IJCBS, 19(2021): 1-11

International Journal of Chemical and Biochemical Sciences

(ISSN 2226-9614)

Journal Home page: www.iscientific.org/Journal.html

© International Scientific Organization

Transesterification of palm kernel oil using calcium oxide as catalyst

1
Mercy Badu, 1Ransford Appianin Boateng, 2Mary Magdalene Padevoah, 1Blessed Agbemade
3
Timothy Quainoo, 1Micheal Baah Mensah, 1Nathaniel Owusu Boadi
1
Department of Chemistry, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana, 2 Faculty of Applied
Chemistry and Biochemistry, University for Development Studies, Navrongo, Ghana and 3 Department of Chemistry, Wayne State
University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, USA

Abstract
The study focused on using locally produced palm kernel oil, palm ethanol and CaO catalyst from guinea fowl eggshells for
biodiesel production. The physicochemical properties such as density (0.8936±0.00008165 g/ml), viscosity (83.32±0.193cP/P),
refractive index (1.4540±0.00036), pH (5.89±0.084 mol/L H+), acid value (13.9±0.3 mgKOH/g), saponification value
(283.305±23.24 mgKOH/g) and iodine value (20.7±5.77 mgI2 /g) of the crude oil was determined. The transesterification process
was carried out by optimizing reaction conditions using the One-Factor (OFAC) at a time method. The biodiesel produced from
optimum conditions had density (0.877±0.001g/ml), iodine value (13.97±1.037 mgI 2 /g) and cetane index (76.215±0.531). The
results also gave a kinematic viscosity (7.87±0.531 mm²/s), pour point (8.667±0.943°C), acid value (0.92±0.145 mgKOH/g) and
saponification value (161.75±11.017 mgKOH/g).
Keywords: Biodiesel, calcium oxide, palm kernel oil, palm ethanol, eggshell

Full length article *Corresponding Author, e-mail: [email protected]

transesterification reaction has been shown to reduce the
1. Introducti on viscosity of the oils leading to the production of biodiesel
According to the sustainable development goal [5]. Biodiesel is a biodegradable and bio-renewable
(SDG) 7, the global target is to achieve affordable and clean chemical mixture of fatty acid alkyl esters. To convert the
energy by the year 2030. This implies there is a need to triglyceride content of vegetable oils to alkyl esters through
explore new resources as well as upgrading the already transesterification reaction, alcohol and a catalyst are
existing technologies and infrastructure to provide clean and required. Several reports have shown the efficiency in
efficient energy [1, 2]. Fossil fuels provide about 80% of the converting triglycerides into biodiesel using
world's primary energy use, 10% biofuels, 5% nuclear transesterification processes [6]. Again, it has been
energy and 5% spread among hydro, solar, wind and established that biodiesel produced from transesterification
geothermal energy sources [2]. Reports in the literature meet standard specification provided by ASTM and is used
point to the fact that the search for alternative fuel is to power diesel engines efficiently [7, 8]. The annual
widespread as a result of constant demand on the limited production of palm kernel oil in Ghana has been estimated
fossil fuel as an energy source as well as it’s negative at 232 million tons, with an estimated oil content of about
environmental impact [3]. 47–50% weight of oil in the palm nut [9]. Though palm
Materials such as vegetable oils have been found as kernel oil is used for soap and to some extent as cooking oil,
one of the important materials used directly in powering currently, it does not have any major applications and hence
diesel engines [4]. Hence, vegetable oils exhibit several its production is highly underutilized.
challenges which are usually associated with the high Majority of commercial biodiesels are produced
viscosity, acid composition and the free fatty acid content of through transesterification reaction of vegetable oils and
the particular vegetable oil. Hence, vegetable oils require methanol to yield fatty acid methyl esters. However, the
modifications to ensure effective powering of diesel utilization of methanol renders the end product biodiesel,
engines. The common method of modification used to not entirely renewable since the methanol is derived from
improve the quality and efficiency of vegetable oil is fossil sources such as petroleum and natural gas.
referred to as transesterification. A successful Furthermore, the depleting of fossil sources has caused

