There are many reasons such as noise, cross-talk etc.

, which may help data to get corrupted during transmission. The

upper layers work on some generalized view of network architecture and are not aware of actual hardware data
processing.Hence, the upper layers expect error-free transmission between the systems. Most of the applications would not
function expectedly if they receive erroneous data. Applications such as voice and video may not be that affected and with
some errors they may still function well.

Data-link layer uses some error control mechanism to ensure that frames (data bit streams) are transmitted with certain
level of accuracy. But to understand how errors is controlled, it is essential to know what types of errors may occur.

Types of Errors
There may be three types of errors:

 Single bit error

In a frame, there is only one bit, anywhere though, which is corrupt.

 Multiple bits error

Frame is received with more than one bits in corrupted state.

 Burst error

Frame contains more than1 consecutive bits corrupted.

Error control mechanism may involve two possible ways:

 Error detection
 Error correction

Error Detection
Errors in the received frames are detected by means of Parity Check and Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). In both cases,
few extra bits are sent along with actual data to confirm that bits received at other end are same as they were sent. If the
counter-check at receiver’ end fails, the bits are considered corrupted.

Parity Check

One extra bit is sent along with the original bits to make number of 1s either even in case of even parity, or odd in case of
odd parity.

The sender while creating a frame counts the number of 1s in it. For example, if even parity is used and number of 1s is
even then one bit with value 0 is added. This way number of 1s remains even.If the number of 1s is odd, to make it even a
bit with value 1 is added.
 The receiver simply counts the number of 1s in a frame. If the count of 1s is even and even parity is used, the frame is
considered to be not-corrupted and is accepted. If the count of 1s is odd and odd parity is used, the frame is still not
corrupted.

If a single bit flips in transit, the receiver can detect it by counting the number of 1s. But when more than one bits are erro
neous, then it is very hard for the receiver to detect the error.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

CRC is a different approach to detect if the received frame contains valid data. This technique involves binary division of
the data bits being sent. The divisor is generated using polynomials. The sender performs a division operation on the bits
being sent and calculates the remainder. Before sending the actual bits, the sender adds the remainder at the end of the
actual bits. Actual data bits plus the remainder is called a codeword. The sender transmits data bits as codewords.

At the other end, the receiver performs division operation on codewords using the same CRC divisor. If the remainder
contains all zeros the data bits are accepted, otherwise it is considered as there some data corruption occurred in transit.

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Error Correction
In the digital world, error correction can be done in two ways:

 Backward Error Correction When the receiver detects an error in the data received, it requests back the sender to
retransmit the data unit.
 Forward Error Correction When the receiver detects some error in the data received, it executes error-correcting code,
which helps it to auto-recover and to correct some kinds of errors.

The first one, Backward Error Correction, is simple and can only be efficiently used where retransmitting is not expensive.
For example, fiber optics. But in case of wireless transmission retransmitting may cost too much. In the latter case, Forward
Error Correction is used.

To correct the error in data frame, the receiver must know exactly which bit in the frame is corrupted. To locate the bit in
error, redundant bits are used as parity bits for error detection.For example, we take ASCII words (7 bits data), then there
could be 8 kind of information we need: first seven bits to tell us which bit is error and one more bit to tell that there is no
error.

For m data bits, r redundant bits are used. r bits can provide 2r combinations of information. In m+r bit codeword, there is
possibility that the r bits themselves may get corrupted. So the number of r bits used must inform about m+r bit locations
plus no-error information, i.e. m+r+1.

