Chapter 2: An Introduction to Chemical Engineering

1. Introduction
Chemical Engineering is a branch of engineering that uses principles of Chemistry, Applied
Physics, Life Sciences, Applied Mathematics to efficiently use, produce, transform and
transport chemicals, materials and energy on a large scale.

Alternative definition: It is the branch of engineering concerned with the design, construction,
and operation of machines and plants that perform chemical reactions to solve practical
problems or make useful products. It starts in the laboratory, much like science, yet progresses
through the design and implementation of a full-scale process, its maintenance, and methods
of testing and improving it.

It is true that chemical engineers are comfortable with chemistry, but they do much more
with this knowledge than just make chemicals. In fact, the term "chemical engineer" is not
even intended to describe the type of work a chemical engineer performs. Instead it is meant
to reveal what makes the field different from the other branches of engineering.

To surmise, in practice, chemical engineering involves engineering of systems—at scales

ranging from the molecular to the macroscopic—that integrate chemical, physical, and
biological elements to design processes and produce materials and products for the benefit of
society. Chemical transformations are at the heart of the technologies that enable modern
society, and the work of chemical engineers has affected societies and individual lives around
the world. Without synthetic fertilizers made with chemical engineering processes, for
example, a Green Revolution to feed the world would not have been possible. Without the
invention of Ziegler-Natta catalysts, polyolefins [example: high-density polyethylene, used
for film (wrapping of goods), blow molding (e.g., liquid containers, bleach bottles), injection
molding (e.g., toys, screw caps), extrusion coating (e.g., coating on milk cartons), piping for
distributing water and gas, insulation for telephone cables. Wire and cable insulation] would
not exist, and the myriad benefits of plastics would not have been realized. Without the
invention of tough, stable polymers such as Teflon® and Kevlar®, the commercial and medical
devices made from those pol ymers would not have emerged. Without the contributions of
many chemical engineers, the silicon chips, glass materials, and plastics that make up today’s
ubiquitous electronic devices would not have been developed. And without an army of

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 1

chemical engineers, there would be no oil and gas industry to power the world and no
pharmaceutical industry to discover and produce the medicines, therapeutics, and vaccines
needed for sustaining a healthy life. More recently, chemical engineers have contributed to
the tools of directed evolution, which has allowed for the engineering of improved function in
proteins, metabolic pathways, and genomes.

What are Chemical Engineers (ChEs)?

A ChE is a person who: (1) develops or designs a new process or product; (2) re-designs,
improves, or troubleshoots a process/product, in order that it is accomplished as economically,
safely, and efficiently as possible.

Chemical engineers work with all phases of matter—vapor, liquid, supercritical (i.e., above
critical temperature and pressure), solid, and plasma—and with multiphase mixtures and at
interfaces that exist between different phases. They work at and across all length scales, ranging
from molecules to medicines to materials and even machines. Their work creatively transforms
matter and products into higher-value materials and products using the principles and tools of
thermodynamics, transport, kinetics, process control, and process design. Chemical
engineering is the only field of engineering that takes advantage of chemical transformations,
usually followed by separation and purification, to add value to products.

Definition of Chemical Engineering Process

A chemical engineering process is a process that takes one material or bit of energy (or a
combination) and makes from it another material or bit of energy (or combination).

How Chemical Engineering is different from Chemistry

Chemistry and its study are deeply rooted in history, going back to ancient times. Records show
that ancient civilizations amassed practical knowledge of the chemistry involved in metallurgy,
pottery and dyeing. The study of chemistry as a science began in the 1600s, with chemists like
Robert Boyle working towards the formulation of Boyle’s Law. Chemical engineering emerged
in its own right during the late 1800s with the English engineer George E Davis coining the
term ‘chemical engineering’. Increased understanding of the importance of chemical
engineering after World War I led to ChE being established in 1922 as an independent
discipline.

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 2

Chemistry investigates the background of the science encompassing aspects of organic,
inorganic, analytical, physical, and biochemistry. Chemical engineering is more
multidisciplinary and practical, applying engineering science to problems relating to heat
transfer, fluid dynamics, equipment design, etc. Engineering science is different from natural
science as the former studies human artefacts, rather than nature.

Chemists tend to focus on developing novel materials and processes, analysing substances,
measuring the physical properties of substances, and testing theories. Chemical engineers focus
on turning these new ideas and discoveries into useful products that are attainable. Most work
falls into the design, construction and operation of plants and machinery, focusing on making
products for profit and on a scale that makes the products accessible to many.