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uncertainty to the supply and cost of petroleum products CaO used in the range of 0.5% to 2%. The pretreatment was
such as methanol. To overcome this challenge, other alcohol intended to reduce the acid value below 1% limit for
sources are derived from biomass through a fermentation satisfactory transesterification reaction [12].
process. This makes utilization of ethanol in biodiesel
production 100% renewable and relatively cheap [10]. 2.4. Catalyst preparation
Eggshells are a good source of calcium oxide (CaO), Eggshells obtained from guinea fowl were crushed
calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ), calcium phosphate, or into fine particles and calcined at a temperature of 900°C
hydroxylapatite, comparing with other sources such as converting the calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) present to
carbonaceous rock, precipitated soil, teeth and bone. The by - calcium oxide (CaO) as discussed by Pedavoah et al [1]. It
product from hen and duck represent approximately 11 and was then dried at a temperature of 130°C to get rid of any
12.6% w/w of the total weight. The advantages of eggshell water droplets. After the calcination and drying, the CaO
waste utilization are to replace the natural calcium, to reduce was placed in a desiccator before the production of
the waste problem in the household, to conserve natural biodiesel.
resources from rock and soil and to reduce the global
climate warming. CaO produced from eggshells through 2.5. Preparation of palm ethanol
calcination process depends on temperature and time. CaO The palm ethanol was produced from palm wine
obtained has a good dispersion, good electrical properties tapped from the palm sap. Fermentation of the palm wine
and high porosity [11]. The aim of this study is to increase within at least 2 weeks produced the palm ethanol with
knowledge on utilization of locally sourced palm kernel, approximately 46% alcohol percentage. The palm ethanol
palm ethanol and CaO catalyst derived from eggshells for underwent distillation process which increased the alcohol
biodiesel production. The present work focuses on assessing percentage to approximately 96%. Alcoholmeter and
the effects of factors such as temperature, time, catalyst pycnometer were used to measure the alcohol percentage
concentration and the molar ratio of oil to ethanol as well as and the density respectively.
evaluate the kinetics of the reaction. The percent recovery (yield) of the distillation
process=volume (weight) of distilled liquid recovered from
2. Materials and methods the vapour/original volume (weight) of the liquid
2.1. Materials mixture×100% … … … (1)
Palm kernel oil was purchased from the local
producers at the Ayigya market area a suburb in Kumasi 2.6. GC-MS analysis of the palm kernel oil
(6.6898°N, 1.5727°W), in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. GC-MS analysis of the samples was performed
The oil was brought to the Department of Chemistry and using a PerkinElmer GC Clarus 580 Gas Chromatograph
kept in a freezer (free from light) to avoid any oxidation. interfaced to a Mass Spectrometer PerkinElmer (Clarus SQ
Chemical reagents used in the study include sulfuric acid, 8 S) equipped with ZB-5HTMS (5% diphenyl/95% dimethyl
iodine solution, isopropyl alcohol, methanol, chloroform (all polysiloxane) fused a capillary column (30×0.25 μm
were purchased from SURECHEM PRODUCTS LTD ID×0.25 μm DF). The oven temperature was programmed
NEEDHAM MARKET SUFFOLK ENGLAND) and from 80°C (isothermal for 2 mins), with an increase of
potassium hydroxide (KEM LIGHT, Mumbai, India). 15°C/min to 150°C, then 3°C/min to 250°C and holding for
4 mins at 250°C. For GC-MS detection, an electron
2.2. Physicochemical characterization ionization system was operated in electron impact mode
The crude Palm Kernel oil and the biodiesel with ionization energy of 70eV. Helium gas (99.999%) was
produced were characterized for the presence of saturated used as a carrier gas at a constant flow rate of 1.6ml/min,
and unsaturated fatty acid compounds using the IR and and an injection volume of 1μl was employed. The injector
HNMR spectroscopies. The pH, refractive indices were temperature was maintained at 250°C, the ion-source
obtained using the pH meter and refractometer. The temperature was 220°C. Mass spectra were taken at 70eV; a
viscosity and density of the sample were determined scan-interval of 0.5 s and fragments from 45 to 4500Da. The
according to ASTM D1298 (ISO 3675) and ASTM D445 solvent delay was 0 to 3 mins, and the total GC/MS running
respectively. The chemical properties such as acid value, time was 34.5 mins, respectively. The mass -detector used in
iodine value, saponification value of the crude vegetable oil this analysis was Turbo-Mass, and the software adopted to
and the diesel produced were also evaluated by method s handle mass spectra and chromatograms was a Turbo-Mass
described in ASTM D664, EN 14111 and ASTM D5558 ver-6.1.0. Interpretation on mass spectrum GC-MS was
respectively. conducted using the database of National Institute of
Standard and Technology (NIST) having more than 62,000
2.3. Sample preparation for transesterification reaction patterns.
The crude palm kernel oil was pretreated using
oil/alcohol molar ratio of 1:12 and varying the amount of
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2.7 Transesterification reaction trend is in agreement with the literature value of pure
