What is a Manifesto?

Manifesto refers to a published declaration of the intentions, motives, or

views of the issuer, be it an individual, group, political party or government.

Manifestos aren’t just for politicians or artists. Manifestos are for everyone.
In a manifesto, you declare your vision, core values and goals to the world. This might
be a manifesto of a company, artist, person, movement or politician. Unlike a mission
statement, a manifesto is a call-to-action that works to ignite the masses. One example
that might instantly come to mind is the Manifesto of the Communist Party by Karl Marx
and Friedrich Engels. However, manifestos come in all shapes and sizes.

Nike: Purpose Moves Us

Our purpose is to unite the world through sport to create a healthy planet, active
communities and an equal playing field for all.

Nike packs power into one line: “Purpose moves us.” Their revolving goal is a changing
and moving effort to create an active planet. With their manifesto, Nike provides articles
and inspiration on how the company is working to achieve their goals through their
products.
Mozilla: We Are Committed

\We are committed to an internet that includes all the peoples of the earth — where a
person’s demographic characteristics do not determine their online access,
opportunities, or quality of experience.

We are committed to an internet that promotes civil discourse, human dignity, and
individual expression.

We are committed to an internet that elevates critical thinking, reasoned argument,

shared knowledge, and verifiable facts.
We are committed to an internet that catalyzes collaboration among diverse
communities working together for the common good.
WHAT IS AN ARGUMENT?
According to Miriam – Webster (2020), the argument is a coherent series of
reasons, statements, or facts intended to support or establish a point of view.
Thus, writers used these arguments to present their ideas or beliefs on certain
principles.
However, these arguments are sometimes doubted if they do not have
supporting evidence or if these arguments are based on opinions only. Before we can
determine whether a statement is a FACT, OPINION, or INCORRECT INFORMATION,
let us define these three concepts. (Mondez and Suarez 2016)
The fact is Objective. It is not influenced by personal feelings or judgment
Example: COVID-19 pandemic created a chaotic situation in many parts of the
world.
Opinion is Subjective. It is based on or influenced by personal beliefs or feelings.
Example: The movie “Flor Contemplacion Story” is very dull. Incorrect
information is the opposite of Fact and not Opinion
Example: The Philippines has a total of 7,107 islands. (It has a total of 7,641)
Always consider that opinions include words of judgment or personal preference
when deciding if a statement is a fact or an opinion. Opinions are not the opposite of
Facts. If it is proved that facts are not accurate, what you have is called Incorrect
Information (Mondez and Suarez 2016).

Argumentative writing. A kind of writing where the students establish a position in

a given topic and then use evidence to persuade the audience to see things from their
point of view. To write a great argumentatively, the students first have to investigate
several sides of the argument, which allows them to make an educated stance. Then,
they have to collect evidence, including facts, statistics, and claims from experts in the
topic’s field.

Argument. In academic writing, this is usually a main idea, often called a “claim”
or “thesis statement,” backed up with evidence that supports the idea.

IDENTIFYING ARGUMENTS
An argument is a systematic way to make a point in academic
writing. An argument consists of two parts.
1. Firstly, a claim or statement that summarizes the main idea
2. secondly, reasons why that claim is accurate, or evidence to
 support that claim.

Example:
Reflective writing can help students become better thinkers. It can help
students see that ideas are meant to be discussed and debated. Bridges and
Jost found that students who did weekly reflective journal writing about their
course contentfor a semester could analyze course concepts at a deeper level
than those who didn’t.

In this case, the sentence "Reflective writing can help students become better
thinkers" is the claim.

The claim is expanded upon in the next sentence, "It can help students see
that ideas are meant to be discussed and debated."
Finally, the evidence is presented, often in the form of a citation. Here, we
read that "Bridges and Jost found that students who did weekly reflective journal
writing about their course content for a semester could analyze course concepts at a
deeper level than those who didn't."
This evidence supports the originally presented claim and its expansion.

