first forward path is
 Dummy Nodes
Dummy Node: If the incoming as well as outgoing branches exist at the first and the last node representing
input and output variables, these nodes cannot be taken as input and output nodes. In such cases, separate
input and output nodes are created by adding branches with gain 1. These nodes are know as dummy nodes.
 Non-Touching Loops
Non-touching Loops: If there is no node common between two or more loops, these loops are known as
non-touching loops.
 Non-Touching Loops to Forward Path
If a loop does not touch to a forward path, i.e., no node is common between a forward path and a feedback
loop, this loop is non-touching to that forward path.
 Loop Gain
Loop Gain: It is defined as the product of all gains of the branches forming a loop.
 Rules for SFG
Addition Rule: The algebraic sum of all signals entering at a node gives the value of the variable of that
node. This is known as additional rule.
 Rules for SFG
Transmission Rule: The value o f a variable at a node in signal-flow graph is transmitted on every branch
that is leaving that node. This is known as transmission rule.

Multiplication Rule: If the branches are in series, the gain is multiplied.

 Properties Of Signal-flow Graph

 It is applicable to linear systems.

 Arrow indicates signal flow.
 There is transmission o f the value of a variable on each node which leaves it.
 The algebraic sum of all signals entering a node gives the value of a variable at that node.
 Since different system equations can be written, therefore the signal flow-graph of a system is
not unique.
 Using Mason's gain formula the overall gain of a signal-flow graph can be determined.
 A signal-flow graph can represent a block diagram, but the reverse is not true.
 Mason's Gain Formula
 To find transfer function of a complicated system of block diagram, reduction technique is a cumbersome
process because step-by-step reduction of block diagram is required.
 It is possible to obtain the transfer function very easily by using Mason's gain formula given below:
 Example 2.7
Find the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. using Mason’s gain formula.
 Example 2.7
Step 1: Identify forward paths and find their gain
 Example 2.7
Step 2: Identify loops and find their gain

𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐿1 = −𝐺2 𝐻1

𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐿2 = −𝐺4 𝐻2 𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐿3 = −𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐻3

𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐿4 = −𝐺6 𝐻3

 Example 2.7
Step 3: Identify non-touching loops and combinations of two non-touching loops

Out of four loops, Loop 1, Loop 2, and Loop 4 are non-touching. The combinations of two non-touching loops
are

Step 4: Out of these four loops, Loop 1, Loop 2 and Loop 4 are possible combinations of three non-touching
loops:
𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐿13 = −𝐺2 𝐺4 𝐺6 𝐻1 𝐻2 𝐻3
Step 5: There is no higher order non-touching loops.
 Example 2.7
Step 6:

Step 7:

Step 8:
 Example 2.8
Find the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. using Mason’s gain formula.
Example 2.8
 Example 2.9
Find the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. using Mason’s gain formula.
Example 2.9
 Example 2.10
Find the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. using Mason’s gain formula.
 Example 2.11
Find the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. using Mason’s gain formula.
Example 2.11
 Example 2.12
Find the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. using Mason’s gain formula.
Example 2.12
 Example 2.13
Draw signal flow graph for the system shown below. Find the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. using
Mason’s gain formula.
 Example 2.14
Draw signal flow graph for the system shown below. Find the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. using
Mason’s gain formula.
 Example 2.15
Draw signal flow graph for the system shown below. Find the transfer function of the system shown in Fig. using
Mason’s gain formula.