The transesterification reaction was carried out in a ethanol at 27ºC [13].
250 ml three-neck round bottom flask with a magnetic
stirrer, a condenser and a thermometer to monitor and 3.2. Characterization of crude palm kernel oil
control the reaction temperature. A known weight of catalyst The current study considered the potential use of
(0.28 g) was weighed and transferred into 4.5 ml alcohol palm kernel oil as a feedstock for the production of
(the volume depends on the molar ratio) and thoroughly biodiesel. To establish this potential, the physical and
mixed until it dissolves at 40°C forming calcium ethoxide chemical properties of the palm kernel oil were determined.
(Ca(OCH2 CH3 )2 ). Typically, the oil was heated at 60°C and Infra-red (Figure 1), Proton NMR (Figure 2) and Gas
mixed with the calcium ethoxide in the flask. The reaction Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry-GC-MS (Figure 3)
was conducted in a water bath for the source of heat. The spectroscopic analysis were used to identify the functional
reaction was allowed to proceed by refluxing. The groups as well as confirm the level of unsaturation present
experiment was conducted by varying the reaction in the Palm kernel oil.
conditions such as molar ratio, temperature, time and % From the IR spectrum, the palm kernel oil was
catalyst. One-factor at a time (OFAC) method was found to consist of the sp 3 C-H stretches which were seen
employed for the experiment. The molar ratio was varied around 2800 to 2900 cm-1 with the asymmetric stretch
from 1:3, 1:6, 1:9 to 1:12. The temperature was varied from around 2900 cm-1 and the symmetric stretch around 2800
60, 70, 80 to 100°C. The time was varied from 90, 150, 210 cm-1 wavelength. There was no observable peak around
to 240 mins and the % catalyst was varied from 1, 2, 3 to 1680 cm-1 corresponding to C=C and around 3100 cm-1
4% with other parameters held constant with respect to each representing C=C‐H stretching. This may be due to the low
variation. At the end of each reaction, the mixture was level of unsaturation of the fatty acid chains present in the
centrifuged for 30 mins at 4000 rpm. The biodiesel portion palm kernel oil.
separated and washed thoroughly. The yield was calculated Additionally, the 1 H-NMR analysis was employed
and the product was checked for its quality as a fuel. both qualitatively and quantitatively to further characterize
the crude palm kernel oil. From figure 2, the spectrum
2.8. Yield and product characterization showed the appearance of –(CH2 )n-CH3 (terminal methyl
The biodiesel yield was expressed in percentage protons), -(CH2 )n (methylene protons), -OCO-CH2 -CH2 -
weight by weight (%w/w) and percentage volume by (acyl protons), -CH2 -CH=CH- (allylic protons), -OCO-CH2 -
volume (%v/v) using equations 2 and 3: (acyl protons), -CH2 OCOR (glyceryl protons) and -CH=CH-
Percentage yield weight by weight (%w/w)=(weight of (olefinic protons) designated by a, b, c, d, e, f and g, h and i
biodiesel/weight of oil)×100% … … … (2) respectively. From the integration values calculated, the
Percentage yield volume by volume (%v/v)=(volume of percentage of each proton group was calculated to be 11.5%,
biodiesel/volume of oil)×100% … … … (3) 64.4%, 7.9%, 1.4%, 7.8%, 5.0% and 1.9% respectively.
With the help of the GC-MS, the palm kernel oil contained
2.9. Product characterization 81.86% saturated fatty acids and 18.12% unsaturated fatty
The biodiesel produced was characterized using the acids. Comparing the data obtained from the IR, H1 NMR
fuel properties. The pour point, total acid number and and GC-MS analysis to the literature, it was estimated that
kinematic viscosity were determined according to ASTM palm kernel oil contained 82% saturated and 17.6%
D97-05, D974-02 and ASTM D445 respectively. The cetane unsaturated fatty acids [12]. This agrees with the results
index (CI) was calculated using the formula: obtained in this study. Alamu et al reported high levels of
CI=46.3+5458/ SN– 0.225×IV … … … (4) lauric acid and myristic acid which are all short-chain
Where SN and IV denote saponification and iodine saturated fatty acids and low levels of oleic and linolenic
value respectively. acids which are unsaturated fatty acids (Table 1).
Physicochemical properties of the palm kernel oil
3. Results and discussion were studied and the results obtained shown in table 2.
3.1. The yield of palm ethanol The density of palm kernel oil in the study was found to be
Locally distilled ethanol with an alcohol content of 0.8936 g/ml. Density is a critical physical property when the
46% of 0.904 g/ml density was further distilled in the oils are used as a starting material in the chemical industry
laboratory. About 56% ethanol yield containing 97% especially in biodiesel production. In this study, the palm
alcohol content was obtained at the end of the laboratory kernel oil used was found to have a density of 0.8936 g/ml.
distillation. The density of the resultant ethanol measured at The large molecular size of triglycerides contained in the oil
27ºC gave 0.794 g/ml which confirmed the 97% purity of results in high densities which contribute to poor fuel
the ethanol. From the results obtained, it is clear that the atomization hence increases engine deposits [7]. For a better
higher the alcohol content the less dense the ethanol. This selection of oil for biodiesel production, the density of the