Protocols in Noiseless and Noisy Channel

The study of protocols is divided into two categories:
those that can be applied to channels with no noise or
errors and those that can be applied to channels with noise
or errors. Although the first group of protocols cannot be
applied in real-world situations, they provide a foundation
for protocols for noisy channels.
What is meant by a protocol?
A protocol refers to a defined set of guidelines and
regulations that control the communication between
different devices in a network. These guidelines specify
the way in which data is formatted, timed, sequenced,
and checked for errors during transmission.
Protocols play a crucial role in ensuring accurate,
efficient, and clear communication between devices. They
make it possible for devices of different types and brands
to communicate with each other, and they provide a
consistent method for transmitting data across a network.
Headers are responsible for selecting protocols, which are
rules governing communication between devices in a
network. These headers contain information describing
the message's nature and the handling it will receive. To
detect any issues, the headers must include information
such as the message's checksum, destination, and source
addresses, and other necessary header addresses.
The noiseless channel has the following two protocols:
1. SIMPLEST Protocol - A simple protocol for a
noiseless channel would be one that involves the direct
transfer of data from the source to the destination without
any intermediate processing. In this scenario, the channel
is assumed to be noise-free, which means that the data
transmitted remains intact and does not get corrupted. In a
noiseless channel, a simple protocol could consist of a
straightforward method for transmitting data, such as
sending one bit at a time, with no error correction or flow
control mechanisms in place. This type of protocol is
ideal for a noiseless channel as the lack of noise ensures
that the data transmitted is received accurately, making
the implementation of additional measures unnecessary.
The simplest protocol does not have any mechanisms for
controlling the flow of data or detecting and correcting
errors, as it is only used in noise-free channels. The
protocol assumes that the receiver is always ready to
process any data frames sent by the sender immediately.
This type of protocol, which only allows data to flow
from the sender to the receiver, is known as a one-way
protocol. Since this protocol is unidirectional, there is
no need for an acknowledgment or confirmation of
receipt. Furthermore, because there is no data loss during
transmission, there is no need to resend or retransmit the
data.
In order to create the simplest protocol, the following
presumptions have been made:
o There is no noise whatsoever in the broadcast
channel (a channel with no duplications, lost frames,
or corrupted frames).
o The assumption is that the transmission route is
perfect, with no instances of data loss, duplication, or
corruption.
o There is no system for controlling errors and flow.
o The sender's and receiver's end have an endless
amount of buffer space for the frames.
In the absence of an ACK or NACK, the sender must wait
a pre-determined time before transmitting the message.
To solve this issue, a different protocol known as the
Sliding Window Protocol is used. The sliding window
protocol is a data connection layer protocol that allows for
the sequential and reliable transmission of data frames.
This protocol allows the sender to transmit multiple
frames at once by utilizing sequence numbers. The
sequence numbers are assigned to each data frame by the
sender to ensure proper ordering in the event that a frame
needs to be retransmitted. This also enables the receiver to
detect lost or damaged packets.
Note - An ACK (acknowledgment) is sent to the sender
by the receiver after it has received the frame. The ACK
informs the sender whether the recipient successfully
received a specific frame. Go-Back-N ARQ and Selective
Repeat ARQ are the two different kinds of sliding
window techniques.
Flow Diagram in Simplest Protocol:
A data flow diagram (DFD) is a graphical representation
of the flow of data in a system. In the context of the
simplest protocol, a DFD can illustrate the movement of
data between the sender and the receiver. The DFD would
show how the sender sends the data frames to the
receiver, how the receiver processes the data, and what
happens if any errors occur during the transfer. It could
also show the absence of flow control and error control
mechanisms, which are typically included in more
complex protocols. The DFD can help to clarify the basic
functioning of the simplest protocol, making it easier to
understand and implement.
An illustration of a Stop-and-wait protocol-based
exchange is shown in this figure. It's still simple to
understand. Following the transmission of a frame, the
sender awaits the receiver's answer. Send the following
frame after waiting for the acknowledgment, or ACK,
from the receiving end. Keep in mind that every time
there are two frames, the sender is involved in four events
and the receivers are involved in two events.