Chemists tend to work in laboratories performing analysis or research and development, but
can also be found in offices, classrooms and in the field. As a chemical engineer's job is likely
to be more practical i.e., in the design or operation of a plant - they tend to work in offices or
in the field.

Chemists work with relatively small amounts of materials in glassware or on a laboratory

bench, for example, when developing new drugs. Chemical engineers work on industrial-scale
reactions with factory-size equipment, for example, they would be responsible for scaling up
drug production to create thousands of units. Chemists are more likely to develop novel
products; chemical engineers then take these products and make their manufacture more
efficient so they are widely available and affordable.

Both chemistry and chemical engineering are important subjects to study and the skills learned
can be applied to a variety of different jobs and roles. Typical jobs within the field of chemistry
include; analytical chemist, clinical biochemist, forensic scientist, pharmacologist, research
scientist or toxicologist. The skills learned in studying chemistry can also be applied to being
an accountant, environmental consultant, patent law, teacher, or science writer. Chemists can
even go on to become chemical engineers. Chemical engineers can fill a wide range of roles in
a variety of disciplines including; chemical engineering in the water industry, bioproduct
engineering, food processing engineering or process engineering in the energy industry.

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 3

How Chemical Engineering is different from other branches of Engineering
The difference between chemical engineers and other types of engineers is that they apply
knowledge of chemistry in addition to other engineering disciplines. Chemical engineers
sometimes are called 'universal engineers' because their scientific and technical mastery is
considerably broad. A chemical engineer finds a career in many areas like the Biotechnology
Sector, Cement Factories, Pharmaceutical Industries, Fertilizer Factories, Petroleum
Refineries, Food Processing Units, and Petrochemicals when compared to other branches
engineers. The demand for more materials, foods, energy, products, lightweight, more-durable
materials and zero emissions technologies in the future will require more ChEs in many
industries.

Role of ChE in traditional contexts

Traditional ChEs design/troubleshoot/optimize processes. In the process the following
questions need to be addressed:
• What material to make and to what degree of purity (for example, 99% pure acetone)
• The basic chemical steps that should be used to make it (this was the work of the
chemist: to determine what mechanistic pathway would work)

It is left the ChE to figure out how to scale up the benchtop chemistry to production, etc., and
how to perform any necessary separations, how to do all of this as economically as possible,
so that the employer organization would make money!

A traditional ChE follows the principles of process engineering, which is the practice of
designing and troubleshooting processes for materials that are well-defined from the standpoint
of both purity and chemical composition (typically commodity chemicals).

Below are some examples which can clarify the role of ChE in traditional contexts.

EXAMPLE - 1:
Your friend wants to start a company manufacturing and selling bakery products. He/She asks
you to help him / her make the transition to the large-scale production; you are expected to be
well-suited to take up the task as a chemical engineer. You are given the basic recipe for the
bakery products (flour, water, sugar, eggs) and told that all that you need to do is mix this and

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 4

heat. Several important questions arise with these new circumstances that your friend may not
be equipped to answer by himself/herself:
• What type of mixer should we use? (We can no longer "hand-mix" if our batch is large,
and could exceed several hundred or even thousand kgs!)
• How much heat /what type of oven is necessary for preparation of the products?
• How long will it take (in the new oven)?

Although this is a very relatively simple example, it illustrates a few important points:
• consider maintaining economy, efficiency, and consistency (among other things like
safety, for example) when you scale a proposed process up. It obviously cannot be a
manual process since the scale is large!
• consider the physical properties of the material (the dough, here) in order to determine
the operating conditions.
If you set the temperature very high it will cook faster, but it may not be economical or safe!
Clearly there is need to optimize the operation.

EXAMPLE - 2:
Ethylene Oxide is an important industrial chemical intermediate. A fellow colleague in the
chemistry division of your company tells you that reacting ethylene with air will produce this
product. It's your job to figure out how to do this on the production scale.
• Unfortunately, reacting ethylene with air (essentially burning the ethylene) will result
in the production of carbon dioxide and water, if allowed to go to completion. What
type of reactor should be used to try to stop the reaction at the intermediate stage
(ethylene oxide)?
• Since this process also generates heat, what temperature should we try to run the
reaction? How do we control the temperature? How do we avoid "runaway" or an out-
of-control reaction (leading to an explosion)?
• If our end goal is to make ethylene glycol (an important ingredient in diverse product
formulations), is it cheaper to build this new process or just buy the ethylene oxide in
the first place?

