Base band shaping for data transmission

Topics:-
Baseband systems, Messages, characters and symbols, Formatting
analog information, Digital Multiplexing: Multiplexers and
hierarchies, Data Multiplexers, Data formats and their spectra,
Source of corruption, Discrete PAM signals (Line Coding), Power
spectra of discrete PAM signals, Inter symbol Interference,
Nyquist’s criteria for distortion less base band, Binary
transmission, Base band M-ary PAM systems
Introduction
• The first step in digitizing a signal is called formatting.
• It is done in order to ensure that the message signal becomes
compatible with digital processing.
• The formatting at the transmitter converts the information
from the source to digital symbols.
• This transformation can be achieved by the process such as
character coding, sampling , quantization and PCM.
• The digital messages so obtained are in their logical format (0s
and 1s).
• Then they are transformed into baseband (pulse) waveforms at
the next step called pulse modulation.
• Such waveforms are suitable for transmission over cable.
 Baseband System
This is the signal whose spectrum extends from dc(zero frequency) up
to some finite value.
Digital signal

PULSE
FORMAT TRANSMITTER
GENERATOR
Source

Pulse waveforms
Bit stream in
the form of
CHANNEL
0s and 1 s

Digital signal

FORMAT DEMODULATOR RECEIVER

Original signal
(Analog)
• The analog input signal is formatted using three processes namely
sampling, quantization and coding to obtain a binary bit stream of
0s and 1s.
• If the input signal is already digital then the formatting is not
required to be done and the digital signal is applied directly to the
pulse modulator.
• The digital signal in the form of binary digits is converted into a
pulsed waveforms using the pulse modulator.
• The transmitter transmits these pulsed waveforms over a baseband
channel. (coaxial cable or a pair of wire)
• It is not possible to transmit the binary digits as it is over any
channel without first transforming them into waveform that are
compatible with the channel.
• Such pulsed waveforms corresponding to the digital input signal
which are compatible to the base band channel are known as
discrete PAM signals or Line codes.
• Transmitter transmits line codes on the base band channel.
• The receiver receives the line codes, separate pulses from
noise added to them and applies them to a demodulator.
• The noise free line code pulses are converted into digital bit
stream by the demodulator / detector block.
• The digital bit stream is then converted to the analog signal by
formatting block at the receiver.
Line Coding
• The line coding is the process of converting binary data, a
sequence of bits to a digital signal
• The digital data such as text, numbers, graphical images,
audio, video are stored in computer memory in the form of
sequence of bits.
• Line coding converts these sequences into digital signals.
• Line codes are called as digital PAM format.
• There are various techniques used to convert the analog signal
to digital signal.
• It is possible to obtain digital data from the source such as
computer .
• The information from such source is inherently discrete in
nature.
• If such discrete signal is transmitted over a band limited
channel, then the signal gets dispersed.
• That means the pulses spread out and overlap each other to
cause distortion.
• Such distortion is called as inter symbol interference (ISI).
• In order to avoid this we should not transmit the discrete signal
as it is on the transmission medium.
• Instead this data is first converted into a PAM format or line
code which is compatible with the base band channel and then
transmitted over a baseband communication channel.
• The various pulse format used as per requirement are also
called as line codes.
Classification of Line Codes
Line codes are basically divided into three.
Line codes

