Geometry

Geometry (from Ancient Greek γεωμετρία (geōmetría) 'land measurement'; from γῆ (gê) 'earth, land' and
μέτρον (métron) 'a measure')[1] is a branch of mathematics concerned with properties of space such as the
distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures.[2] Geometry is, along with arithmetic, one of the oldest
branches of mathematics. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer. Until the
19th century, geometry was almost exclusively devoted to Euclidean geometry,[a] which includes the notions of
point, line, plane, distance, angle, surface, and curve, as fundamental concepts.[3]

Originally developed to model the physical world, geometry has applications in almost all sciences, and also in
art, architecture, and other activities that are related to graphics.[4] Geometry also has applications in areas of
mathematics that are apparently unrelated. For example, methods of algebraic geometry are fundamental in
Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem, a problem that was stated in terms of elementary arithmetic, and
remained unsolved for several centuries.

During the 19th century several discoveries enlarged dramatically the scope of geometry. One of the oldest such
discoveries is Carl Friedrich Gauss's Theorema Egregium ("remarkable theorem") that asserts roughly that the
Gaussian curvature of a surface is independent from any specific embedding in a Euclidean space. This implies
that surfaces can be studied intrinsically, that is, as stand-alone spaces, and has been expanded into the theory
of manifolds and Riemannian geometry. Later in the 19th century, it appeared that geometries without the
parallel postulate (non-Euclidean geometries) can be developed without introducing any contradiction. The
geometry that underlies general relativity is a famous application of non-Euclidean geometry.

Since the late 19th century, the scope of geometry has been greatly expanded, and the field has been split in
many subfields that depend on the underlying methods—differential geometry, algebraic geometry,
computational geometry, algebraic topology, discrete geometry (also known as combinatorial geometry), etc.—
or on the properties of Euclidean spaces that are disregarded—projective geometry that consider only alignment
of points but not distance and parallelism, affine geometry that omits the concept of angle and distance, finite
geometry that omits continuity, and others. This enlargement of the scope of geometry led to a change of
meaning of the word "space", which originally referred to the three-dimensional space of the physical world and
its model provided by Euclidean geometry; presently a geometric space, or simply a space is a mathematical
structure on which some geometry is defined.

History
The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt in the 2nd
millennium BC.[5][6] Early geometry was a collection of empirically discovered principles concerning lengths,
angles, areas, and volumes, which were developed to meet some practical need in surveying, construction,
astronomy, and various crafts. The earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus (2000–
1800 BC) and Moscow Papyrus (c. 1890 BC), and the Babylonian clay tablets, such as Plimpton 322 (1900 BC).
For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, or
frustum.[7] Later clay tablets (350–50 BC) demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid
procedures for computing Jupiter's position and motion within time-velocity
space. These geometric procedures anticipated the Oxford Calculators,
including the mean speed theorem, by 14 centuries.[8] South of Egypt the
ancient Nubians established a system of geometry including early versions of
sun clocks.[9][10]

In the 7th century BC, the Greek mathematician Thales of Miletus used
geometry to solve problems such as calculating the height of pyramids and
the distance of ships from the shore. He is credited with the first use of
deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to
Thales's theorem.[11] Pythagoras established the Pythagorean School, which
is credited with the first proof of the Pythagorean theorem,[12] though the A European and an Arab practicing
statement of the theorem has a long history. [13][14] Eudoxus (408–c. 355 BC) geometry in the 15th century

developed the method of exhaustion, which allowed the calculation of areas

and volumes of curvilinear figures,[15] as well as a theory of ratios that
avoided the problem of incommensurable magnitudes, which enabled subsequent geometers to make significant
advances. Around 300 BC, geometry was revolutionized by Euclid, whose Elements, widely considered the most
successful and influential textbook of all time,[16] introduced mathematical rigor through the axiomatic method
and is the earliest example of the format still used in mathematics today, that of definition, axiom, theorem, and
proof. Although most of the contents of the Elements were already known, Euclid arranged them into a single,
coherent logical framework.[17] The Elements was known to all educated people in the West until the middle of
the 20th century and its contents are still taught in geometry classes today.[18] Archimedes (c. 287–212 BC) of
Syracuse, Italy used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the
summation of an infinite series, and gave remarkably accurate approximations of pi.[19] He also studied the
spiral bearing his name and obtained formulas for the volumes of surfaces of revolution.