2. STOP-AND-WAIT Protocol - Stop and wait is a

protocol that is used for reliable data transmission in a
noiseless channel. In this protocol, the sender sends a
single packet at a time and waits for an acknowledgment
(ACK) from the receiver before sending the next packet.
This way, the sender can ensure that each packet is
received by the receiver and has been successfully
processed. If the sender does not receive an ACK within a
certain time frame, the packet is considered lost and must
be retransmitted.
The stop and wait protocol is simple and efficient, but it
has one major drawback. Because only one packet can be
transmitted at a time, the overall data transmission rate is
relatively slow. To overcome this limitation, the sliding
window protocol was developed. In the sliding window
protocol, multiple packets can be transmitted at the same
time, allowing for faster data transmission. Despite this
limitation, the stop and wait protocol is still widely used
in many applications due to its simplicity and reliability.
o The flow of data frames at the receiver side may
become too fast for it to be processed, causing the
need for temporary storage.
o However, the limited storage space of the receiver
may result in the loss or discarding of frames, or even
denial of service.
o To prevent this, the sender must slow down their rate
of transmission, which is achieved through the use of
ACK messages from the receiver.
o The sender sends a single frame and waits for
confirmation from the receiver before sending the
next one, adding flow control to the previous
protocol.
 o The communication remains unidirectional for data
frames, but ACK frames flow in the opposite
direction.
Flow Diagram
The flow diagram of the Stop-and-wait protocol in a
noiseless channel involves the following steps:
1. The sender transmits a data frame to the receiver.
2. The sender waits for an acknowledgment (ACK)
from the receiver.
3. The receiver processes the received data frame.
4. The receiver sends an ACK to the sender to confirm
receipt of the data frame.
5. The sender continues to transmit the next data frame,
repeating the process from step i.
In this protocol, the sender sends one frame at a time and
stops until it receives an ACK from the receiver. This
prevents the receiver from becoming overwhelmed with
incoming frames and ensures reliable data transmission.
Additionally, the ACK frames are used for flow control,
allowing the sender to adjust the transmission rate based
on the receiver's processing capacity.
CONCLUSION:
The main difference between the two protocols is that
the Simplest Protocol has no flow control and error
control mechanisms, while the Stop-and-Wait Protocol
employs a flow control mechanism through the use of
ACK frames.
In the Simplest Protocol, the recipient is always expected
to be ready to receive any frames sent by the sender, so no
acknowledgment is needed. In the Stop-and-Wait
Protocol, the sender must wait for an acknowledgment
from the receiver before sending the next frame.
Another difference between the two protocols is that the
Simplest Protocol is unidirectional, while the Stop-and-
Wait Protocol is bi-directional. In the Simplest Protocol,
data frames can only move in one direction, from sender
to receiver, while in the Stop-and-Wait Protocol, both
data frames and ACK frames can travel in both directions.
In conclusion, the Simplest Protocol is a basic and
straightforward protocol suitable for noiseless channels,
while the Stop-and-Wait Protocol adds additional
reliability through flow control mechanisms and is more
suitable for noisy channels.
Noisy Channel protocols
A Noisy Channel Protocol is a type of communication
protocol that is used in communication systems where the
transmission channel may introduce errors into the
transmitted data. This type of protocol is designed to deal
with errors in the communication channel and ensure that
the data being transmitted is received accurately at the
receiver end. The main objective of Noisy Channel
Protocols is to minimize the error rate in the transmitted
data by using techniques such as error detection and
correction, flow control, and retransmission of lost or
corrupted data frames. Some examples of Noisy Channel
Protocols include the Stop-and-Wait Protocol, the Sliding
Window Protocol, and the Automatic Repeat Request
(ARQ) Protocol.
1. STOP-AND-WAIT ARQ Protocol - The Stop and
Wait protocol is a protocol used for reliable data
transmission over a noisy channel. In this protocol, the
sender only sends one frame at a time and waits for an
acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver before sending
the next frame. This helps to ensure that the receiver
receives the data correctly and eliminates the need for
retransmission in the case of errors caused by the noisy
channel. The sender continuously monitors the channel
for errors, and if an error is detected, it waits for the next
