UNIT II

NON LINEAR WAVESHAPING

Diode clippers, Transistor clippers, clipping at two independent levels, Transfer characteristics
of clippers, Emitter coupled clipper, Comparators, applications of voltage comparators,
clamping operation, clamping circuits using diode with different inputs, Clamping circuit
theorem, practical clamping circuits, effect of diode characteristics on clamping voltage,
Transfer characteristics of clampers.

In the previous chapter we discussed about linear wave shaping. We saw how a change of
wave shape was brought about when a non-sinusoidal signal is transmitted through a linear
network like RC low pass and high pass circuit. In this chapter, we discuss some aspects of
nonlinear wave shaping like clipping and clamping. The circuits for which the outputs are non-
sinusoidal for sinusoidal inputs are called nonlinear wave shaping circuits, for example clipping
circuits and clamping circuits.
Clipping means cutting and removing a part. A clipping circuit is a circuit which
removes the undesired part of the waveform and transmits only the desired part of the signal
which is above or below some particular reference level, i.e. it is used to select for transmission
that part of an arbitrary waveform which lies above or below some particular reference. Clipping
circuits are also called voltage (or current) limiters, amplitude selectors or slicers.
Nonlinear wave shaping circuits may be classified as clipping circuits and
clamping circuits. Clipping circuits may be single level clippers or two level clippers.
Single level clippers may be series diode clippers with and without reference or shunt
diode clippers with and without reference. Clipping circuits may use diodes or transistors.
Clamping circuits may be negative clampers (positive peak clampers) with and without
reference or positive clampers (negative peak clampers) with and without reference.
CLIPPING CIRCUITS
In general, there are three basic configurations of clipping circuits.
1. A series combination of a diode, a resistor and a reference voltage.
2. A network consisting of many diodes, resistors and reference voltages.
3. Two emitter coupled transistors operating as a differential amplifier.
Diode Clippers
Figure 2.1(a) shows the v-i characteristic of a practical diode. Figures 2.1(b), (c), (d), and
(e) show the v-i characteristics of an idealized diode approximated by a curve which is piece-
wise linear and continuous. The break point occurs at Vr, where Vr = 0.2 V for Ge and Vr = 0.6

V for Si. Usually Vr is very small compared to the reference voltage VR and can be neglected.

Shunt Clippers
Clipping above reference level
Using the ideal diode characteristic of Figure 2.2(a), the clipping circuit shown in Figure 2.2(b), has
the transmission characteristic shown in Figure 2.2(c). The transmission characteristic which is a plot

of the output voltage v0 as a function of the input voltage v, also exhibits piece-wise linear
discontinuity. The break point occurs at the reference voltage VR. To the left of the break point i.e.

for vt < VR the diode is reverse biased (OFF) and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2.2(d)
results. In this region the signal v, may be transmitted directly to the output, since there is no load

across the output to cause a drop across the series resistor /?. To the right of the break point i.e. for v (

> VR the diode is forward biased (ON) and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2,2(e) results and

increments in the inputs are totally attenuated and the output is fixed at V R. Figure 2.2(c) shows a
sinusoidal input signal of amplitude large enough so that the signal makes excursions past the break
point. The corresponding output exhibits a suppression of the positive peak of the signal. The output
will appear as if the positive peak had been clipped off or sliced off
Clipping below reference level
If this clipping circuit of Figure 2.2(b), is modified by reversing the diode as shown in
Figure 2.3(a), the corresponding piece-wise linear transfer characteristic and the output for a
sinusoidal input will be as shown in Figure 2.3(b). In this circuit, the portion of the waveform
more positive than V R is transmitted without any attenuation but the portion of the waveform

less positive than VR is totally suppressed. For Vj < VR, the diode conducts and acts as a short

circuit and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2.3(c) results and the output is fixed at V R. For

v, > VR, the diode is reverse biased and acts as an open circuit and the equivalent circuit shown
in Figure 2.3(d) results and the output is the same as the input.

Figure 2.2 (a) v-i characteristic of an ideal diode, (b) diode clipping circuit, which removes that part of the
waveform that is more positive than VR, (c) the piece-wise linear transmission characteristic of the circuit, a

sinusoidal input and the clipped output, (d) equivalent circuit for v( < VR, and (e) equivalent circuit for v, > VR.
Figure 2.3 (a) A diode clipping circuit, which transmits that part of the sine wave that is more
positive than VR, (b) the piece-wise linear transmission characteristic, a sinusoidal input and the
clipped output, (c) equivalent circuit for v( < VR, and (d) equivalent circuit for v,- > VR.

In Figures 2.1(b) and 2.2(a), we assumed that Rr = °° and Rf = 0. If this condition does
not apply, the transmission characteristic must be modified. The portions of those curves which
are indicated as having unity slope must instead be considered as having a slope of Rrl(Rr + R),
and those, having zero slope as having a slope of /?/(/?/ + /?). In the transmission region of a
diode clipping circuit, it is required that Rr » R, i.e. Rr = kR, where k is a large number, and in
the attenuation region, it is required that R » Rf. From
these equations we can deduce that R = J RrxR^ , i.e. the external resistance R is to be

selected as the geometric mean of Rf and /?,. The ratio RrIRf serves as a figure of merit for
the diodes used in these applications. A zener diode may also be used in combination with a
p-n junction diode to obtain single-ended clipping, i.e. one-level clipping.
Series Clippers