Indian mathematicians also made many important contributions in geometry.

The Shatapatha Brahmana (3rd century BC) contains rules for ritual geometric
constructions that are similar to the Sulba Sutras.[20] According to (Hayashi
2005, p. 363), the Śulba Sūtras contain "the earliest extant verbal expression of
the Pythagorean Theorem in the world, although it had already been known to
the Old Babylonians. They contain lists of Pythagorean triples,[b] which are
particular cases of Diophantine equations.[21] In the Bakhshali manuscript, there
are a handful of geometric problems (including problems about volumes of
irregular solids). The Bakhshali manuscript also "employs a decimal place value
system with a dot for zero."[22] Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya (499) includes the
Woman teaching geometry.
computation of areas and volumes. Brahmagupta wrote his astronomical work
Illustration at the beginning of a Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta in 628. Chapter 12, containing 66 Sanskrit verses, was
medieval translation of Euclid's divided into two sections: "basic operations" (including cube roots, fractions,
Elements, (c. 1310). ratio and proportion, and barter) and "practical mathematics" (including
mixture, mathematical series, plane figures, stacking bricks, sawing of timber,
and piling of grain).[23] In the latter section, he stated his famous theorem on the
diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral. Chapter 12 also included a formula for the area of a cyclic quadrilateral (a
generalization of Heron's formula), as well as a complete description of rational triangles (i.e. triangles with
rational sides and rational areas).[23]
In the Middle Ages, mathematics in medieval Islam contributed to the development of geometry, especially
algebraic geometry.[24][25] Al-Mahani (b. 853) conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as
duplicating the cube to problems in algebra.[26] Thābit ibn Qurra (known as Thebit in Latin) (836–901) dealt
with arithmetic operations applied to ratios of geometrical quantities, and contributed to the development of
analytic geometry.[27] Omar Khayyam (1048–1131) found geometric solutions to cubic equations.[28] The
theorems of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), Omar Khayyam and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi on quadrilaterals, including the
Lambert quadrilateral and Saccheri quadrilateral, were part of a line of research on the parallel postulate
continued by later European geometers, including Vitello (c. 1230 – c. 1314), Gersonides (1288–1344), Alfonso,
John Wallis, and Giovanni Girolamo Saccheri, that by the 19th century led to the discovery of hyperbolic
geometry.[29]

In the early 17th century, there were two important developments in geometry. The first was the creation of
analytic geometry, or geometry with coordinates and equations, by René Descartes (1596–1650) and Pierre de
Fermat (1601–1665).[30] This was a necessary precursor to the development of calculus and a precise
quantitative science of physics.[31] The second geometric development of this period was the systematic study of
projective geometry by Girard Desargues (1591–1661).[32] Projective geometry studies properties of shapes
which are unchanged under projections and sections, especially as they relate to artistic perspective.[33]

Two developments in geometry in the 19th century changed the way it had been studied previously.[34] These
were the discovery of non-Euclidean geometries by Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky, János Bolyai and Carl
Friedrich Gauss and of the formulation of symmetry as the central consideration in the Erlangen programme of
Felix Klein (which generalized the Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometries). Two of the master geometers of
the time were Bernhard Riemann (1826–1866), working primarily with tools from mathematical analysis, and
introducing the Riemann surface, and Henri Poincaré, the founder of algebraic topology and the geometric
theory of dynamical systems. As a consequence of these major changes in the conception of geometry, the
concept of "space" became something rich and varied, and the natural background for theories as different as
complex analysis and classical mechanics.[35]

Main concepts
The following are some of the most important concepts in geometry.[3][36]

Axioms
Euclid took an abstract approach to geometry in his Elements,[37] one of the
most influential books ever written.[38] Euclid introduced certain axioms, or
postulates, expressing primary or self-evident properties of points, lines, and
planes.[39] He proceeded to rigorously deduce other properties by
mathematical reasoning. The characteristic feature of Euclid's approach to
geometry was its rigor, and it has come to be known as axiomatic or
synthetic geometry.[40] At the start of the 19th century, the discovery of non-
Euclidean geometries by Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky (1792–1856), János
Bolyai (1802–1860), Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) and others[41] led to a An illustration of Euclid's parallel
revival of interest in this discipline, and in the 20th century, David Hilbert postulate
(1862–1943) employed axiomatic reasoning in an attempt to provide a
modern foundation of geometry.[42]
Spaces and subspaces

Points
Points are generally considered fundamental objects for building geometry. They may be defined by the
properties that they must have, as in Euclid's definition as "that which has no part",[43] or in synthetic geometry.
In modern mathematics, they are generally defined as elements of a set called space, which is itself axiomatically
defined.