ACK before resending the frame. This protocol adds error
control to the basic unidirectional communication of data
frames and ACK frames in the opposite direction.
Flow Diagram
A data flow diagram in the Stop-and-Wait protocol in a
noisy channel can be used to describe the flow of data
between the sender and the receiver. This diagram
generally includes the following components:
1. Sender: The sender sends data frames one at a time,
and waits for a response (ACK or NACK) from the
receiver before sending the next data frame.
2. Receiver: The receiver receives the data frames and
processes them. If the frame is received correctly, the
receiver sends an ACK signal to the sender. If the
frame is not received correctly, the receiver sends a
NACK signal to the sender.
3. Noisy Channel: The noisy channel is the medium
through which the data frames are transmitted from
the sender to the receiver. The channel can add noise
to the data frames, resulting in errors and corruption
of the data.
4. Error Detection: The receiver uses error detection
techniques such as checksums to detect errors in the
received data frames.
5. Error Correction: If an error is detected, the receiver
sends a NACK signal to the sender, requesting a
retransmission of the frame.
In this protocol, the sender only sends one data frame at a
time and waits for a response from the receiver before
sending the next frame. This ensures that the receiver has
enough time to process each frame before receiving the
next one. The Stop-and-Wait protocol is reliable, but has
low throughput compared to other protocols.
2. GO-BACK-N ARQ Protocol - The Go-Back-N
Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) protocol is a type of
error-control protocol used in data communication to
ensure reliable delivery of data over a noisy channel. In a
noisy channel, the probability of errors in the received
packets is high, and hence, there is a need for a
mechanism to detect and correct these errors.
The Go-Back-N ARQ protocol is a type of sliding
window protocol where the sender transmits a window of
packets to the receiver, and the receiver sends back an
acknowledgment (ACK) to the sender indicating
successful receipt of the packets. In case the sender does
not receive an ACK within a specified timeout period, it
retransmits the entire window of packets.
Flow Diagram
The flow diagram that illustrates the operation of the Go-
Back-N ARQ protocol in a noisy channel:
Sender Side:
a. The sender transmits a window of packets to the
receiver, starting with sequence number i and ending
with sequence number i + N - 1, where N is the
window size.
b. The sender sets a timer for each packet in the
window.
c. The sender waits for an acknowledgment (ACK)
from the receiver.
Receiver Side:
a. The receiver receives the packets and checks for
errors.
b. If a packet is received correctly, the receiver sends an
ACK back to the sender with the sequence number of
the next expected packet.
c. If a packet is received with errors, the receiver
discards the packet and sends a negative
acknowledgment (NAK) to the sender with the
sequence number of the next expected packet.
Sender Side (in case of no ACK received):
1. If the sender does not receive an ACK before the
timer for a packet expires, the sender retransmits the
entire window of packets starting with the packet
whose timer expired.
2. The sender resets the timer for each packet in the
window.
3. The sender waits for an ACK from the receiver.
Sender Side (in case of NAK received):
a. If the sender receives a NAK from the receiver, the
sender retransmits only the packets that were not
correctly received by the receiver.
b. The sender resets the timer for each packet that was
retransmitted.
c. The sender waits for an ACK from the receiver.
The above steps are repeated until all packets have been
successfully received by the receiver. The Go-Back-N
ARQ protocol provides a reliable mechanism for
transmitting data over a noisy channel while minimizing
the number of retransmissions required.
3. SELECTIVE REPEAT ARQ Protocol - The
Selective Repeat ARQ protocol is a type of error-control
protocol used in data communication to ensure reliable
delivery of data over a noisy channel. Unlike the Go-
Back-N ARQ protocol which retransmits the entire
window of packets, the Selective Repeat ARQ protocol
retransmits only the packets that were not correctly
received.
In the Selective Repeat ARQ protocol, the sender
transmits a window of packets to the receiver, and the
receiver sends back an acknowledgment (ACK) to the
sender indicating successful receipt of the packets. If the
receiver detects an error in a packet, it sends a negative
acknowledgment (NAK) to the sender requesting
retransmission of that packet.
In the Selective Repeat ARQ protocol, the sender
maintains a timer for each packet in the window. If the