Unipolar Polar Bipolar

Manche
RZ NRZ RZ NRZ AMI
ster
Unipolar codes:
Unipolar codes use only one voltage level other than zero. So the
encoded signal will have either +A volts value or 0. These codes
are very simple and primitive and are not used now a days. The
unipolar codes are further classified into two types namely RZ
(return to zero) codes and NRZ (non-return to zero) codes.
Polar codes:
Polar coding uses two voltage levels other than zero such as +A/2
and –A/2 volts. This will bring the dc level for some codes to
zero which is a desired characteristics. The polar codes are also
further classified into two types namely RZ and NRZ.
Bipolar codes:
Bipolar coding uses three voltage levels positive negative and
zero which is similar to polar codes. But here the zero level is
always used for representing the 0 in the data stream at the input.
Various discrete PAM signals
• A digital message representation at baseband commonly takes
the form of an amplitude modulated pulse train.
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑘 𝑝(𝑡 − 𝑘𝑇)
𝑘
• Here 𝑎𝑘 is amplitude of 𝑘 𝑡ℎ symbol in the message sequence.
• p(t) is the pulse carrier whose pulses are modulated by 𝑎𝑘 and
T is the time period (maximum duration) of the carrier pulses.
• If the carrier pulse p(t) is unmodulated then it will be a
rectangular pulse with a variable duty cycle.
• We can represent it mathematically as p(t) = 1 for t = 0 and 0
for t = T , 2T.
• x(t) represent a baseband signal which is continuous in time.
• In order to obtain various formats mentioned above, we have
to sample x(t) at some regular interval.
• This is necessary to know about which symbol is being
transmitted (0 or 1).
• The ideal time instants to sample x(t) are at k = 0, 1 or 2.
• Thus x(t) is first sampled at k = 0, 1, 2..and then represented in
the form of a train of modulated pulsed carrier.
• Different types of line coding formats are also called as digital
PAM signals.
 Properties of Line Codes:
No DC component:
All the cable systems and other communication systems, do not
allow transmission of a dc signal over them. Therefore, the line
signal must have a zero average (dc) value. NRZ bipolar formats
usually satisfy this requirement. For this reason, long strings of
element sequences having same polarity should not be transmitted.
Self clocking capability:
Any digital communication system needs symbol or bit
synchronization. To ensure synchronization at the receiver the line
code waveform must always undergo transitions after regular
interval. This is called as inherent synchronizing or clocking feature.
Bandwidth compression:
The bandwidth of a line code should be as small as possible. The
multilevel codes need less bandwidth as compared to other codes.
This happens due to effective utilization of bandwidth.
Differential encoding:
The differential encoding is useful for those communication
systems where the transmitted waveform sometimes experiences
an inversion. In differential encoding the polarity of encoded
waveform is inverted without affecting the data detection.
Noise immunity:
The selected line code should have a very high noise immunity.
This is necessary to have minimum number of errors introduced
due to noise. The NRZ formats have better noise immunity than
that of the unipolar RZ format.
Minimum crosstalk:
The crosstalk between the adjacent channel that are being
transmitted should be minimized. To achieve this the amount of
energy in the signal at low frequencies should be small.
Unipolar RZ Line code:
• The return to zero (RZ) unipolar line code for the data stream
(1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1) is shown .

Unipolar RZ Line code

• The duration of each data bit (either 0 or 1) is equal to 𝑇𝑏.
• Each 0 is represented by an off pulse and each 1 by on pulse
𝑇
with amplitude A and duration 𝑏 , followed by return to zero
2
level. Therefore this is called as return to zero format(RZ).
• As voltage level is either +A or zero this is a unipolar format.
(only one polarity)
• Due to unipolar nature, the unipolar RZ format has a nonzero
dc value.
• The dc value does not contain any information.
• less energy.
 Data bit Amplitude Duration

0 0 𝐓𝐛

1 +A 𝐓𝐛 /2

Unipolar RZ code

• Advantages:
1. Simple to generate and decode.
2. They can provide self synchronization.
• Disadvantages:
1. Code has a non-zero dc value.
2. Due to shorter pulses, this code carries
Unipolar NRZ Format:
Waveform:
A non- return to zero (NRZ) unipolar line code for the data
stream (1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1) is shown in fig.

Unipolar NRZ line code

• In this format a logic 1 is represented by a pulse of full bit
duration 𝑇𝑏 and amplitude +A while a logic 0 is represented by
an off pulse or zero amplitude of full bit duration.
• During the on time, the pulse does not return to zero after half
bit period.
• As the pulses have either +A or 0 amplitude it is called as
unipolar format.
• Due to unipolar nature, the unipolar NRZ format also will have
a nonzero average (dc) value which does not carry any
information.
• Due to longer pulse duration, the NRZ pulses carry more
energy than the RZ pulses.
• They need synchronization at the receiver as there is no
separation between the adjacent pulses.
 Data bit Amplitude Duration

0 0 𝐓𝐛

1 +A 𝐓𝐛

Unipolar NRZ code

Advantages:
1. Simple to generate and decode
2. Due to longer pulses, this code carries higher energy than the RZ
unipolar code.
3. Needs low bandwidth.
Disadvantages:
1. They result in a dc component that does not carry any information
Polar RZ Line Code:
The polar RZ format for the data stream 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 is
shown in fig.

Polar RZ format
• The opposite polarity pulses of amplitude ± 𝐴 2 are used to
represent logic 1 and 0.
• A logic 1 is represented by pulses of amplitude A/2 and
duration𝑇𝑏 /2. whereas a logic 0 is represented by a pulse of
amplitude –A/2 and the duration 𝑇𝑏 /2. Therefore it is called as a
polar format.
• As the pulses return to zero after half the bit duration 𝑇𝑏 /2 this
format is a RZ format.
• Due to shorter pulse duration and smaller amplitude the polar RZ
pulses carry much less energy.
• Due to positive and negative amplitude of the pulses there is
possibility of reducing the dc component to zero.
• This line code will have a non zero dc value for long strings of 0s
and 1s.
• Due to the separation between the adjacent pulses, they can
provide self synchronization at the receiver.
 Data bit Amplitude Duration

1 +A/2 𝐓𝐛 /2

0 -A/2 𝐓𝐛 /2

Polar RZ code
Advantage:
• Simple to generate and decode.
• They can provide self synchronization.
• DC component can be zero for certain data input string.
• Needs low bandwidth.
Disadvantages:
• This code has a non zero dc value for long strings of 0s and 1s.
• Due to shorter pulses and smaller amplitude of pulses this code
carries less energy.
Polar NRZ Line Code:
The polar NRZ format for the data stream 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 is
shown in fig.