With these modern definitions, every geometric shape is defined as a set of points; this is not the case in
synthetic geometry, where a line is another fundamental object that is not viewed as the set of the points through
which it passes.

However, there are modern geometries in which points are not primitive objects, or even without points.[44][45]
One of the oldest such geometries is Whitehead's point-free geometry, formulated by Alfred North Whitehead in
1919–1920.

Lines
Euclid described a line as "breadthless length" which "lies equally with respect to the points on itself".[43] In
modern mathematics, given the multitude of geometries, the concept of a line is closely tied to the way the
geometry is described. For instance, in analytic geometry, a line in the plane is often defined as the set of points
whose coordinates satisfy a given linear equation,[46] but in a more abstract setting, such as incidence geometry,
a line may be an independent object, distinct from the set of points which lie on it.[47] In differential geometry, a
geodesic is a generalization of the notion of a line to curved spaces.[48]

Planes
In Euclidean geometry a plane is a flat, two-dimensional surface that extends infinitely;[43] the definitions for
other types of geometries are generalizations of that. Planes are used in many areas of geometry. For instance,
planes can be studied as a topological surface without reference to distances or angles;[49] it can be studied as an
affine space, where collinearity and ratios can be studied but not distances;[50] it can be studied as the complex
plane using techniques of complex analysis;[51] and so on.

Curves
A curve is a 1-dimensional object that may be straight (like a line) or not; curves in 2-dimensional space are
called plane curves and those in 3-dimensional space are called space curves.[52]

In topology, a curve is defined by a function from an interval of the real numbers to another space.[49] In
differential geometry, the same definition is used, but the defining function is required to be differentiable.[53]
Algebraic geometry studies algebraic curves, which are defined as algebraic varieties of dimension one.[54]

Surfaces
A surface is a two-dimensional object, such as a sphere or paraboloid.[55] In differential geometry[53] and
topology,[49] surfaces are described by two-dimensional 'patches' (or neighborhoods) that are assembled by
diffeomorphisms or homeomorphisms, respectively. In algebraic geometry, surfaces are described by polynomial
equations.[54]
Solids
A solid is a three-dimensional object bounded by a closed
surface; for example, a ball is the volume bounded by a sphere.

Manifolds
In Euclidean A manifold is a generalization of the concepts of curve and
space, a ball is surface. In topology, a manifold is a topological space where
the volume every point has a neighborhood that is homeomorphic to
bounded by a Euclidean space.[49] In differential geometry, a differentiable
sphere. A sphere is a surface that can
manifold is a space where each neighborhood is diffeomorphic
be defined parametrically (by
to Euclidean space.[53] x = r sin θ cos φ,
y = r sin θ sin φ, z = r cos θ) or
Manifolds are used extensively in physics, including in general relativity and implicitly (by
string theory.[56] x2 + y2 + z2 − r2 = 0).

Angles
Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, of
two lines which meet each other, and do not lie straight with respect to each
other.[43] In modern terms, an angle is the figure formed by two rays, called
the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the
angle.[57] The size of an angle is formalized as an angular measure.

In Euclidean geometry, angles are used to study polygons and triangles, as Acute (a), obtuse (b), and straight
well as forming an object of study in their own right.[43] The study of the (c) angles. The acute and obtuse
angles of a triangle or of angles in a unit circle forms the basis of angles are also known as oblique
trigonometry.[58] angles.

In differential geometry and calculus, the angles between plane curves or

space curves or surfaces can be calculated using the derivative.[59][60]

Measures: length, area, and volume

Length, area, and volume describe the size or extent of an object in one dimension, two dimension, and three
dimensions respectively.[61]

In Euclidean geometry and analytic geometry, the length of a line segment can often be calculated by the
Pythagorean theorem.[62]

Area and volume can be defined as fundamental quantities separate from length, or they can be described and
calculated in terms of lengths in a plane or 3-dimensional space.[61] Mathematicians have found many explicit
formulas for area and formulas for volume of various geometric objects. In calculus, area and volume can be
defined in terms of integrals, such as the Riemann integral[63] or the Lebesgue integral.[64]

Other geometrical measures include the curvature and compactness.

