POWER SYSTEMS

- is the study concerned with generation, transmission, distribution and utilization of electric power.

Parameters of transmission lines

Series resistance of the line (Short transmission line) SKIN EFFECT

L
RDC = ρ RAC = k (RDC) The tendency of current to move outward the
A
2 surface of conductor.
1+ 1+F
k=
2 Depends on: Note: skin effect is negligible
Where: RDC = DC Resistance F = 0.0105d2f for copper when the supply frequency is
RAC = AC Resistance F = 0.0063d2f for aluminium
 Nature of materials
low (less than 50 Hz) and
d = diameter of conductor, inches f = frequency, Hertz  Diameter of wire
conductor diameter is less
 Frequency than 1.0 cm.
 Shape of wire

Series inductance of the line (Medium transmission line)

For 1Ø solid round wire: For bundled conductor:
-7 D H (it reduces he reactance of the line and effect of corona.)
L = 2 × 10 ln ;
r' m
For 1Ø stranded wire: -7 GMD H
GMD H L = 2 × 10 ln ;
-7 Ds b m
L = 2 × 10 ln ;
r' m
For 3Ø stranded wire:
Dsb = Ds × d  for 2-strand bundle
-7 GMD H
L = 2 × 10 ln ; b
Ds =
3
Ds × d
2
 for 3-strand bundle
GMR m 4 3
Dsb = 1.09 Ds × d  for 4-strand bundle

Where: GMR = Geometric mean radius of conductor

n2
D = distance between conductors GMR = Ds = n2 terms
r' = self-geometric mean distance of solid conductor Dsb = GMR of the bundled conductor
r’ = 0.7788r = e-1/4 r
GMD = Geometric mean distance
m×n
GMD = Ds = m × n terms
3
GMD = Dab × Dac × Dbc

Shunt Capacitance of the Line For 3Ø, line-to-neutral:

For 1Ø, 2 wire, line-to-line:
2πεo εr l F
Cab = ;
GMD m
ln
r

πεo εr F
Cab = ;
D m
ln For bundled conductor:
r
2πεo εr F
Cab = ;
For 1Ø, 2 wire, line-to-neutral: GMD m
ln b
r

rb = r × d  for 2-strand bundle

3 2
rb = r×d  for 3-strand bundle
4 3
b
r = 1.09 r×d  for 4-strand bundle
Where:
D = distance between conductors
2πεo εr F
Cab = ; r' = self-geometric mean distance of solid conductor
D m r’ = 0.7788r = e-1/4 r
ln
r GMR = Geometric mean radius of conductor
n2
GMR = Ds = n2 terms
Cab = 2 × Cab GMD = Geometric mean distance
m×n
GMD = Ds = m × n terms
3
GMD = Dab × Dac × Dbc
Dsb = GMR of the bundled conductor
Performance of transmission lines

Short Transmission Line: 80 km (50 miles) or less

Efficiency of Transmission:
PR
ηTL = ×100
PS

Sending End Power, PS:

PS = √3VSISpfS = 3VSNISpfS = PR + Line Loss

Receiving end power, PR:

PR = √3VRIRpfR = 3VRNIRpfR
Single-phase, 1Ø: Three-phase, 3Ø:
VS = VR + IR ZL VSN = VRN + IR ZL Power factor at sending and receiving, pfS &
IS = IR VS = √3 VSN pfR:

PLOSS = I2R PLOSS = 3I2R pfS = COS(θS) = cos |θIS - θVSN|

VDROP = 2(I × Z) = VS VDROP = √2 (I × Z) pfR = COS(θR) = cos |θIR - θVRN|
PR PR
IR = ∠± cos-1 (pfR ) IR = ∠± cos-1 (pfR )
VR pfR 3 VR pfR