sender does not receive an ACK for a packet before its
timer expires, the sender retransmits only that packet.
At the receiver side, if a packet is received correctly, the
receiver sends back an ACK with the sequence number of
the next expected packet. However, if a packet is received
with errors, the receiver discards the packet and sends
back a NAK with the sequence number of the packet that
needs to be retransmitted.
Unlike Go-Back-N ARQ, in Selective Repeat ARQ, the
receiver buffer is maintained for all packets that are not in
sequence. When a packet with a sequence number
different from the expected sequence number arrives at
the receiver, it is buffered, and the receiver sends an ACK
for the last in-order packet it has received.
If a packet with a sequence number that the receiver has
already buffered arrives, it is discarded, and the receiver
sends an ACK for the last in-order packet it has received.
In summary, the Selective Repeat ARQ protocol provides
a reliable mechanism for transmitting data over a noisy
channel while minimizing the number of retransmissions
required. It retransmits only the packets that were not
correctly received and buffers packets that arrive out of
order to reduce the number of retransmissions required.
Flow Diagram
The flow diagram that illustrates the operation of the
Selective Repeat ARQ protocol in a noisy channel:
Sender Side:
a. The sender transmits a window of packets to the
receiver, starting with sequence number i and ending
with sequence number i + N - 1, where N is the
window size.
b. The sender sets a timer for each packet in the
window.
 c. The sender waits for an acknowledgment (ACK)
from the receiver.
Receiver Side:
a. The receiver receives the packets and checks for
errors.
b. If a packet is received correctly and is in order, the
receiver sends an ACK back to the sender with the
sequence number of the next expected packet.
c. If a packet is received with errors or is out of order,
the receiver discards the packet and sends a negative
acknowledgment (NAK) to the sender with the
sequence number of the packet that needs to be
retransmitted.
d. The receiver buffers out-of-order packets and sends
an ACK for the last in-order packet it has received.
Sender Side (in case of no ACK received):
1. If the sender does not receive an ACK before the
timer for a packet expires, the sender retransmits only
that packet.
2. The sender resets the timer for the retransmitted
packet.
3. The sender waits for an ACK from the receiver.
Sender Side (in case of NAK received):
 1. If the sender receives a NAK from the receiver, the
sender retransmits only the packets that were not
correctly received.
2. The sender resets the timer for each packet that was
retransmitted.
3. The sender waits for an ACK from the receiver.
The above steps are repeated until all packets have been
successfully received by the receiver. The Selective
Repeat ARQ protocol provides a reliable mechanism for
transmitting data over a noisy channel while minimizing
the number of retransmissions required. It retransmits
only the packets that were not correctly received, and
buffers out-of-order packets to reduce the number of
retransmissions required.
CONCLUSION:
A. Stop-and-Wait ARQ:
o The simplest of the three protocols.
o The sender transmits one packet at a time and waits
for an acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver
before sending the next packet.
o If the ACK is not received within a certain time, the
sender retransmits the packet.
o Suitable for channels with low error rates, low data
rates, and short transmission distances.
B. Go-Back-N ARQ:
 o The sender transmits a window of packets to the
receiver.
o If the receiver detects an error in a packet, it sends a
negative acknowledgment (NAK) to the sender
requesting retransmission of that packet, as well as all
subsequent packets in the window.
o The sender retransmits the entire window of packets
that were not correctly received.
o Suitable for channels with moderate to high error
rates and moderate data rates.
C. Selective Repeat ARQ:
o The sender transmits a window of packets to the
receiver.
o If the receiver detects an error in a packet, it sends a
NAK to the sender requesting retransmission of that
packet only.
o The sender retransmits only the packets that were not
correctly received.
o The receiver buffers out-of-order packets to reduce
the number of retransmissions required.
o Suitable for channels with moderate to high error
rates, high data rates, and long transmission
distances.
In summary, Stop-and-Wait ARQ is the simplest and
most reliable protocol but not suitable for high data rates.
Go-Back-N ARQ is suitable for channels with moderate
to high error rates, and Selective Repeat ARQ is suitable
for high data rates and long transmission distances. The
choice of protocol depends on the characteristics of the
communication channel and the requirements of the
application.