Argumentative writing

A kind of writing where the students establish a position in

a given topic and then use evidence to persuade the audience to see things from their
point of view. To write a great argumentatively, the students first have to investigate
several sides of the argument, which allows them to make an educated stance. Then,
they have to collect evidence, including facts, statistics, and claims from experts in the
topic’s field.

Argument

In academic writing, this is usually a main idea, often called a “claim” or “thesis
statement,” backed up with evidence that supports the idea.

Analyzing an Issue and Developing an Argument

Once your topic is selected, you should do some research on the subject matter.
While you may already have an opinion on your topic and an idea about which side of the
argument you want to take, you need to ensure that your position is well supported. Listing
the pro and con sides of the topic will help you examine your ability to support your
counterclaims, along with a list of supporting evidence for both sides.
ANALYZING ARGUMENTS
You judge someone else's logic as you "Analyze an Argument." The task
provides a brief passage in which the author makes a case for a course of action or
interprets facts by submitting statements and supporting evidence. Your task is to
analyze the arguments made and to evaluate the author's argument reasoning
critically.
Points for Analysis
You will analyze the author's case's logic by evaluating both the use of
evidence andlogical connections. In reading the author's argument, consider the
following:
• What evidence is given?

• What conclusions are made?

• What assumptions (likely not stated) are made?
• What ramifications (perhaps not stated) would necessarily follow from the
author's argument?
Key Concepts
Although you do not need to know special analytical techniques and terminology,
you should be familiar with the directions for the Argument task and with certain key
concepts, including the following:
• argument -- a claim or a set of claims with reasons and evidence offered as
support; a line of reasoning meant to demonstrate the truth or falsehood of
something

• assumption -- a belief, often unstated or unexamined, that someone must hold

to maintain a particular position; something that is taken for granted but that
must be confirmed for the conclusion to be true
• alternative explanation -- a competing version of what might have caused the
events in question that undercuts or qualifies the original explanation because
it too can account for the observed facts
• counterexample -- an example, real or hypothetical, that refutes or disproves
a statement in the argument

• analysis -- the process of breaking something (e.g., an argument) down into

its parts to understand how they work together to make up the whole
• evaluation -- an assessment of the quality of evidence and reasons in an
argument and the overall merit of an argument
• conclusion -- the endpoint reached by a line of reasoning, valid if the reasoning
 is sound; the resulting assertion
What Not to Address in Your Response
An essential part of performing well on the Argument task is remembering what
you are not being asked to do:
• You are not being asked to discuss whether the statements in the argument
are true or accurate.
• You are not being asked to agree or disagree with the position stated.
• You are not being asked to express your views on the subject being discussed
(as you were in the Issue task).
Steps for Analyzing the Argument:
1) Read the argument and instructions carefully.
2) Identify the argument's claims, conclusions, and underlying assumptions.
Evaluate their quality.
3) Think of as many alternative explanations and counterexamples as you can.
4) Think of what specific additional evidence might weaken or lend
support to the claims.
5) Ask yourself what changes in the argument would make the reasoning more
sound.
Writing an argument analysis
A strong structure is essential as it makes the assignment clear and easy to
read. All formal written texts have the following format.
A useful structure and outline for writing an argument analysis is suggested
below

Source: www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au/lsu/content/B_DSC/gsssp/writing.html
WEEK 2: WRITING A POSITION PAPER
Different Definitions of Position Paper

What is a Position Paper?

A position paper presents the writer's stand or viewpoint on a particular issue (Barrot
and Sipacio 2016).

A position paper is an academic paper that describes a topic, a country’s position, and
possible solutions (Xinxue 2016).

Also, it is an essay that presents an opinion and makes a claim about an issue. In other
words, it is an opinion supported by an argument and valid pieces of evidence (Condina
2019).

Usually, it was written after reading and discussing an issue. The goal of this is to
convince the audience that the presented argument is valid and worth listening.