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material (oil) should be very low (0.86–0.90 g/ml) to avoid In this study, the pretreatment process was carried
engine failure. out to reduce the acid value by converting the FFA to bound
Again, the large molecular size of triglycerides has acids (esters) by esterification reaction with methanol using
a significant effect on both the viscosity and refractive sulfuric acid as catalyst. With all parameters constant (molar
index. Therefore, for efficient production and application of ratio of 1:12, 60℃ for 1hour duration), the catalyst was
vegetable oils as biodiesels, there is the need to evaluate the varied from 0.5 to 2% resulting in a change in the acid
viscosity and refractive index. In this study, the viscosity at value. At 0.8% catalyst, the acid value reduced from 13.9 to
room and elevated temperature, as well as the refractive 1.89 mgKOH/g which is satisfactory for biodiesel
indices of the palm kernel oil, were determined. The results production.
show that palm kernel oil has a viscosity value of
83.32±0.193 cP/P at room temperature and 62.52±1.433 at 3.3. Effects of reaction conditions on yield of product
40°C. It was observed that an increase in temperature The one-factor-at-a-time method was used to
decreases viscosity. For straight vegetable oils (SVO), high estimate the optimum yields of the product at the different
viscosity and refractive index causes jets to become solid reaction conditions and the results obtained shown in figure
steam instead of a spray composed of small droplets 6.
resulting in poor combustion producing black smoke and In transesterification reaction, the oil to alcohol
provoking the development of deposits in the combustion molar ratio is an important parameter that affects the yield
chamber [14]. of biodiesel production [20]. Stoichiometrically, for 1 mole
The Palm kernel oil recorded an iodine value of of triglyceride, 3 moles of alcohol are required to yield 3
20.7±5.77 mgI2 /g. The measure of iodine value gives an moles of ester and 1 mole of glycerol. However, several
indication of the degree of unsaturation in the triglyceride studies have shown that the reaction of 1 mole triglyceride
composition of the oils A high iodine value is high, indicates (oil) to 3 moles alcohol usually results in incomplete
a high number of double bonds in the fatty acid structure transesterification reaction [21]. Because of this, the current
hence a high level of unsaturation. This study recorded study looked at using different molar ratios (range 1:3-1:12)
lower iodine values (20.7) which indicates low levels of of oil: alcohol. The results obtained are shown in figure 6.
unsaturation and this confirms the results obtained from the The percentage yield of the product at a molar
IR and HNMR analysis. Low iodine value may be attributed ration of 1:3 oil to alcohol ratio increased to a maximum at
to the breaking of double bonds in their triglycerides 1:6 after which there was a decline in yield. At the start of
through oxidation, scission and/or polymerization process the reaction at 1:3 molar ratio, the alcohol present in the
[15]. Additionally, the low iodine value may also be reaction was not enough to ensure a complete
attributed to high saturated fatty acids as reported by [16]. transformation of the triglycerides into biodiesel. As the
The production of biodiesel using heterogeneous alcohol content increased, the number of alcohol molecules
catalyst has a similar mechanism as that of saponification, available to interact with the triglyceride molecules also
the two reactions always compete [17]. Determination of the increased hence effective collision resulting in increased
saponification value of crude vegetable oil before the oil is forward reaction. As molar ratios increased from 1:9 to 1:12,
used to produce biodiesel gives a conceptual means to there was a reduction in product yield and this could be due
estimate the extent to which saponification reaction (soap to the fact that a large number of the alcohol molecules
production) will compete with the final biodiesel product. In occupied the greater portion of the catalytic surface and
this study, the saponification value of the palm kernel oil competes with the adsorption of the triglycerides molecules
was determined to be 283.305±23.24 mgKOH/g. The kind onto the surface hence a decrease in efficiency of
of fatty acids, high temperature and water present in the oil conversion.
greatly affects the saponification value. The amount of catalyst used in the
The acid value was determined to be 13.9±0.3, transesterification reaction has a significant effect on the
corresponding to a free fatty acid (FFA) level of 6.95% conversion efficiency of the reaction. In the current study,
which is above the 1% required for an efficient alkali the catalyst content was varied from 1 to 4% and the results
catalysed transesterification. The high acid value of are shown in figure 6a. It can be seen from the results that
biodiesel leads to the corrosion and wear off engine parts. the most effective conversion of the oil occurred at 1%
The measure of high acid value is as a result of the high catalyst content after which any further increase in the