Polar NRZ format

• In the polar NRZ format a pulse of amplitude +A/2 of duration
𝑇𝑏 is used to represent a logic 1 and pulse of amplitude –A/2 of
the same duration represent a logic 0.
• Unlike the unipolar waveform , a polar waveform has no dc
component if the 0s and 1s in the input data occur in equal
proportion.

Data bit Amplitude Duration

0 +A/2 𝑻𝒃

1 -A/2 𝑻𝒃

Polar NRZ code

Advantages:
• Simple to generate and decode.
• They can provide self synchronization at the receiver due to the
frequent zero crossing taking place in code.
• DC component can be zero if the 0s and 1s in the input data
occur in equal proportion .
• Needs low bandwidth.
Disadvantages:
• This code has a non zero dc value for long strings of 0s and 1s.
• Due to longer pulses and smaller amplitude of pulses this code
carries less energy.
 Bipolar NRZ Line code
The bipolar NRZ format for the data stream 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 is
shown in fig.

Bipolar NRZ Format (AMI)

• Here the successive 1s are represented by pulses with alternating
polarity, and no pulse is transmitted for a logic 0.
• Note that in this representation there are three levels +A, 0 and –A.
The duration of each pulse is equal to 𝑇𝑏 .
• This is also known as pseudo ternary or alternative mark inversion
(AMI).
• The first 1 in the input is represented +A and next 1 by –A and the
next again by +A and all the 0s are represented by zero amplitude.
• The bipolar format eliminates ambiguity that may arise because of
polarity inversion during course of transmissions.
• This problem is observed in the switched telephone network that is
why bipolar NRZ format is used in PCM-TDM system for digital
telephony.
• The absence of dc component allows the use of transformers for
coupling.
Advantages:
• They can provide self synchronization at the receiver due to the
frequent zero crossing taking place in the code.
• DC component is zero.
• This code carries higher energy due to longer duration and larger
amplitude pulses.
• Needs low bandwidth.
Disadvantage:
• This code has a non zero dc value for long strings of 0s and 1s.

Data bit Amplitude Duration

0 +A 𝑻𝒃
0 0 𝑻𝒃
1 -A 𝑻𝒃
1 +A 𝑻𝒃
Split Phase Manchester Format
The split phase Manchester format for the data stream
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 is shown in fig.

Split Phase Manchester Format

• In this format symbol 1 is represented by transmitting a positive
pulse of +A/2 amplitude for one half of the symbol duration (𝑇𝑏 2)
followed by a negative pulse of amplitude –A/2 for remaining half
of the symbol duration (𝑇𝑏 2) .
• For symbol 0 these two pulses are transmitted in reverse order.
• This waveform does not have any DC component
• This has a built in synchronization capability as it crosses zero at
regular intervals.
• See, the capability is attained at the expense of a bandwidth
requirement of twice that of NRZ unipolar and bipolar format.
• The local area network such as Ethernet are increasingly using
Manchester code for signal transmission over the network.
Data bit Amplitude Duration
1 +A/2 𝑻𝒃 𝟐
-A/2 𝑻𝒃 𝟐
0 +A/2 𝑻𝒃 𝟐
-A/2 𝑻𝒃 𝟐
Advantages:
• It can provide self synchronization at the receiver due to the
frequent zero crossing taking place in the code.
• DC component of this code is always equal to zero irrespective
of the input data sequence.
• This code carries adequate amount of energy and needs low
bandwidth.
Disadvantages:
• It needs a larger bandwidth for its transmission due to shorter
duration pulse
Polar Quaternary NRZ Format
The polar quaternary NRZ format for the data stream
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 is shown in fig.

Polar quaternary NRZ format

• There are four possible combinations of bits: 00, 01, 10, 11.
each combination is represented using a different level as
shown in fig.
• The first combination of two bits is 10 and it is represented by
A/2.
• The second combination is 11 and it is represented by the level
3A/2.
• Thus here for a message of two bits only one pulse of duration
D= 2𝑇𝑏 is transmitted.
∴ D= 2𝑇𝑏
1
• The signalling rate 𝑟 = message/sec
2𝑇𝑏
• If there is M levels obtained from the combination of k bits
(Here M= 4 and k=2) then 𝑀 = 2𝑘 .
Message combination X(t)=𝒂𝒌 Duration
00 -3A/2 2𝑻𝒃
01 -A/2 2𝑻𝒃
10 A/2 2𝑻𝒃
11 3A/2 2𝑻𝒃