Writing a position paper entail outlining arguments and proposing the course of action;
by doing so, you are already taking part in a larger debate. Aside from this, you also
have the power to change the opinions and attitude of others when you write a position
paper. Because of this, a position paper can be an essential tool in bringing about
societal change. For example, if you do not agree with a certain issue or rule, you can
write a position paper to reflect your point of view.

It is important to write a position paper because it will help one gain insight into a topic. It
will help you to gain vast arrays of information. Also, since it is an academic paper, writing
a position paper will help you develop your writing skill and learn new vocabulary words.

In writing a position paper, one must know how to write the thesis statement. A
thesis statement is the most crucial sentence in your writing since it is the
fundamental point or central idea of the whole essay. It should summarize the main
point and guide the paper's development because it links the essay's main ideas
and explains the writer's opinion on those ideas.
X Not Thesis Statement: Smoking can cause health problems.

✓ Thesis Statement: The government should ban smoking altogether.

Three Major Types of Essay

1. Expository- is a type of essay that targets to explain something or describe in detail.

2. Analytical- is an essay type that examines and draws an insightful conclusion

 about a concept or character.
3. Argumentative- is an essay that targets to assert a stand or an opinion.

Parts of a Position Paper

A position paper has three parts: Introduction, Body, and Conclusions (IBC)
(Vidal, 2018).
1. Introduction- identifies the issue discussed and states the author’s position
on the issue. Also, it is usually the single paragraph that is referred to as the summary of
the issue. It usually contains general statements and the thesis statement. A thesis
statement is a one-sentence statement about your topic. It's an assertion about your
topic, something you claim to be true.
2. Body- contains the central argument. This part is usually 3-4 paragraphs
that can be divided into three sections:
a. Background Information

b. Evidence supporting the author’s position

c. Discussion of both sides the issue, which addresses and refutes

arguments that contradict the author’s position.
3. Conclusion- restates the key points of the paper. Also, the resolutions
and suggestions are included in this part.

Tips for Writing a Good Position Paper

1. Use simple language

Writing a position paper doesn’t necessarily mean using difficult words. Simple
words convey a message.
2. Give each idea its separate paragraph

Provide a cohesive and coherent paragraph to the stand that you will be including.
This will help the readers understand your points.
3. Make sure each paragraph starts with a topic sentence

Begin each paragraph with a topic sentence that will introduce your claims and
counterclaims.
. Constantly proof for mistakes
Make sure to check for grammar inconsistencies and correct use of
punctuation marks.
 5. Cite sources
Don’t forget to include your citations or references to avoid committing plagiarism.

WEEK 3: STRUCTURE OF A REPORT

Background Information for Learners

WHAT IS A REPORT?
• A report is a means to convey some information to others
• An organized, factual, objective presentation of information.
• "Organized" since it follows a systematic pattern
• "Objective" means our personal feelings should not influence it.
• It is a comprehensive document and covers all aspects of the subject matter of
study.
• relays information or recounts events in a presentable form
• A report is a document with a clear purpose to a particular audience and
intends to relay information. The report contains data and evidence of a
specific subject matter. It also includes data and facts that are significant
in a particular subject.
• Good report writing is: honest in data (no tampering of data, no copying from
others who are not lab partners), accurate in grammar and information, precise in
a calculation, thorough in graph labeling (of slope and intercept), transparent
about deviations and uncertainties, orderly or well-organized in structure brief in
a presentation. Thus, it follows that a good report writer should demonstrate the
personal traits of honesty, accuracy, precision, thoroughness or
comprehensiveness, transparency, orderliness, and brevity.

Good reports are documents that are accurate, objective and complete. They should also
be well-written, clearly structured and expressed in a way that holds the reader's attention
and meets their expectations. Remember, that you may be required to write several
different types of reports so it would be better for you to understand them well. So, here
are the most common types of reports that you need to understand, it is well that you get
to familiarize the different types of reports so you know particularly when and how to use
them in the near future that your teacher or your college professor would require you to
write one.