Where:
Voltage regulation:
VSN = sending end line to neutral voltage
VSN - VRN VRN = receiving end line to neutral voltage
%VR =
VRN VS = sending end line voltage
VR = receiving end line voltage
VS - VRN
%VR= IS = sending end current or load current
VR IR = receiving end current
pfS = sending end power factor
pfR = receiving end power factor
Medium Transmission Line: 81 km to 240 km (150 miles) θS = sending end pf angle
Nominal Tee, T: θR = receiving end pf angle
z =series impedance per unit length
y = shunt admittance per unit length
β = phase shift in radian per unit length
= attenuation constants neper per unit length

Voltage Regulation:
VNL - VFL
%VR =
VNL

Nominal Pi, π: Efficiency:

PR
ηTL = ×100
PR + LINELOSS

VSN = VRNcosh zyl + IBZCsinh zyl

ZL = zℓ; YL = yℓ
VSN = VRNcosh YZL + IBZCsinh YZL
Long Transmission Line: Above 240 km VRN
IS = IRcosh YZL + sinh YZL
ZC
Characteristics Impedance, ZC:
𝒁
ZC =
𝒀
Propagation constant, Y:
Y = yz = α + jβ
Wavelength, λ:
2π
λ=
β
Velocity of propagation, υ:

υ = λf
Generalized Circuit Constant

VSN = AVRN + BIR At no load,

IR =0
IS = CVRN + DIR
VRN = VNL =VSN / A
Practical line loadability
@ SHORT TL @ MEDUIM TL @ LONG TL equation:
A = 1.0 = D Nominal tee Nominal Pi A = coshγℓ = D VSpu VRpu
ZL Y C ZL YC P3Ø = × SIL × sinδ
sinβl
B = ZL A = 1+ = D A = 1+ =D B = ZC sinhγℓ
2 2 2πl
C=0 B = ZL (1+
ZL Y C
) B = ZL C=
sinhγl βl =
4 ZC λ
ZL YC
C = YC B = YC (1+ )
4
NOTE: A & D = unitless B = ohms C = Siemens

Surge Impedance, ZO: Surge Impedance Leading, SIL:

Working voltage for transmission line:
R + jωL VL VL 2
ZO = SIL = 3 VL IL = 3 VL L = ; watts Load current per phase: I=
P
G + jωC 3 L
C Vcosθ
C ρι
L
Resistance of conductor: R=
A
ZO = for lossless line I P
C Current density: J= =
R Vcosθ A
Efficiency of transmission line:
output PJI
CORONA POWER η= =1-
input cosθ
A luminous discharge due to ionization of air surrounding a conductor caused Approximate economical voltage for
by high gradient exceeding a certain critical value. The phenomenon of violet transmission line in kV:
glow production of ozone gas in an overhead line. km load in kVA per phase
kV = 5.5 +
1.6 150
Factors affecting Corona: Disadvantage of corona:
 Atmosphere  Corona is accompanied by loss of
 Conductor size energy. Corona Power Loss, CP:
 Spacing between conductors  Ozone is produced and may cause 241 r 2 -5 kW
CP = f + 25 (Vϕ -VC ) ×10 ;
 Line voltage corrosion of conductor due to δ D km

chemical reaction. Where:

Remedy:
f = frequency in cps
 Increase conductor size.  Non-sinusoidal current cause r = radius of conductor
 Increase conductor spacing. interference with communication lines. D = distance between conductor
VØ = applied voltage per phase
δ = air density factor
Underground cables – essentially amount of one or more conductors covered with 3.92b
δ=
suitable insulation and surrounded by protecting core. t + 273
b = barometric pressure, cmhg
Insulation resistance of underground cable: t = temperature, °C
ρ r2 Where: Vc = disruptive critical voltage per phase, kV
𝓡= ln D
2πl r1 ρ = specific resistance of insulation
VC = moSo r ln
Capacitance of underground cable: r1 = conductor radius r
2πεo εr F r2 = cable radius = r1 + t Mo = irregularity factor (for polished wire: mo =1.0)
C= r ; m t = thickness of insulation So = breakdown strength of air (30 kVmax /cm or 21.1
ln 2
r1 ℓ = length of cables kV rms/cm)
3-core belted cables: Cc = capacitance between core
Cs = capacitance between each core and
Cn = Cs + 3Cs; F/m  ∆-Y
the sheet

Fault Calculation
Faults on a power system – it is unintentional connecting together of two or more conductors which ordinarily operates with a
difference of potential between them.

