Frequency Control for Audio Environments

Using an Equalizer
Juan Sebastián Campos, Luis Carlos Timaná and Andrés Rodríguez

amplifiers [7].
Abstract - In the realm of audio playback, a significant Initially, only analog designs were available, but digital
challenge persists: the limited ability to adapt the sound profile to designs have been providing an alternative since the late 1970s
individual preferences and the acoustic characteristics of [8]. Graphic equalizers can be designed and implemented with
different environments. To address this problem, this article
band filters arranged either in series [9] or in parallel [10].
presents the design of an equalization system capable of
effectively managing the signals it processes. It details how audio Both configurations are viable, and the decision between them
control is achieved over different frequencies within the sound can be based on the intended application, the implementation
spectrum using bandpass filters with operational amplifiers for hardware, or computational limitations [11].
each of the 10 frequency bands. This allows for the independent Sound perception depends on the frequency and intensity of
adjustment of the amplitude of each frequency band. As a result, sound vibrations. The frequency spectrum graphically
an efficient sound amplifier was achieved, capable of handling
represents the distribution of sound energy across different
equalized signals without compromising sound quality.
frequencies. The frequency spectrum of a sound varies
Keywords –Audio systems, analog equalizer, band-pass filters. depending on its source; for instance, the human voice has a
broader frequency spectrum compared to the sound of a flute.
Low frequencies are perceived as bass, while high frequencies
I. INTRODUCTION are perceived as treble. Audio systems can exhibit a non-
uniform frequency response, where certain frequencies are

T he term "equalizer" (EQ) comes from the time when it

reproduced louder than others. An equalizer can correct this
by adjusting the frequency response to achieve a flatter sound.
was necessary to correct high-frequency losses over long It can also enhance sound quality by boosting or attenuating
distances to ensure that the sound spectrum received matched specific frequencies. For example, an equalizer can increase
the originally transmitted sound spectrum. Ideally, this results the bass in an electronic music track or reduce hiss in a vocal
in a system with a uniform response across all frequencies, recording. Additionally, the acoustics of a space can affect
hence the term "equalization." Over time, the term has come to how sound is perceived, and an equalizer can tailor the audio
refer to any process that involves modifying or adjusting the to fit specific environments, such as a living room, car, or
frequency response's magnitude [1]. nightclub.
In [2], an overview of digital audio equalization is provided, The paper presents the design of an active analog equalizer
including its history and the analog era. Meanwhile, [1] offers by selecting frequency bands and utilizing active bandpass
a more detailed review of the developments, methods, and filters. The structure of the paper is organized as follows: first,
historical applications related to equalization. Additionally, the selection of fundamental components is discussed; next,
several audio signal processing books include dedicated the design and prototyping processes are detailed; and finally,
sections on digital equalizers [3]-[6]. conclusions are drawn based on the performance of the
Equalizers are used to correct amplitude and/or group delay prototype.
issues in receivers and transmitters for various applications
including communications, radar, and electronic II. METHODOLOGY AND DEVELOPMENT
countermeasures. They come in both passive and active forms,
with specifications provided in either the frequency domain or
The methodology can be summarized in three phases: (1)
the time domain. Passive equalizers are defined by their
Identify the central frequency bands for each band-pass filter,
frequency responses between matched sources and loads,
(2) determine the materials that will make up the filters and
while active equalizers are defined by Bode plots that apply to
the audio amplifier, (3) design and assemble the equalizer
voltage transfer responses through frequency-selective
prototype.
In the first phase, the equations for calculating bandpass
Luis Carlos Timaná, Andrés Rodríguez and Juan Sebastián Campos are filters are researched. This includes their implementation and
with the Department of Electronic and Telecommunications Engineering, simulation in Proteus and Multisim, taking into account the
Catholic University of Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia (corresponding author:
[email protected], [email protected]). division of the audible spectrum (20 Hz to 20 kHz) into

ISBN 979-8-3315-3172-0/24/$31.00 ©2024 IEEE

 2

distinct bands. since they have high electrical and thermal stability, which
In the second phase, once the equalizer bands have been means that their value does not change significantly with time
determined, the values of resistors, capacitors, and other or temperature. Additionally, they have a long lifespan and are
passive elements are calculated to compose the filters. relatively inexpensive, making them a good choice for low-
Additionally, the appropriate operational amplifiers are cost applications.
selected, and an audio amplifier with good gain and clean The equalizer will be used in a portable speaker, so a
sound is chosen, considering the type of speaker that will be Bluetooth MP3 module was incorporated (see Fig. 3). This
used. module combines a Bluetooth receiver with an MP3 player,
In the third phase, a circuit diagram of the equalizer is enabling the portable speaker to connect to any Bluetooth-
designed, followed by its assembly on a breadboard. Finally, enabled device, such as a smartphone, tablet, or laptop.
the prototype is completed with a PCB assembly.