Objectives or Purpose of a Report

1. Means of Communication: A report is used as a means of upward

communication. A report is prepared and submitted to someone who needs that
information for carrying out functions of management.
2. Satisfy Interested Parties: The interested parties of the management report are
top management executives, government agencies, shareholders, creditors,
 customers, and the general public. Different types of management reports are
prepared to satisfy the above mentioned interested parties.

3. Serve as a Record: Reports provide valuable and vital records for reference in
the future. As the facts and investigations are recorded with the utmost care, they
become a rich source of information for the future.
4. Legal Requirements: Some reports are prepared to satisfy the legal
requirements. The annual reports of company accounts are designed to furnish
the same to the company's shareholders under the Companies Act 1946.
Likewise, an audit report of the company accounts is submitted before the
income tax authorities under the Income Tax Act 1961.
5. Develop Public Relations: Reports of the general progress of business and
utilization of national resources are prepared and presented before the public. It
is useful for increasing the goodwill of the company and developing public
relations.
6. Basis to Measure Performance: The performance of each employee is
prepared in a report form. In some cases, group or department performance is
designed in a report form. The individual performance report is used for
promotion and incentives. The group performance report is utilized for giving
bonuses.
7. Control: Reports are the basis of the control process. On the basis of reports,
actions are initiated, and instructions are given to improve the performance.

MOST COMMON TYPES OF REPORT

1. TECHNICAL AND BUSINESS disciplines with an applied focus such as Engineering,

Information Technology, Commerce, Accounting and Finance, will set report writing
assignments that simulate the process of report
writing in industry. Assignments are set in the form of a
problem or a case study. The students research the
problem, and present the results of the research in
a report format.

Technical writing is form of writing technical

communication or documentation in science and technology or applied science that
helps people understand a product or service. The main purpose of technical writing is
to inform and to trigger the person into action such as purchasing a product or service.
Its purpose may also be to instruct, to persuade, but never to entertain. The content is
factual and straightforward. It is expressed in formal, standard or academic language.
The write-up uses a specialized vocabulary and follows a set of rules and conventions.
It is also organized in a sequential or systematic pattern. Often, it is detail-oriented and
require advance knowledge in the specific field. The tone of technical writing output is
objective and its audience is specific uses language to evoke either an emotional or
intellectual response from the audience or reader. Examples of technical writing are end
user documentation like user manuals that accompany cellular phones, personal
computers.

FIELD REPORTS are common in disciplines such as Law, Industrial Relations,

Psychology, Nursing, History and Education. These types of reports require the student
to analyse his or her observations of phenomena or events in the real world in light of
theories studied in the course.

The purpose of a field report in the social sciences is to describe the observation
of people, places, and/or events and to analyze that observation data in order to identify
and categorize common themes in relation to the research problem underpinning the
study. The content represents the researcher's interpretation of meaning found in data
that has been gathered during one or more observational events.

Field reports are assigned with the intention of improving your understanding of key
theoretical concepts by applying methods of careful and structured observation of, and
reflection about, people, places, or phenomena existing in their natural settings. Field
reports facilitate the development of data collection techniques and observation skills
and they help you to understand how theory applies to real world situations. Field
reports are also an opportunity to obtain evidence through methods of observing
professional practice that contribute to or challenge existing theories.

We are all observers of people, their interactions, places, and events; however,
your responsibility when writing a field report is to conduct research based on data
generated by the act of designing a specific study, deliberate observation, synthesis of
key findings, and interpretation of their meaning.

When writing a field report you need to:

• Systematically observe and accurately record the varying aspects of a situation.
Always approach your field study with a detailed protocol about what you will observe,
where you should conduct your observations, and the method by which you will collect
and record your data.
• Continuously analyze your observations. Always look for the meaning underlying the
actions you observe. Ask yourself: What's going on here? What does this observed
activity mean? What else does this relate to? Note that this is an on-going process of
reflection and analysis taking place for the duration of your field research.