levels of free fatty acids and any substance which contribute catalyst content led to a decrease in the product yield. At
to the acidity of the oil. For an oil to be suitable for biodiesel high catalyst percentage, the reacting materials may lead to
production, the limit for satisfactory transesterification using the formation of emulsions, increasing its viscosity and
an alkaline catalyst is 1% [18]. A high acid value in hence a reduction in the yield. This trend was because as the
vegetable oil as a feedstock for biodiesel production requires concentration of the catalyst increased, the saponification
pretreatment before use [19]. process is favoured and the biodiesel yield was suppressed
[22].
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The duration of the transesterification reaction is an indicates a successful conversion of the triglycerides to alkyl
important factor to ensure contact between the reagent esters.
solution and the triglycerides to ensure effective conversion. Using the IR, 1 H-NMR and GC-MS spectroscopy
In the current study, the optimum yield was obtained to characterize the reaction product, results from the IR
between 150 and 210 mins (figure 6c) after which there was (Figure 4) gave a characteristic peak of O-CH2 CH3 stretch
a sharp decline. The decline in the yield can be attributed to which occurred around 1050cm-1 indicating the presence of
the formation of saponification products at prolonged the transesterified product. The H1 NMR (Figure 6) also gave
contact time. The saponification process suppresses the peak showing the presence of the methoxy protons of the
biodiesel yield. methyl esters around 3.5-3.6 ppm designated as f and g. The
To ensure molecules obtain sufficient energy for proton groups have similar percentages as the crude palm
effective collision, it is critical to estimate the effect of kernel oil. From the equation described by Knothe and
temperature change on the transesterification reaction. In the Kenar and the integration values, the percentage fatty acid
current study, the effect of temperature on the reaction methyl esters conversion was calculated to be 20.5%. The
product was evaluated using a temperature range of 60°C to GC-MS displayed similar results to that of the palm kernel
100°C. The results showed that the reaction product reduced oil [12].
as the temperature increased (figure 6d). These results are in In this study, the rate constant and the order of the
agreement with other reports in the literature [23]. At reaction was determined experimentally. The activation
elevated temperatures, saponification of triglycerides is energy was determined by employing the Arrhenius
favoured in the presence of an alkaline catalyst such as the equation. The order of the reaction was determined by
calcium oxide. This was confirmed as lather was observed plotting graphs for zeroth order, pseudo-first-order and
during the reaction and scales found at the bottom of the second order. The regression coefficients, r2 obtained was
round‐bottom flask. Additionally, elevated temperatures used to deduce the order of the reaction. The rate constant
result in the vaporization of the alcohol content in the was then determined from the particular order.
reaction thereby reducing the amount of alcohol needed to From table 4, the highest r2 value (0.6132) falls under the
convert the triglycerides into alkyl ester products. This pseudo-first-order and hence the transesterification process
eventually leads to a reduction in the reaction products. is a pseudo-first-order reaction. The rate constant is
determined from the graphs of the pseudo-first-order. The
3.4. Fuel properties of biodiesel slopes from the graphs gave the rate constants at their
The product obtained at the end of the respective temperatures.
transesterification reaction was characterized to ascertain From table 5, the rate constant is not a true constant
their fuel properties as compared with ASTM standard because it varies when other parameters vary. It becomes
values. Results obtained are shown in Table 3. constant when the reaction conditions are kept constant.
Results obtained from the analysis of the physicochemical From the graph (Figure 7), the value of the slope
properties of the reaction products (Table 3) showed that the corresponds to Ea/R and the intercept corresponds to lnA
density and the iodine value met the ASTM standard values. (Pre‐exponential factor). This gives activation energy (Ea)
The remaining properties including; acid value, of 27.41 KJ/mol and pre‐exponential factor value of
8
saponification value, kinematic viscosity, pour point and
6.47×10 /s. This implies that the activation barrier for the
cetane number were slightly below the ASTM standard
reaction is 27.04 KJ/mol and energy equal to or greater than
values. However, comparing the physicochemical properties
27.04 KJ/mol is required to produce the biodiesel. The
of the reaction product and that of the crude palm kernel oil
frequency of collision of the reactant molecules was
(Table 1) starting material, it was observed that the product 8
showed reduce values for all the parameters. A reduction in determined to be 6.47×10 /s.
the physicochemical parameters for example viscosity