Metrics and measures
The concept of length or distance can be generalized, leading to the idea of
metrics.[65] For instance, the Euclidean metric measures the distance
between points in the Euclidean plane, while the hyperbolic metric measures
the distance in the hyperbolic plane. Other important examples of metrics
include the Lorentz metric of special relativity and the semi-Riemannian
metrics of general relativity.[66]
Visual checking of the Pythagorean
In a different direction, the concepts of length, area and volume are extended theorem for the (3, 4, 5) triangle as
by measure theory, which studies methods of assigning a size or measure to in the Zhoubi Suanjing 500–200 BC.
sets, where the measures follow rules similar to those of classical area and The Pythagorean theorem is a
volume.[67] consequence of the Euclidean
metric.

Congruence and similarity

Congruence and similarity are concepts that describe when two shapes have similar characteristics.[68] In
Euclidean geometry, similarity is used to describe objects that have the same shape, while congruence is used to
describe objects that are the same in both size and shape.[69] Hilbert, in his work on creating a more rigorous
foundation for geometry, treated congruence as an undefined term whose properties are defined by axioms.

Congruence and similarity are generalized in transformation geometry, which studies the properties of
geometric objects that are preserved by different kinds of transformations.[70]

Compass and straightedge constructions

Classical geometers paid special attention to constructing geometric objects that had been described in some
other way. Classically, the only instruments used in most geometric constructions are the compass and
straightedge.[c] Also, every construction had to be complete in a finite number of steps. However, some problems
turned out to be difficult or impossible to solve by these means alone, and ingenious constructions using neusis,
parabolas and other curves, or mechanical devices, were found.

Rotation and orientation

The geometrical concepts of rotation and orientation define part of the placement of objects embedded in the
plane or in space.

Dimension
Traditional geometry allowed dimensions 1 (a line or curve), 2 (a plane or surface), and 3 (our ambient world
conceived of as three-dimensional space). Furthermore, mathematicians and physicists have used higher
dimensions for nearly two centuries.[71] One example of a mathematical use for higher dimensions is the
configuration space of a physical system, which has a dimension equal to the system's degrees of freedom. For
instance, the configuration of a screw can be described by five coordinates.[72]

In general topology, the concept of dimension has been extended from natural numbers, to infinite dimension
(Hilbert spaces, for example) and positive real numbers (in fractal geometry).[73] In algebraic geometry, the
dimension of an algebraic variety has received a number of apparently different definitions, which are all
equivalent in the most common cases.[74]
Symmetry
The theme of symmetry in geometry is nearly as old as the science of
geometry itself.[75] Symmetric shapes such as the circle, regular polygons and
platonic solids held deep significance for many ancient philosophers[76] and
were investigated in detail before the time of Euclid.[39] Symmetric patterns
occur in nature and were artistically rendered in a multitude of forms,
including the graphics of Leonardo da Vinci, M. C. Escher, and others.[77] In
the second half of the 19th century, the relationship between symmetry and
geometry came under intense scrutiny. Felix Klein's Erlangen program
proclaimed that, in a very precise sense, symmetry, expressed via the notion
of a transformation group, determines what geometry is.[78] Symmetry in
classical Euclidean geometry is represented by congruences and rigid The Koch snowflake, with fractal
dimension=log4/log3 and
motions, whereas in projective geometry an analogous role is played by
topological dimension=1
collineations, geometric transformations that take straight lines into straight
lines.[79] However it was in the new geometries of Bolyai and Lobachevsky,
Riemann, Clifford and Klein, and Sophus Lie that Klein's idea to 'define a
geometry via its symmetry group' found its inspiration.[80] Both discrete and
continuous symmetries play prominent roles in geometry, the former in
topology and geometric group theory,[81][82] the latter in Lie theory and
Riemannian geometry.[83][84]

A different type of symmetry is the principle of duality in projective

geometry, among other fields. This meta-phenomenon can roughly be
described as follows: in any theorem, exchange point with plane, join with
meet, lies in with contains, and the result is an equally true theorem.[85] A
similar and closely related form of duality exists between a vector space and
its dual space.[86] A tiling of the hyperbolic plane

Contemporary geometry

Euclidean geometry
Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense.[87] As it models the space of the physical world, it is used
in many scientific areas, such as mechanics, astronomy, crystallography,[88] and many technical fields, such as
engineering,[89] architecture,[90] geodesy,[91] aerodynamics,[92] and navigation.[93] The mandatory educational
curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of Euclidean concepts such as points, lines, planes,
angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, and analytic geometry.[94]

Euclidean vectors
Euclidean vectors are used for a myriad of applications in physics and engineering, such as position,
displacement, deformation, velocity, acceleration, force, etc.
Differential geometry
Differential geometry uses techniques of calculus and linear algebra to study
problems in geometry.[95] It has applications in physics,[96] econometrics,[97]
and bioinformatics,[98] among others.