A. Component selection

In this work, an equalizer was designed using filters that

attenuate or amplify specific frequencies. These filters
primarily consist of operational amplifiers. The operational
amplifier selected is the TL074, which is widely used in audio
applications due to its very low noise level and high stability.
This integrated circuit contains four operational amplifiers, Fig. 3. Bluetooth MP3 Audio Receiver Module [14].
making it efficient for PCB design by conserving space.
The proposed design utilized the TPA3118 device (see Fig. To make the speaker portable, 18650 batteries (see Fig. 4)
1), a high-efficiency class D audio amplifier capable of will be used. These rechargeable lithium batteries are known
delivering up to 2 x 30 W of output power with a total for their high energy capacity and long lifespan.
harmonic distortion (THD) of less than 0.1%. The TPA3118 is
ideal for various audio applications, including portable
speakers, home theater systems, and musical instrument
amplifiers. Additionally, the TPA3118 features short circuit
and overheat protection, safeguarding it from potential
damage.

Fig. 4. Reference 18650 batteries [15].

To protect and optimize the performance of the

rechargeable batteries, a Battery Management System (BMS)
will be employed (see Fig. 5). This electronic circuit monitors
Fig. 1. Woofer's audio amplifier TPA3118 [12]. the voltage, current, and temperature of the batteries,
controlling their charging and discharging to prevent damage.
To pass frequencies within a specific range and block Additionally, the BMS safeguards the batteries from
frequencies outside that range, the bandpass filter shown in overcharging, deep discharge, and short circuits.
Fig. 2 was used. This filter is employed in equalizers to adjust
the intensity levels of different frequency bands.

Fig. 2. Active bandpass filter circuit [13].

For the band pass filters, polyester capacitors were used, Fig. 5. Three cell 12.6V 20A lithium battery protection board BMS-20A-3S-S
which are characterized by their high stability and reliability; [16].
 3

B. Design and Prototype frequencies of an octave band is called the central frequency
( o), and is given by the square root of the product of the
For equalization, there are two fundamental components: lower (fl) and upper (fh) cutoff frequencies.
the master filter and the bandpass filters.
The configuration of the master filter is shown in Fig. 6. (2)
When the switch is in the first position, it functions as a
voltage follower because the resistor connected to the
inverting input is in an open circuit, rendering its resistance (3)
effectively 0. Thus, the input voltage is the same as the output
voltage. However, since the input voltage is divided between (4)
R1 and R3, the amplifier acts as a signal attenuator.
When the master filter is in the second position, + is equal
to −, resulting in no voltage drop across R1. This places the
circuit in a non-inverting amplifier configuration.

Fig. 7. Master Filter with Potentiometer.

Fig. 6. Simplified Master Filter - Second Position.

The switch can be replaced with a potentiometer to allow

for adjustable signal amplification or attenuation (see Fig. 7).
In this configuration, R3 acts as an impedance controlling the
signal entering the master filter. However, in the final design,
this resistor will be replaced by filters for each frequency band
(see Fig. 8). To add more bands, additional control circuits
need to be connected in parallel with the potentiometer.
For the filter connected to the master circuit, constant
resistances of R1=1 MΩ and R2=680 Ω were used (Fig. 8), Fig. 8. Master circuit controlled with a bandpass filter.
thus the calculation of the capacitance would be given by
Fig. 9 shows the circuit diagram for the master filter and 3-
band equalization. Including additional equalization bands
(1)
would involve following the same circuit logic.
Before the Master Filter must be an initial circuit that
where o refers to the geometric mean frequency of each band prevents short circuits, treat the input signal and amplifies it
in Hz. for the correct treatment at equalization section. The input
Table 1 shows the calculation of the capacitances for 10 signal first passes through a passive filter with a cutoff
frequency bands, where fl and, fh represent the lower and upper frequency of 3 Hz. It then enters a short protection circuit
cutoff frequencies of the passband, respectively. To determine featuring 1N4148 diodes and continues to an operational
the bandwidths, octave bands were established, where the amplifier responsible for adjusting the input signal gain via a
upper cutoff frequencies of each band are twice the lower 100 kΩ potentiometer (see Fig. 10). Each operational
cutoff frequencies. The geometric mean of the cutoff amplifier is equipped with decoupling capacitors for its
voltage biases.
 4

Fig. 9. Master filter for a 3-band equalization.