• Keep the report's aims in mind while you are observing. Recording what you observe
should not be done randomly or haphazardly; you must be focused and pay attention to
details. Enter the observation site [i.e., "field"] with a clear plan about what you are
intending to observe and record in relation to the research problem while, at the same
time, being prepared to adapt to changing circumstances as they may arise.

• Consciously observe, record, and analyze what you hear and see in the context of a
theoretical framework. This is what separates data gatherings from reporting. The
theoretical framework guiding your field research should determine what, when, and
how you observe and act as the foundation from which you interpret your findings in
relation to the underlying assumptions embedded in the theoretical framework.

Techniques to record your observations:

Although there is no limit to the type of data gathering techniques you tän
use, these are the most frequently used methods:

Note taking
This is the most common and easiest method of recording your observations. Tips for
taking notes include: organizing some shorthand symbols beforehand so that recording
basic or repeated actions does not impede your ability to observe, using many small
paragraphs, which reflect changes in activities, who is talking, etc., and, leaving space on
the page so you can write down additional thoughts and ideas about what's being
observed, any theoretical insights, and notes to yourself that are set aside for further
investigation.

Photography
With the advent of smart phones, an almost unlimited number of high quality
photographs can be taken of the objects, events, and people observed during a field
study. Photographs can help capture an important moment in time as well as document
details about the space where your observation takes place. Taking a photograph can
save you time in documenting the details of a space that would otherwise require
extensive note taking.

Video & Audio Recordings

Video or audio recording your observations has the positive effect of giving
you an unfiltered record of the observation event. It also facilitates repeated
analysis of your observations. This can be particularly helpful as you gather
additional information or insights during your research.

Illustrations
This does not refer to an artistic endeavor but, rather, refers to the possible need,
for example, to draw a map of the observation setting or illustrating objects in relation to
people's behavior.

Please note that techniques of deliberate observation and data gathering are not innate
skills; they are skills that must be learned and practiced in order to achieve proficiency.

3. SCIENTIFIC REPORTS are another kind of report. They are common in all the
Sciences and Social Sciences. These reports use a standard scientific
report format describing methods, results and conclusions to report upon an empirical
investigation. The purpose of a science report is to clearly communicate your key
message about why your scientific findings are meaningful. In order to do this, you need
to explain why you are testing a hypothesis, what methodology you used, what you
found, and why your findings are meaningful. This requires a clear link between your
introduction and your analysis/discussion.

The scope and style of reports varies widely. It depends on three key factors:

a. the report's intended audience;

b. the report's purpose and;
 c. the type of information/subject to be communicated.

HOW A PARTICULAR REPORT IS BEING WRITTEN

There are a number of different assignments that may require you to write a report.
Selecting a format for the report may be somewhat difficult; however, using the correct
format will make the report structurally sound and help present information in a more
relevant way. The type of report format being used will depend on the content and context
of the report. Reports are a common academic genre in schools and universities.

Although the exact nature will vary according to the discipline you are studying, the
general structure is broadly similar for all disciplines.

Now, one good example of report that you should know which is commonly used in the
field of hard sciences is referred as Research Report. Here's why.

Writing report is highly scary to neophytes in the field of research. This feeling of
intimidation in preparing a research report is widespread. Overcoming this fear entails
practice and application of certain techniques. There are different parts of research
reports and it takes time to familiarize oneself with the requirement of each part. Hence it
necessitates frequent exposure to and practice on the techniques of research report
writing. The different parts of the research report include the following:

1. Introductory Phase
2. Review of Literature
3. Research Methodology
4. Body of the Report
5. Conclusion
6. Recommendation

Introductory Phase
Introduction is as important as the main parts of a research report. It contextualizes and
sets the tone and direction of research writing. It is like a road map that guides you in
your research journey. According to Reidman (2001), it answers the following questions:

• What was I was studying?