In particular, differential geometry is of importance to mathematical physics

due to Albert Einstein's general relativity postulation that the universe is
curved.[99] Differential geometry can either be intrinsic (meaning that the
spaces it considers are smooth manifolds whose geometric structure is
governed by a Riemannian metric, which determines how distances are Differential geometry uses tools
from calculus to study problems
measured near each point) or extrinsic (where the object under study is a
involving curvature.
part of some ambient flat Euclidean space).[100]

Non-Euclidean geometry

In mathematics, non-Euclidean geometry consists

of two geometries based on axioms closely related
to those that specify Euclidean geometry. As
Euclidean geometry lies at the intersection of
metric geometry and affine geometry, non-
Euclidean geometry arises by either replacing the
parallel postulate with an alternative, or relaxing Behavior of lines with a common perpendicular in each of the three
the metric requirement. In the former case, one types of geometry
obtains hyperbolic geometry and elliptic geometry,
the traditional non-Euclidean geometries. When
the metric requirement is relaxed, then there are affine planes associated with the planar algebras, which give
rise to kinematic geometries that have also been called non-Euclidean geometry.

Topology
Topology is the field concerned with the properties of continuous
mappings,[101] and can be considered a generalization of Euclidean
geometry.[102] In practice, topology often means dealing with large-scale
properties of spaces, such as connectedness and compactness.[49]

The field of topology, which saw massive development in the 20th century, is
in a technical sense a type of transformation geometry, in which
transformations are homeomorphisms.[103] This has often been expressed in
the form of the saying 'topology is rubber-sheet geometry'. Subfields of A thickening of the trefoil knot
topology include geometric topology, differential topology, algebraic topology
and general topology.[104]

Algebraic geometry
Algebraic geometry is fundamentally the study by means of algebraic methods of some geometrical shapes,
called algebraic sets, and defined as common zeros of multivariate polynomials.[105] Algebraic geometry became
an autonomous subfield of geometry c. 1900, with a theorem called Hilbert's Nullstellensatz that establishes a
strong correspondence between algebraic sets and ideals of polynomial rings. This led to a parallel development
of algebraic geometry, and its algebraic counterpart, called commutative
algebra.[106] From the late 1950s through the mid-1970s algebraic geometry
had undergone major foundational development, with the introduction by
Alexander Grothendieck of scheme theory, which allows using topological
methods, including cohomology theories in a purely algebraic context.[106]
Scheme theory allowed to solve many difficult problems not only in
geometry, but also in number theory. Wiles' proof of Fermat's Last Theorem
is a famous example of a long-standing problem of number theory whose
solution uses scheme theory and its extensions such as stack theory. One of
seven Millennium Prize problems, the Hodge conjecture, is a question in
algebraic geometry.[107]
Quintic Calabi–Yau threefold
Algebraic geometry has applications in many areas, including
cryptography[108] and string theory.[109]

Complex geometry
Complex geometry studies the nature of geometric structures modelled on, or arising out of, the complex
plane.[110][111][112] Complex geometry lies at the intersection of differential geometry, algebraic geometry, and
analysis of several complex variables, and has found applications to string theory and mirror symmetry.[113]

Complex geometry first appeared as a distinct area of study in the work of Bernhard Riemann in his study of
Riemann surfaces.[114][115][116] Work in the spirit of Riemann was carried out by the Italian school of algebraic
geometry in the early 1900s. Contemporary treatment of complex geometry began with the work of Jean-Pierre
Serre, who introduced the concept of sheaves to the subject, and illuminated the relations between complex
geometry and algebraic geometry.[117][118] The primary objects of study in complex geometry are complex
manifolds, complex algebraic varieties, and complex analytic varieties, and holomorphic vector bundles and
coherent sheaves over these spaces. Special examples of spaces studied in complex geometry include Riemann
surfaces, and Calabi–Yau manifolds, and these spaces find uses in string theory. In particular, worldsheets of
strings are modelled by Riemann surfaces, and superstring theory predicts that the extra 6 dimensions of 10
dimensional spacetime may be modelled by Calabi–Yau manifolds.