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Fig. 1 shows IR of the palm kernel oil

Fig. 2 1 HNMR spectrum of the palm kernel oil

Fig. 3. FT-IR spectrum of the palm kernel ethyl ester (biodiesel)

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Fig. 4. 1 HNMR of the palm kernel ethyl ester (biodiesel)

Table 1: Major fatty acid composition of palm kernel oil

Type of fatty acid Percentage (% )

Lauric (C12:0) 38.13
Myristic (C14:0) 24.60
Palmitic (C16:0) 11.04
Capric (C10:0) 2.82
Caprylic (C8:0) 1.98
Stearic (C18:0) 3.29
Oleic (18:1) 17.63
Linolenic (C18:3) 0.41
Others 0.10

Table 2: Values for the physicochemical properties of palm kernel oil and their corresponding S.I. unit

PARAMETER VALUE S.I. UNIT

Density 0.8936 ± 0.00008165 g/ml
Viscosity at RT 83.32 ± 0.193 cP/P
Viscosity- at 40°C 62.52 ± 1.433 cP/P
Refractive index 1.4540 ± 0.00036 -
pH 5.89 ± 0.084 mol/L H+
Saponification value 283.305±23.240 mgKOH/g
Iodine value 20.7 ± 5.770 mgI2 /g
Acid value 13.9 ± 0.300 mgKOH/g

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Fig.6a Effect of % catalyst on biodiesel yield