TABLE I batteries. The batteries were connected to a BMS, enabling the

FILTER CAPACITANCES FOR EACH FREQUENCY BAND charging and discharging of a total of 15 batteries in a series-
C (nF) fl (Hz) fh (Hz) fo (Hz) parallel configuration (see Fig. 12).
200 22.63 45.25 32
100 42.43 84.84 60
22 176.78 353.55 250
10 353.55 707.11 500
5.6 707.11 1414.21 1000
3.3 1414.21 2828.43 2000
1.5 2828.43 5656.85 4000
0.75 5656.85 11313.70 8000
0.56 7071.07 14142.14 10000
0.33 11313.70 22627.42 16000

Fig. 12. 18650 battery bank with BMS.

The batteries were connected to a voltage inverter using an

LM555 integrated circuit, which is necessary to transform 12V
to -12V for the correct operation of the operational amplifiers
(see Fig. 13).

Fig. 10. Protection and gain circuit.

After the equalization filters, the audio signal passes

through a final band-pass filter with a passband of 4 Hz to 40 Fig. 13. Voltage inverter with LM555 integrated circuit.
kHz to eliminate any parasitic signals outside the sound range.
The signal then goes to a voltage follower connected to a 100 To interconnect the potentiometers to the PCB, shielded
kΩ potentiometer, which serves as both a volume and cables were used to avoid electromagnetic interference (see
impedance control (see Fig. 11, next page). Fig. 14). Additionally, a metal box was included for the PCB,
In addition to the equalizer design, two 12V, 0.25A power which is connected to ground, acting as a Faraday cage for the
sources were added in parallel to supply charge to the 18650 PCB.
 5

Fig. 11. Bandpass filter and volume control.

The equalizer enhances sound quality in audio playback

environments by providing control over 10 frequency bands
across the audible spectrum. It ensures sufficient power output
suitable for a wide range of applications.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors of the article thank the Catholic University of

Colombia and its directors for the support in terms of physical
and human resources that were required.
Fig. 14. PCB with shielded cable.
REFERENCES
At the equalizer output, a TPA3118 was used as the audio
amplifier. The selected speakers were an 8 Ω impedance [1] Välimäki, V., & Reiss, J. D. (2016). All about audio equalization:
subwoofer and a 4 Ω coaxial speaker connected in parallel. Solutions and frontiers. Applied Sciences, 6(5), 129.
Since the parallel connection decreases the overall impedance [2] Bohn, D. A. (1988, May). Operator adjustable equalizers: An overview.
In Audio engineering society conference: 6th international conference:
to 2.66 Ω, a 5.6 Ω resistor was included at the TPA output to Sound reinforcement. Audio Engineering Society.
prevent issues with the audio system (see Fig. 15). [3] Zölzer, U. (2022). Digital audio signal processing. John Wiley & Sons.
[4] Hickman, I. (1999). Analog circuits cookbook. Elsevier.
[5] Amplifiers, O. (1971). Operational Amplifiers: Design and Applications.
McGraw-Hill,
[6] Jung, W. (2005). Op Amp applications handbook. Newnes.
[7] Kurzrok, R. M. (2004). A review of key equalizer specifications and
what they mean. High Frequency Electronics, 3(9), 22-26.
[8] McNally, G. W. (1979). Microprocessor mixing and processing of
digital audio signals. Journal of the Audio Engineering Society, 27(10),
793-803.
[9] Hirata, Y. (1981). Digitalization of conventional analog filters for
recording use. Journal of the Audio Engineering Society, 29(5), 333-337.
[10] Greiner, R. A., & Schoessow, M. (1983). Design aspects of graphic
equalizers. Journal of the Audio Engineering Society, 31(6), 394-407.
[11] Liski, J. (2020). Equalizer Design for Sound Reproduction. PhD Thesis.
Aalto University, Department of Signal Processing and Acoustics,
Finland.
[12] Code, V. S., & Wizard, R. E. (2022). Hi-Fi Portable Speaker With DSP
Fig. 15. Final prototype of the 10-band equalizer. Technology.
[13] Northwestern – Center for Robotics and Biosystems. (2008). Second
Order Active Filters.
III. CONCLUSION [14] Cameron, N. (2021). Bluetooth speaker. In: Electronics Projects with
the ESP8266 and ESP32. Apress, Berkeley, CA.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-6336-5_6
Ten band-pass filters were designed using operational [15] Ouyang, D., Chen, M., & Wang, J. (2019). Fire behaviors study on
amplifiers, each for a specific frequency range. These filters 18650 batteries pack using a cone-calorimeter. Journal of Thermal
were integrated into a dynamic system, enabling independent Analysis and Calorimetry, 136, 2281-2294.
[16] Shenzhen Global Technology Co., Ltd. (2015). 3 cell 12.6V 20A lithium
adjustment of the amplitude for each band. An efficient sound battery protection board (with recovery function - AUTO Recovery).
amplifier was also implemented to ensure that the equalized
signals are handled without compromising sound quality.