Discrete geometry
Discrete geometry is a subject that has close connections with convex
geometry.[119][120][121] It is concerned mainly with questions of relative
position of simple geometric objects, such as points, lines and circles.
Examples include the study of sphere packings, triangulations, the Kneser-
Poulsen conjecture, etc.[122][123] It shares many methods and principles with
combinatorics.

Computational geometry
Discrete geometry includes the
Computational geometry deals with algorithms and their implementations study of various sphere packings.
for manipulating geometrical objects. Important problems historically have
included the travelling salesman problem, minimum spanning trees, hidden-
line removal, and linear programming.[124]
Although being a young area of geometry, it has many applications in computer vision, image processing,
computer-aided design, medical imaging, etc.[125]

Geometric group theory

Geometric group theory studies group actions on objects that are regarded as
geometric (significantly, isometric actions on metric spaces) to study finitely
generated groups, often involving large-scale geometric techniques.[126] It is
closely connected to low-dimensional topology, such as in Grigori Perelman's
proof of the Geometrization conjecture, which included the proof of the
Poincaré conjecture, a Millennium Prize Problem.[127]

Group actions on their Cayley graphs are foundational examples of isometric

group actions. Other major topics include quasi-isometries, Gromov-
hyperbolic groups and their generalizations (relatively and acylindrically
hyperbolic groups), free groups and their automorphisms, groups acting on
trees, various notions of nonpositive curvature for groups (CAT(0) groups, The Cayley graph of the free group
Dehn functions, automaticity...), right angled Artin groups, and topics close on two generators a and b
to combinatorial group theory such as small cancellation theory and
algorithmic problems (e.g. the word, conjugacy, and isomorphism problems).
Other group-theoretic topics like mapping class groups, property (T), solvability, amenability and lattices in Lie
groups are sometimes regarded as strongly geometric as well.[126][128][129][130]

Convex geometry
Convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using
techniques of real analysis and discrete mathematics.[131] It has close connections to convex analysis,
optimization and functional analysis and important applications in number theory.

Convex geometry dates back to antiquity.[131] Archimedes gave the first known precise definition of convexity.
The isoperimetric problem, a recurring concept in convex geometry, was studied by the Greeks as well, including
Zenodorus. Archimedes, Plato, Euclid, and later Kepler and Coxeter all studied convex polytopes and their
properties. From the 19th century on, mathematicians have studied other areas of convex mathematics,
including higher-dimensional polytopes, volume and surface area of convex bodies, Gaussian curvature,
algorithms, tilings and lattices.

Applications
Geometry has found applications in many fields, some of which are described below.

Art
Mathematics and art are related in a variety of ways. For instance, the theory of perspective showed that there is
more to geometry than just the metric properties of figures: perspective is the origin of projective geometry.[132]
Artists have long used concepts of proportion in design. Vitruvius developed
a complicated theory of ideal proportions for the human figure.[133] These
concepts have been used and adapted by artists from Michelangelo to
modern comic book artists.[134]

The golden ratio is a particular proportion that has had a controversial role
in art. Often claimed to be the most aesthetically pleasing ratio of lengths, it
is frequently stated to be incorporated into famous works of art, though the
most reliable and unambiguous examples were made deliberately by artists
aware of this legend.[135]

Tilings, or tessellations, have been used in art throughout history. Islamic art
makes frequent use of tessellations, as did the art of M. C. Escher.[136]
Escher's work also made use of hyperbolic geometry.