Clipping above the reference voltage Vn

Figure 2.4(a) shows a series clipper circuit using a p-n junction diode. VR is the

reference voltage source. The diode is assumed to be ideal (/?/ = 0, Rr = °°, Vy= 0) so that it acts
as a short circuit when it is ON and as a open circuit when it is OFF. Since the diode is in the
series path connecting the input and the output it is called a series clipper. The v0 versus v,
characteristic called the transfer characteristic is shown in Figure 2.4(b). The output for a
sinusoidal input is shown in Figure 2.4(c).
The circuit works as follows:
For v, < VR, the diode Dj is forward biased because its anode is at a higher potential than its
cathode. It conducts and acts as a short circuit and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure

2.4(d) results. The difference voltage between the input v,- and the reference voltage VR i.e. (VR

vi) is dropped across . Therefore v0 = vi and the slope of the transfer characteristic for vi < VR
is 1. Since the input signal is transmitted to the output without any change, this region is called the
transmission region.
Figure 2.4 (a) Diode series clipper circuit diagram, (b) transfer characteristic, (c) output
waveform for a sinusoidal input, (d) equivalent circuit for v; < VR, and (e) equivalent circuit for

v( > VR.

For v, > VR, the diode is reverse biased because its cathode is at a higher potential than
its anode, it does not conduct and acts as an open circuit and the equivalent circuit shown in
Figure 2.4(e) results. No current flows through R and so no voltage drop across it. So the output

voltage v0 = VR and the slope of the transfer characteristic is zero. Since the input signal above

V R is clipped OFF for v, > VR, this region is called the clipping region. The equations V0=Vi

for Vi < VR and V0= VR for Vi > VR are called the transfer characteristic equations.

Clipping below the reference voltage VB

Figure 2.5(a) shows a series clipper circuit using a p-n junction diode and a reference
voltage source VR. The diode is assumed to be ideal (Rf = 0, Rr = °°, Vy = 0) so that it acts as a
short circuit when it is ON and as a open circuit when it is OFF. Since the diode is in the series
path connecting the input and the output it is called a series clipper. The transfer characteristic is
shown in Figure 2.5(b). The output for a sinusoidal input is shown in Figure 2.5(c).
Figure 2.5 (a) Diode series clipper circuit diagram, (b). transfer characteristics, (c) output for a
sinusoidal input, (d) equivalent circuit for vi- < VR, and (e) equivalent circuit for vi- > VR.
The circuit works as follows:
For vi < VR, D is reversed biased because its anode is at a lower potential than its cathode.
The diode does not conduct and acts as an open circuit and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure
2.5(d) results. No current flows through R and hence no voltage drop across R and

hence vo = VR- So the slope of the transfer characteristic is zero for v, < V R. Since the input

is clipped off for v, < VR, this region is called the clipping region.
For v, > VR, the diode is forward biased because its anode is at a higher potential than its
cathode. The diode conducts and acts as a short circuit and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure
2.5(e) results. Current flows through /? and the difference voltage between the input and the

output voltages v, - VR drops across /? and the output v0 = vi. The slope of the transfer

characteristic for v, > VR is unity. Since the input is transmitted to the output for v; > VR, this
region is called the transmission region. The equations are called the transfer characteristic
equations.

Some single-ended diode clipping circuits, their transfer characteristics and the
output waveforms for sinusoidal inputs are shown below (Figure 2.6).
Some single-ended clipping circuits
 In the clipping circuits, the diode may appear as a series element or as a shunt element.
The use of the diode as a series element has the disadvantage that when the diode is OFF and it
is intended that there be no transmission, fast signals or high frequency waveforms may be
transmitted to the output through the diode capacitance. The use of the diode as a shunt element
has the disadvantage that when the diode is open and it is intended that there be transmission, the
diode capacitance together with all other capacitances in shunt with the output terminals will
round off the sharp edges of the input waveforms and attenuate, the high frequency signals.
Clipping at Two Independent Levels
A parallel, a series, or a series-parallel arrangement may be used in double-ended
limiting at two independent levels. A parallel arrangement is shown in Figure 2.7. Figure 2.8
shows the transfer characteristic and the output for a sinusoidal input. The input-output

characteristic has two breakpoints, one at v0 = v, = VR1 and the second at v0 = v, = -VR2 and has
the following characteristics.
 The two level diode clipper shown in Figure 2.8 works as follows. For v, > V R1, DI is

ON and D2 is OFF and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2.9(a) results. So the output v0 =

VR1 and the slope of the transfer characteristic is zero.

For v, < - VR2, DI is OFF and D2 is ON and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2.9(b) results.

So the output v0 = - VR2 and the slope of the transfer characteristic is zero. For-VR2 < v, < VRI,

D! is OFF and D2 is OFF and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 2.10 results. So the output

v0 = v/ and the slope of the transfer characteristic is one.

The circuit of Figure 2.7 is called a slicer because the output contains a slice of the input
between two reference levels VR! and VR2. Looking at the input and output waveforms, we
observe that this circuit may be used to convert a sine wave into a square wave, if V DI = Vm.
and if the amplitude of the input signal is very large compared with the difference in the
reference levels, the output will be a symmetrical square wave. Two zener diodes in series
opposing may also be used to form a double-ended clipper.

If the diodes have identical characteristics, then, a symmetrical limiter is obtained. Some
double-ended clippers, their transfer characteristics and the outputs for sine wave inputs are
shown in Figure 2.11.
Some double-ended clipping circuits