• What did we know about this topic before we study?
• And, how this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding?

Hence, this section indicates not just the context but the significance of research.
Moreover, the introduction encapsulates background information about the topic as it
provides discussion on the purpose of the study, research problem with hypothesis and
research questions and briefly touches on the methods to be applied in investigating the
research problem, and outcomes of the study. It also covers discussion on how paper is
organized.

Silverman (2006), research report starts with four elements including: title; abstract; list
of contents, and introduction. Below is a brief description of each element.

Research Title
A research title has to get the attention of the readers. In other words, it must be
"catchy." Being catchy does not mean sacrificing the main message or idea of your
report. Hence, according to Silverman (2006, 339) choose "a title that catches the
reader's attention while properly informing them about the main focus on your
research." Silverman (2006, 206) is suggesting a "two-part title" containing a stimulating
title applying a present participle signifying action and a subtitle which is more
descriptive.

Example:
Stimulating title: Have you ever experience being bullied?
Descriptive title: A study on the perception of the victims of bullying in the
primary schools
Research Abstract
A research abstract is a vital component of a report as it provides the readers with
a snap view of what you will expect from it. The abstract gives a synopsis of the
objectives and results of the report to be described in detailed from in the body of the
report. Silverman (2006) identified what an abstract should contain:

1. research problem
2. significance and value of the problem
3. data and methods utilized
4. main findings
5. implication in the light of other research
Writing the Conclusion
How do you characterize conclusions? Conclusion are inferences, deductions,
abstraction, implications, interpretations, general statements, and/or generalizations
based on findings. An example of which is: "All the teachers were qualified to teach in
the high school but the majority of them were not qualified to teach science. (Khemer,
2009).

A good conclusion answers the specific questions identified at the introductory

phase of the research. For example, if the question identified is, "How adequate are the
needs and the facilities for teaching science? And then the findings reveal that the
facilities are less than the needs of the students, the answer and the conclusion should
be: The facilities for the teaching of science are inadequate. (Khreme, 2009).

Writing The Recommendation

The research recommendation is a part of the paper where you make
suggestions about some resolutions as a response to the research problem. It must be
consistent part of the conclusion. It proposes specific solutions connected with the
findings and must be supported by relevant data and specific data from the findings.

Below are some tips from Tellingen (2011) on how to write recommendations:
• "You should not recommend anything that you have not previously discussed in
the discussion. The rule 'no new material' in your discussed in the discussion.
The rule 'no new material' in your conclusion is also applicable to your
'Recommendations.'"

• "Recommendations are not the same as conclusions. Consider

recommendations go one step further than conclusions as (s) 'something’; (b)
'someone’; and (c) 'needs to do.’”
• There may be different levels within your set recommendations: for (a) academic
(i.e., research is needed into…), (b) for policy-makers (e,g., data protection act
needs to change to accommodate...); for (c) practitioners (i.e., managers in local
government need to consider for the mental well-being of their staff); or
recommendation for (d) training/education.
Often reports are structured in a way that reflects the information finding process and
the writing up of the findings: that is, summary of the contents, introduction
or background, methods, results, discussion, conclusion and/or recommendations. The
inclusion of recommendations is one reason why reports are a common form of writing
in industry, as the informed recommendations are useful for decision making.

Remember that in writing Laboratory Reports, no student should copy data from anyone
who is not his or her lab partner. You may discuss the experiment with your lab partner
and other classmates, but the lab report that you turn in must be your own work. Lab
reports are subject to all the rules governing academic honesty. Photocopies of any
parts of the lab report are not
permissible.

The sections of a simple report

• Introduction
State what your research/project/inquiry is about. What are you writing about, why and
for whom? What are your objectives? What are you trying to show or prove (your
hypothesis)?