Fig. 6b Effect of molar ratio on biodiesel yield

Fig. 6c Effect of time on biodiesel yield

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 IJCBS, 19(2021): 1-11

Fig. 6d Effect of temperature on biodiesel yield

Table 3: Fuel properties of the biodiesel compared to their standards

Parameter Value ASTM standard S.I unit

(D6571)
Density 0.877 ± 0.00129 0.86 – 0.90 g/ml
Acid value 0.92 ± 0.145 0.50 max mgKOH/g
Saponification value 161.75±11.017 120max mgKOH/g
Iodine value 13.97 ± 1.037 14.0 mgI2 /g
Kinematic viscosity at 7.87 ± 0.531 1.9 ‐ 6 mm²/s
40°C
Pour point 8.667 ± 0.943 2.5 (ASTM D97) °C
Cetane index 76.215 ± 0.531 47min (ASTM D613) -

Table 4 shows the verification of the order of the reaction for the transesterification of palm kernel oil based on their regression
coefficient values (r2 )

Temperature/°C Zeroth order Pseudo first order Second-order

(Conc. vs time) (ln conc. vs time) (1/conc. vs time)
60 0.5421 0.6132 0.5261
70 0.2110 0.5181 0.2060
80 0.3205 0.4265 0.3027
100 0.2529 0.5961 0.2187

Table 5 shows the rate constants at the respective temperatures from the pseudo -first-order reaction

TEMPERATURE/°C RATE CONSTANT / s -1

60 3×10-5
70 2×10-5
80 2×10-5
100 1×10-5

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Determination of Arrhenius
Parameter and activation energy
11.6

11.4

11.2

11
ln K

10.8

10.6
y = -3297x + 20.288
10.4 R² = 0.8703
10.2
0.00265 0.0027 0.00275 0.0028 0.00285 0.0029 0.00295 0.003 0.00305
1/T

Fig. 7: Arrhenius plot for the determination of Arrhenius parameter and activation energy

4. Conclusions [2] V. Smil (2016). Energy Research & Social Science

In general, the results of the study revealed the Examining energy transitions: A dozen insights
suitability of palm kernel oil to be used in the production of based on performance. 22: 194–197.
biodiesel through a transesterification reaction. The palm [3] A.S. Ramadhas, S. Jayaraj, C. Muraleedharan
kernel oil as feedstock is renewable and available and the (2005). Biodiesel production from high FFA rubber
product is environmentally friendly. Physicochemical seed oil, Fuel. 84: 335–340.
properties of the oil provided good suitability of the oil as a [4] D. Huang, H. Zhou, L. Lin (2012). Biodiesel: An
precursor in biodiesel production. The optimum conditions alternative to conventional fuel, Energy Procedia.
for the transesterification of palm kernel oil were achieved 16: 1874–1885.
at 1% CaO catalyst, 1:6 oil to ethanol ratio, reaction [5] A. Demirbas (2005). Biodiesel production from
temperature of 60°C and time of 210 minutes. The yield at vegetable oils via catalytic and non-catalytic
these conditions was 94.84%w/w corresponding to 92.26 supercritical methanol transesterification methods.
%v/v. Chemical kinetics showed that the transesterification 31: 466–487.
process is a pseudo-first-order, which implies that the palm [6] E. Akbar, Z. Yaakob, S.K. Kamarudin, M. Ismail,
kernel oil is the only limiting reagent in the reaction. The J. Salimon (2009). Characteristic and composition
activation energy was determined to be 27.04 KJ/mol. This of Jatropha curcas oil seed from Malaysia and its
is the energy required to produce the biodiesel during the potential as biodiesel feedstock feedstock.
transesterification of palm kernel oil. European Journal of Scientific Research. 29: 396–
403.
Acknowledgements [7] E. Alptekin, M. Canakci (2008). Determination of
Authors are grateful to all laboratory technicians at the density and the viscosities of biodiesel–diesel
the Department of Chemistry of the Kwame Nkrumah fuel blends. 33: 2623–2630.
University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, for [8] S. Benjapornkulaphong, C. Ngamcharussrivichai,
providing the laboratory facilities for this research. K. Bunyakiat (2009). Al2 O3 -supported alkali and
alkali earth metal oxides for transesterification of
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