Multiple access protocol- ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CA

and CSMA/CD
Data Link Layer
The data link layer is used in a computer network to
transmit the data between two devices or nodes. It divides
the layer into parts such as data link control and
the multiple access resolution/protocol. The upper layer
has the responsibility to flow control and the error control
in the data link layer, and hence it is termed as logical of
data link control. Whereas the lower sub-layer is used to
handle and reduce the collision or multiple access on a
channel. Hence it is termed as media access control or
the multiple access resolutions.
Data Link Control
A data link control is a reliable channel for transmitting
data over a dedicated link using various techniques such
as framing, error control and flow control of data packets
in the computer network.
What is a multiple access protocol?
When a sender and receiver have a dedicated link to
transmit data packets, the data link control is enough to
handle the channel. Suppose there is no dedicated path to
communicate or transfer the data between two devices. In
that case, multiple stations access the channel and
simultaneously transmits the data over the channel. It may
create collision and cross talk. Hence, the multiple access
protocol is required to reduce the collision and avoid
crosstalk between the channels.
For example, suppose that there is a classroom full of
students. When a teacher asks a question, all the students
(small channels) in the class start answering the question
at the same time (transferring the data simultaneously).
All the students respond at the same time due to which
data is overlap or data lost. Therefore it is the
responsibility of a teacher (multiple access protocol) to
manage the students and make them one answer.
Following are the types of multiple access protocol that is
subdivided into the different process as:
A. Random Access Protocol
In this protocol, all the station has the equal priority to
send the data over a channel. In random access protocol,
one or more stations cannot depend on another station nor
any station control another station. Depending on the
channel's state (idle or busy), each station transmits the
data frame. However, if more than one station sends the
data over a channel, there may be a collision or data
conflict. Due to the collision, the data frame packets may
be lost or changed. And hence, it does not receive by the
receiver end.
Following are the different methods of random-access
protocols for broadcasting frames on the channel.
o Aloha
o CSMA
 o CSMA/CD
o CSMA/CA
ALOHA Random Access Protocol
It is designed for wireless LAN (Local Area Network) but
can also be used in a shared medium to transmit data.
Using this method, any station can transmit data across a
network simultaneously when a data frameset is available
for transmission.
Aloha Rules
1. Any station can transmit data to a channel at any
time.
2. It does not require any carrier sensing.
3. Collision and data frames may be lost during the
transmission of data through multiple stations.
4. Acknowledgment of the frames exists in Aloha.
Hence, there is no collision detection.
5. It requires retransmission of data after some random
amount of time.