• Methodology
State how you made your research/inquiry and the methods you used. How did you
collect your data? For example, if you conducted a survey, say how many people were
included and selected them. Say whether you used interviews or questionnaires and
how you analyzed the data.

• Findings/results
Give the results of your research. Do not, at this stage, try to interpret the results
simply report them. This section may include graphs, charts, diagrams, etc. (clearly
labeled). Be very careful about copyright if you are using published charts, tables,
illustrations etc.
•Discussion
Interpret your findings. What do they show? Were they what you expected? Could
your research have been done in a better way?

• Conclusions and recommendations

These should follow on logically from the Findings and Discussion sections. Summarise
the key points of your findings and show whether they prove or disprove your
hypothesis. If you have been asked to, you can make recommendations arising from
your research.
• References
List all your sources in alphabetical order, using the appropriate *University of Hull
style.
The introduction has four sections:
Purpose, Background, Method of Investigation, Scope has a word limit. The most
common word limit is 100. This is a challenging part of writing a report because it is
difficult to write the many things that you want to impart in just a few words.

List of Contents
A list of contents is a useful component of a report as it guides the readers to find
their way through the different parts of the report. Hence, the consistency of the page
numbers with the parts of the report is vital. Inconsistent page numbering would result to
the reader's confusion

Introduction
The introduction acquaints the readers with the what, why and how of the report.
According to Murcott (1997, p. 1) as cited in Silverman (2006), answering the questions
below would lead you to the development of the introduction:
Introduction
The introduction acquaints the readers with the what, why and how of the report.
According to Murcott (1997, p. 1) as cited in Silverman (2006), answering the questions
below would lead you to the development of the introduction:
 1. What is the research all about?

2. Why have you chosen this topic rather than the other topics?

3. Why are you interested in this topic?

4. How will you undertake the research?

5. What kind of research approach will you utilize?

6. What are your research questions or problems?

Review of Literature
The Review of Related Literature (RL) provides study background and
environment. The intention of the RL is to locate the study in its area of discipline and
reveal its relevance and significance in the environment. The RL would indicate if your
topic is building on previous researchers or if it is a new area of inquiry. The RL should
make one realize that a study is worth pursuing or not.

According to Silverman (2006), RL is not a "litany" of all studies done

related to the topic. It is also not an inventory of the accomplishments of other authors
the same topic nor it is a map of projects similar to the area of study. Rather, it is an
environmental or disciplinal context that leads one to locate one's study. Hence,
Silverman (2008) recommends the following points:

• Focus only on studies that are vital and relevant in defining your research
problem.
• Organize what you say in the form of an argument rather than a simple
description of other studies.

Research Methodology
In research, the research process is as important as the research content.
Thus, a research report must also contain a description of the research strategy. The
readers will be interested in finding how you arrived at a particular study result.
Siverman (2008) pointed out that the readers would be interested to know the following:
1. Research topic
2. Case (s) you have studied
3. Research methods you have chosen to use
4. How you have analyzed the data

This part of the research report is sensitive hence must be dealt with caution. In
order for you to answer questions such as: Is your methodology appropriate for the
research problem? How did you reach that conclusion? Silverman suggested that to be
able to answer methodological questions, you have to be familiar with and
knowledgeable about the following:

• Data you have studied

• How you obtained those data
• What claims you are making about the data
• Methods you have used to gather the data
• Why you have chosen these methods
• How you have analyzed your data

Writing Your Data

The most essential part of the report is writing about the data collected through
your research. There are two important areas of consideration in the writing up of the
data, namely, data analysis, and data presentation.

In the data analysis, there is no right or wrong way. Creswell (1994, 153) only requires
the researcher to:

1. "be comfortable with developing categories and making comparisons and contrast"
2. "be open to possibilities and see contrary or alternative explanations for the findings"
To assist the researcher in the data analysis, attention must be given to (a) sorting
information into categories, (b) formatting the information into a story or picture, (c)
actual data analysis and write up.