Cézanne advanced the theory that all images can be built up from the sphere, Bou Inania Madrasa, Fes, Morocco,
the cone, and the cylinder. This is still used in art theory today, although the zellige mosaic tiles forming
exact list of shapes varies from author to author.[137][138] elaborate geometric tessellations

Architecture
Geometry has many applications in architecture. In fact, it has been said that geometry lies at the core of
architectural design.[139][140] Applications of geometry to architecture include the use of projective geometry to
create forced perspective,[141] the use of conic sections in constructing domes and similar objects,[90] the use of
tessellations,[90] and the use of symmetry.[90]

Physics
The field of astronomy, especially as it relates to mapping the positions of stars and planets on the celestial
sphere and describing the relationship between movements of celestial bodies, have served as an important
source of geometric problems throughout history.[142]

Riemannian geometry and pseudo-Riemannian geometry are used in general relativity.[143] String theory makes
use of several variants of geometry,[144] as does quantum information theory.[145]

Other fields of mathematics

Calculus was strongly influenced by geometry.[30] For instance, the introduction of coordinates by René
Descartes and the concurrent developments of algebra marked a new stage for geometry, since geometric figures
such as plane curves could now be represented analytically in the form of functions and equations. This played a
key role in the emergence of infinitesimal calculus in the 17th century. Analytic geometry continues to be a
mainstay of pre-calculus and calculus curriculum.[146][147]

Another important area of application is number theory.[148] In ancient Greece the Pythagoreans considered the
role of numbers in geometry. However, the discovery of incommensurable lengths contradicted their
philosophical views.[149] Since the 19th century, geometry has been used for solving problems in number theory,
for example through the geometry of numbers or, more recently, scheme theory, which is used in Wiles's proof of
Fermat's Last Theorem.[150]
See also

Lists

List of geometers
Category:Algebraic geometers
Category:Differential geometers
Category:Geometers
Category:Topologists
List of formulas in elementary geometry The Pythagoreans discovered that
List of geometry topics the sides of a triangle could have
List of important publications in geometry incommensurable lengths.

Lists of mathematics topics

Related topics Mathematics portal

Descriptive geometry
Flatland, a book written by Edwin Abbott Abbott about two- and three-dimensional space, to understand the
concept of four dimensions
List of interactive geometry software

Other applications

Molecular geometry

Notes
a. Until the 19th century, geometry was dominated by the assumption that all geometric constructions were
Euclidean. In the 19th century and later, this was challenged by the development of hyperbolic geometry by
Lobachevsky and other non-Euclidean geometries by Gauss and others. It was then realised that implicitly
non-Euclidean geometry had appeared throughout history, including the work of Desargues in the 17th
century, all the way back to the implicit use of spherical geometry to understand the Earth geodesy and to
navigate the oceans since antiquity.
b. Pythagorean triples are triples of integers with the property: . Thus, ,
, etc.
c. The ancient Greeks had some constructions using other instruments.

References
1. "Geometry - Formulas, Examples | Plane and Solid Geometry" (https://cuemath.com/geometry). Cuemath.
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19. O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. (February 1996). "A history of calculus" (https://web.archive.org/web/200707
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triples such as (3, 4, 5), (5, 12, 13), (8, 15, 17), and (12, 35, 37). It is not certain what practical use these
arithmetic rules had. The best conjecture is that they were part of religious ritual. A Hindu home was required
to have three fires burning at three different altars. The three altars were to be of different shapes, but all
three were to have the same area. These conditions led to certain "Diophantine" problems, a particular case
of which is the generation of Pythagorean triples, so as to make one square integer equal to the sum of two
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an Algebra that went beyond that of al-Khwarizmi to include equations of third degree. Like his Arab
predecessors, Omar Khayyam provided for quadratic equations both arithmetic and geometric solutions; for
general cubic equations, he believed (mistakenly, as the 16th century later showed), arithmetic solutions
were impossible; hence he gave only geometric solutions. The scheme of using intersecting conics to solve
cubics had been used earlier by Menaechmus, Archimedes, and Alhazan, but Omar Khayyam took the
praiseworthy step of generalizing the method to cover all third-degree equations (having positive roots). ..
For equations of higher degree than three, Omar Khayyam evidently did not envision similar geometric
methods, for space does not contain more than three dimensions, ... One of the most fruitful contributions of
Arabic eclecticism was the tendency to close the gap between numerical and geometric algebra. The
decisive step in this direction came much later with Descartes, but Omar Khayyam was moving in this
direction when he wrote, "Whoever thinks algebra is a trick in obtaining unknowns has thought it in vain. No
attention should be paid to the fact that algebra and geometry are different in appearance. Algebras are
geometric facts which are proved."".
26. O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F. "Al-Mahani" (https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Al-
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27. O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F. "Al-Sabi Thabit ibn Qurra al-Harrani" (https://mathshistory.st-andre
ws.ac.uk/Biographies/Thabit.html). MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive. University of St Andrews.
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"Three scientists, Ibn al-Haytham, Khayyam, and al-Tusi, had made the most considerable
contribution to this branch of geometry whose importance came to be completely recognized only in
the 19th century. In essence, their propositions concerning the properties of quadrangles which they
considered, assuming that some of the angles of these figures were acute of obtuse, embodied the
first few theorems of the hyperbolic and the elliptic geometries. Their other proposals showed that
various geometric statements were equivalent to the Euclidean postulate V. It is extremely
important that these scholars established the mutual connection between this postulate and the
sum of the angles of a triangle and a quadrangle. By their works on the theory of parallel lines Arab
mathematicians directly influenced the relevant investigations of their European counterparts. The
first European attempt to prove the postulate on parallel lines—made by Witelo, the Polish
scientists of the 13th century, while revising Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics (Kitab al-Manazir)—
was undoubtedly prompted by Arabic sources. The proofs put forward in the 14th century by the
Jewish scholar Levi ben Gerson, who lived in southern France, and by the above-mentioned
Alfonso from Spain directly border on Ibn al-Haytham's demonstration. Above, we have
demonstrated that Pseudo-Tusi's Exposition of Euclid had stimulated both J. Wallis's and G.
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Sources
Boyer, C.B. (1991) [1989]. A History of Mathematics (https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye)
(Second edition, revised by Uta C. Merzbach ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-54397-8.
Cooke, Roger (2005). The History of Mathematics. New York: Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 978-0-471-44459-6.
Hayashi, Takao (2003). "Indian Mathematics". In Grattan-Guinness, Ivor (ed.). Companion Encyclopedia of
the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences. Vol. 1. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins
University Press. pp. 118–130. ISBN 978-0-8018-7396-6.
Hayashi, Takao (2005). "Indian Mathematics". In Flood, Gavin (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell. pp. 360–375. ISBN 978-1-4051-3251-0.