Pure Aloha
Whenever data is available for sending over a channel at
stations, we use Pure Aloha. In pure Aloha, when each
station transmits data to a channel without checking
whether the channel is idle or not, the chances of collision
may occur, and the data frame can be lost. When any
station transmits the data frame to a channel, the pure
Aloha waits for the receiver's acknowledgment. If it does
not acknowledge the receiver end within the specified
time, the station waits for a random amount of time,
called the backoff time (Tb). And the station may assume
the frame has been lost or destroyed. Therefore, it
retransmits the frame until all the data are successfully
transmitted to the receiver.
1. The total vulnerable time of pure Aloha is 2 * Tfr.
2. Maximum throughput occurs when G = 1/ 2 that is
18.4%.
3. Successful transmission of data frame is S = G * e ^ -
2 G.
As we can see in the figure above, there are four stations
for accessing a shared channel and transmitting data
frames. Some frames collide because most stations send
their frames at the same time. Only two frames, frame 1.1
and frame 2.2, are successfully transmitted to the receiver
end. At the same time, other frames are lost or destroyed.
Whenever two frames fall on a shared channel
simultaneously, collisions can occur, and both will suffer
damage. If the new frame's first bit enters the channel
before finishing the last bit of the second frame. Both
frames are completely finished, and both stations must
retransmit the data frame.
Slotted Aloha
The slotted Aloha is designed to overcome the pure
Aloha's efficiency because pure Aloha has a very high
possibility of frame hitting. In slotted Aloha, the shared
channel is divided into a fixed time interval called slots.
So that, if a station wants to send a frame to a shared
channel, the frame can only be sent at the beginning of the
slot, and only one frame is allowed to be sent to each slot.
And if the stations are unable to send data to the
beginning of the slot, the station will have to wait until the
beginning of the slot for the next time. However, the
possibility of a collision remains when trying to send a
frame at the beginning of two or more station time slot.
1. Maximum throughput occurs in the slotted Aloha
when G = 1 that is 37%.
2. The probability of successfully transmitting the data
frame in the slotted Aloha is S = G * e ^ - G.
3. The total vulnerable time required in slotted Aloha is
Tfr.
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)
It is a carrier sense multiple access based on media
access protocol to sense the traffic on a channel (idle or
busy) before transmitting the data. It means that if the
channel is idle, the station can send data to the channel.
Otherwise, it must wait until the channel becomes idle.
Hence, it reduces the chances of a collision on a
transmission medium.
CSMA Access Modes
1-Persistent: In the 1-Persistent mode of CSMA that
defines each node, first sense the shared channel and if
the channel is idle, it immediately sends the data. Else it
must wait and keep track of the status of the channel to be
idle and broadcast the frame unconditionally as soon as
the channel is idle.
Non-Persistent: It is the access mode of CSMA that
defines before transmitting the data, each node must sense
the channel, and if the channel is inactive, it immediately
sends the data. Otherwise, the station must wait for a
random time (not continuously), and when the channel is
found to be idle, it transmits the frames.
P-Persistent: It is the combination of 1-Persistent and
Non-persistent modes. The P-Persistent mode defines that
each node senses the channel, and if the channel is
inactive, it sends a frame with a P probability. If the data
is not transmitted, it waits for a (q = 1-p probability)
random time and resumes the frame with the next time
slot.
O- Persistent: It is an O-persistent method that defines
the superiority of the station before the transmission of
the frame on the shared channel. If it is found that the
channel is inactive, each station waits for its turn to
retransmit the data.
CSMA/ CD
It is a carrier sense multiple access/ collision
detection network protocol to transmit data frames. The
CSMA/CD protocol works with a medium access control
layer. Therefore, it first senses the shared channel before
broadcasting the frames, and if the channel is idle, it
transmits a frame to check whether the transmission was
successful. If the frame is successfully received, the
station sends another frame. If any collision is detected in
the CSMA/CD, the station sends a jam/ stop signal to the
shared channel to terminate data transmission. After that,
it waits for a random time before sending a frame to a
channel.
CSMA/ CA
It is a carrier sense multiple access/collision
avoidance network protocol for carrier transmission of
data frames. It is a protocol that works with a medium
access control layer. When a data frame is sent to a
channel, it receives an acknowledgment to check whether
the channel is clear. If the station receives only a single
(own) acknowledgments, that means the data frame has
been successfully transmitted to the receiver. But if it gets
two signals (its own and one more in which the collision
of frames), a collision of the frame occurs in the shared
channel. Detects the collision of the frame when a sender
receives an acknowledgment signal.
Following are the methods used in the CSMA/ CA to
avoid the collision:
Interframe space: In this method, the station waits for
the channel to become idle, and if it gets the channel is
idle, it does not immediately send the data. Instead of this,
it waits for some time, and this time period is called
the Interframe space or IFS. However, the IFS time is
often used to define the priority of the station.
Contention window: In the Contention window, the total
time is divided into different slots. When the station/
sender is ready to transmit the data frame, it chooses a
random slot number of slots as wait time. If the channel
is still busy, it does not restart the entire process, except
that it restarts the timer only to send data packets when
the channel is inactive.
Acknowledgment: In the acknowledgment method, the
sender station sends the data frame to the shared channel
if the acknowledgment is not received ahead of time.
B. Controlled Access Protocol
It is a method of reducing data frame collision on a shared
channel. In the controlled access method, each station
interacts and decides to send a data frame by a particular
station approved by all other stations. It means that a
single station cannot send the data frames unless all other
stations are not approved. It has three types of controlled
access: Reservation, Polling, and Token Passing.
C. Channelization Protocols
It is a channelization protocol that allows the total usable
bandwidth in a shared channel to be shared across
multiple stations based on their time, distance and codes.
It can access all the stations at the same time to send the
data frames to the channel.
Following are the various methods to access the channel
based on their time, distance and codes:
1. FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
2. TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
3. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
FDMA
It is a frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
method used to divide the available bandwidth into equal
bands so that multiple users can send data through a
different frequency to the subchannel. Each station is
reserved with a particular band to prevent the crosstalk
between the channels and interferences of stations.
TDMA
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a channel
access method. It allows the same frequency bandwidth to
be shared across multiple stations. And to avoid collisions
in the shared channel, it divides the channel into different
frequency slots that allocate stations to transmit the data
frames. The same frequency bandwidth into the shared
channel by dividing the signal into various time slots to
transmit it. However, TDMA has an overhead of
synchronization that specifies each station's time slot by
adding synchronization bits to each slot.
CDMA
The code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel
access method. In CDMA, all stations can simultaneously
send the data over the same channel. It means that it
allows each station to transmit the data frames with full
frequency on the shared channel at all times. It does not
require the division of bandwidth on a shared channel
based on time slots. If multiple stations send data to a
channel simultaneously, their data frames are separated by
a unique code sequence. Each station has a different
unique code for transmitting the data over a shared
channel. For example, there are multiple users in a room
that are continuously speaking. Data is received by the
users if only two-person interact with each other using the
same language. Similarly, in the network, if different
stations communicate with each other simultaneously
with different code language.
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