Per unit calculations:

Note:
actual quantity
p.u. = SBASE = MVA VBASE = kV
base quantity
MVA × 1000
IL = OTHER FORMULAS FOR p.u:
3 kV
2
Shunt admittance, YBASE:
kV V∅ YBASE =
1
=
MVABASE Ppu
Z∅ = = 2
ZBASE (kVBASE) Pf =cosθ =
MVA × 1000 I∅ Spu
For 3Ø fault: Spu = VRpu (IRpu)
2
(kVBASE ) -1 X
Single-phase, 1Ø: Three-phase, 3Ø: Zpu = ∠ tan
MVABASE R
V2 BASE V2 BASE
ZBASE = ;𝛀 ZBASE = ;𝛀 Change of base:
SBASE SBASE 2
SBASE SBASE MVABASE(NEW) kVBASE(OLD)
IBASE = ;𝛀 IBASE = ;𝛀 Zpu(NEW) = Zpu(OLD)
VBASE 3 VBASE MVABASE(OLD) kVBASE(NEW)
For ∆ impedance: for Y impedance:
2 2
3 kV kV
ZBASE Δ = BASE
;𝛀 ZBASE Y = BASE
;𝛀
MVABASE MVABASE
Short Circuit of Fault Analysis

Open Short circuit MVA, MVASC:

Circuits MVABASE 3 VIb
Faults Symmetrical MVASC = = × Ifpu
FAULTS Faults
Three-phase Zth 10
6

= MVABASE × Ifpu
Short
3 VIb
Circuit
Single-Line-to-Ground, SLG MVABASE = 6
Faults 10
Asymmetrical
Faults Line-to-Line, LL ISC = Ifpu × Ib
Fault current, If:
Double-Line-to-Ground, DLG
If = Ifpu × Ib
MVA × 1000
Ib = for 1Ø
kV
Symmetrical faults, 3Ø: MVA × 1000
Ib = for 3Ø
𝟑 kV

Asymmetrical faults:
CASE I: Line-to-Line fault, LL

Sequence component current (p.u.):

VTH
Ia1 = Sequence component current (p.u.):
Z1 + Z f VTH Ea
Ia1 = = = -Ia2
Ia2 = Ia0 = 0 Z1 + Zf + Z2 Z1 + Z2
Fault current (p.u.): Ia2 = -Ia1 Ia2 = 0
If(3Ø) = Ia1; pu Fault current (p.u.):
3 VTH -j 3 Ea
Special case if, VTH = 1.0, Zf = 0, then If(LL) = 3 Ia1 = =
Z1 + Zf + Z2 Z1 + Z2
1
If(3Ø) = ; pu Special case if, VTH = 1.0, Zf = 0, Zn =0, then
Z1
3
If(LL) =
Z1 + Z2
Where:
Voltage value:
Ia1 = positive sequence current
Z2 Ea -Z2 Ea 2 Z2 Ea
Ia2 = negative sequence current Va1 = Va2 = Va0 = 0 Vbc = Vc = Va =
Z1 + Z2 Z1 + Z2 Z1 + Z2
VTH = Thevenin’s equivalent voltage
Equivalent CKT:
If(3Ø) = three-phase fault current
Z1 = positive sequence impedance
Z2 = negative sequence impedance
Z0 = zero sequence impedance
Zn = neutral impedance
Zf = fault impedance