Further reading
Jay Kappraff (2014). A Participatory Approach to Modern Geometry (http://www.worldscientific.com/worldscib
ooks/10.1142/8952). World Scientific Publishing. doi:10.1142/8952 (https://doi.org/10.1142%2F8952).
ISBN 978-981-4556-70-5. Zbl 1364.00004 (https://zbmath.org/?format=complete&q=an:1364.00004).
Nikolai I. Lobachevsky (2010). Pangeometry. Heritage of European Mathematics Series. Vol. 4. translator
and editor: A. Papadopoulos. European Mathematical Society.
Leonard Mlodinow (2002). Euclid's Window – The Story of Geometry from Parallel Lines to Hyperspace
(UK ed.). Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9634-0.

External links
"Geometry" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Geometry).
Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 675–736.
A geometry course from Wikiversity
Unusual Geometry Problems (http://www.8foxes.com/)
The Math Forum – Geometry (http://mathforum.org/library/topics/geometry/)
The Math Forum – K–12 Geometry (http://mathforum.org/geometry/k12.geometry.html)
The Math Forum – College Geometry (http://mathforum.org/geometry/coll.geometry.html)
The Math Forum – Advanced Geometry (http://mathforum.org/advanced/geom.html)
Nature Precedings – Pegs and Ropes Geometry at Stonehenge (http://precedings.nature.com/documents/21
53/version/1/)
The Mathematical Atlas – Geometric Areas of Mathematics (https://web.archive.org/web/20060906203141/ht
tp://www.math.niu.edu/~rusin/known-math/index/tour_geo.html)
"4000 Years of Geometry" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071004174210/http://www.gresham.ac.uk/event.as
p?PageId=45&EventId=618), lecture by Robin Wilson given at Gresham College, 3 October 2007 (available
for MP3 and MP4 download as well as a text file)
Finitism in Geometry (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/geometry-finitism/) at the Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
The Geometry Junkyard (http://www.ics.uci.edu/~eppstein/junkyard/topic.html)
Interactive geometry reference with hundreds of applets (http://www.mathopenref.com)
 Dynamic Geometry Sketches (with some Student Explorations) (https://web.archive.org/web/2009032102411
2/http://math.kennesaw.edu/~mdevilli/JavaGSPLinks.htm)
Geometry classes (http://www.khanacademy.org/?video=ca-geometry--area--pythagorean-theorem#californi
a-standards-test-geometry) at Khan Academy

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