CASE II: Single-Line-to-Ground, SLG

Fault current (p.u.):

VTH 3 Ea
If(LG) = =
Z1 + Zf + Z2 + Z0 + 3Zn Z1 + Z2 + Z0 + 3Zn
Special case if, VTH = 1.0, Zf = 0, Zn =0, then
3
If(LG) =
Z1 + Z2 + Z0
Voltage value:
Ea (Z2 + Zgo ) - Ea Z2 - Ea Zgo
Va1 = Va2 = Va0 =
Z1 + Z2 + Zgo Z1 + Z2 + Zgo Z1 + Z2 + Zgo
Equivalent CKT:

Sequence component current (p.u.):

Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0
VTH Ea
Ia1 = =
Z1 + Zf + Z2 + Z0 + 3Zn Z1 + Z2 + Z0 + 3Zn
If = Ia = 3Ia0 = 3Ia1 = 3Ia2
 CASE III: Double-Line-to-Ground, DLG
INTERRUPTING CAPACITY
 maximum RMS
symmetrical short circuit/fault
and/or overload current the
CB can interrupt in order to
open the circuit. When the
trip rating of the CB exceed, it
will trip or the contacts will
part but the circuit is still
complete due to the
presence of the “ARC”
between the contacts
extinguishment of the arc will
Sequence component current (p.u.): open or interrupt the circuit.
Ia1 = Ia2 + Ia0
(Z2 + Z0 ) VTH Ea
Ia1 = =
Z1 Z2 + Z1 Z0 + Z2 Zn Z2 ( Zgo ) MOMENTARY DUTY
Z1 +
Z2 + Zgo  maximum RMS
Z2 asymmetrical fault current the
Ia0 = -Ia1 CB can withstand, prior to
Z2 + Zgo
interruption without sustaining
Fault current (p.u.):
damage. This rating is higher
3 Z2 VTH 3 Z2 Ea
If(LLG) = = that the interrupting capacity
Z1 ' Z2 + Z1 ' Z0 ' + Z0 ' Z2 Z1 Z2 + Z2 Zgo + Z1 Zgo
(I.C) value.
Voltage value:
Z2 Zgo E
a
Va1 = Va2 = Va0 =
Z1 Z2 + Z2 Zgo + Z𝟏 Zgo FOR GROUNDED SYSTEM
Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0 (Y-connected)

Va = 3Va1 = 3Va2 = 3Va0 kW rating ≤ 1.35 (kVØ rated)

kV
Equivalent CKT: ≤ 1.35
3

FOR UNGROUNDED SYSTEM

(∆-connected)

kW rating ≤ (kVØ rated)

Bus Matrix
- is used to represent the characteristics of an interconnected power system.

1
ZBUS =
YBUS
VTH
Zf(3∅) =
Zii +Zf
Where:
Zii = diagonal element of ZBUS
Zf = impedance fault

General Equation:
VBUS = (IBUS) (ZBUS) Y11 = Y21 = -Y12
IBUS = (YBUS) (VBUS) Y13 = Y31 = -Y13
Y14 = Y41 = -Y14
Bus admittance for bus system:
Y13 Y14 Y23 = Y32 = -Y23
I1 Y11 Y12 V1
I2 Y Y22 Y23 V2 Y24 = Y42 = -Y24
Y24
= 21 Y34 = Y43 = -Y34
I3 Y31 Y32 Y32 Y34 V3
Transfer admittance, Yij (mutual Y):
I4 Y41 Y42 Y43 Y44 V4
Yij = Yij
Y11 = Y10 + Y12 + Y13; mho Driving pt. admittance, Yii (self Y):
Y12 = Y20 + Y12 + Y23 + Y24; mho n

Y33 = Y30 + Y13 + Y23 + Y24; mho Yii = Yij

Y44 = Y40 + Y34 + Y24; mho j=0

Prepared by:
Engr. Meraflor Deanon Esparagoza, REE