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 5

EXAMPLE-3:
A customer wants 99% pure acetone to use as a solvent to dissolve chemical "B". The role of
ChE will be:
• Find a good solvent to dissolve chemical “B” Or, change chemical “B” so that it
dissolves in something else
• ChE works intimately with the chemist to determine what pathways most easily scale
up with a minimum of waste, both environmentally and economically
These examples show how ChEs do the process design, but a ChE might also troubleshoot an
existing process, optimize an existing process, etc.

Role of ChE in emerging markets

ChE also involves the design and manufacturing of products that satisfy specific customer
goals, starting from the material screening through the manufacture. In this case, a ChE follows
the principles of product engineering. Product engineering is the design and manufacturing of
(chemically related) products that satisfy specific customer goals, starting from material
screening through manufacturing. In this case, ChE moves away from purely making
commodity chemicals and branches effectively into specialty chemicals, pharmaceuticals,
devices (medical, electronic, etc.), consumer goods, and so on.

The typical steps that ChEs follow for designing a product are:
• Understanding customer needs: The first step in product design is identifying what
needs the customer is trying to satisfy. This requires extensive communication with
customers (or representative groups of potential customers). Interpreting these needs is
difficult, as they may conflict! Ranking the needs allows a designer to try to develop
(material) specifications from the list of needs.
• Generating ideas: The next step is to brainstorm to compile a large list of potential
products to meet the previously identified specifications. Sometimes brainstorming is
not enough and more "brute force" methods such as combinatorial chemistry (where
one makes many candidates -- either virtually or physically -- for testing) are needed
• Selection: Once many ideas are generated, a leading candidate must be selected. In
contrast to traditional commodity chemical production, here the best candidate will not
necessarily be the cheapest but instead will balance: economics, suitability for needs,
and sustainability (economy of both material and energy resources).

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 6

 • Manufacturing: The last step includes traditional chemical engineering process design,
but now with a much stronger connection to the chemist and other members of the
product design team.

2. The "Universal Engineering" by Chemical Engineers

During the past century, chemical engineers have made significant contributions to the
development of a wide range of products. The following is a selective list of key
achievements of the profession.

Splitting of Atoms
Biology, medicine, metallurgy, and power generation have all been revolutionized by our
ability to split the atom and isolate isotopes. Chemical engineers have played a prominent role
in achieving both of these results. Medical doctors now use isotopes to monitor bodily
functions; quickly identifying blocked arteries and veins. Similarly, biologists gain invaluable
insight into the basic mechanisms of life, and archaeologists can accurately date their historical
findings.

Development of Plastics
The 19th century saw enormous advances in polymer chemistry. However, it required the
insights of chemical engineers during the 20th century to make mass produced polymers a
viable economic reality. When a plastic called Bakelite was introduced in 1908 it sparked the
dawn of the "Plastic Age" and quickly found uses in electric insulation, plugs and sockets,
clock bases, iron cooking handles, and fashionable jewelry. Nearly all aspects of modern life
are profoundly impacted by plastic.

The Human Body as a “Reactor”

Chemical engineers have long studied complex chemical processes by breaking them up into
smaller "unit operations." Such operations might consist of heat exchangers, filters, chemical
reactors and the like. This concept has also been applied to the human body. The results of such
analysis have helped improve clinical care, suggested improvements in diagnostic and
therapeutic devices, and led to mechanical devices such as artificial organs. Medical doctors
and chemical engineers continue to work hand in hand to help improve life expectancy.

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 7

Broad-based pharmaceuticals
Chemical engineers have been able to take small amounts of antibiotics developed by scientists
such as Sir Arthur Fleming (who discovered penicillin in 1929) and increase their yields several
thousand times through mutation and special brewing techniques. Today's low price, high
volume, drugs owe their existence to the work of chemical engineers. This ability to bring once
scarce materials to all members of society through industrial creativity is a defining
characteristic of chemical engineering.

Development of Synthetic Fibres

Synthetic fibres are essential material for blankets, clothes to beds and pillows. Synthetic fibres
help reduce the strain on natural sources of cotton and wool, and can be tailored to specific
applications.

Liquefaction of Air
When air is cooled to very low temperatures (about – 1600C) it condenses into liquid state.
Chemical engineers can then separate out the different components by distillation. The purified
nitrogen can be used to recover petroleum, freeze food, produce semiconductors, or prevent
unwanted reactions, while oxygen is used to make steel, smelt copper, weld metals together,
and support the lives of patients in hospitals.

Waste Management
Chemical engineers have helped evolve economical answers to clean up waste and prevent
pollution. Catalytic converters, reformulated gasoline, and smoke stacks, scrubbers all are
developments towards this goal. Additionally, chemical engineering focuses on reducing the
strain on natural materials through synthetic replacements, more efficient processing, and new
recycling technologies.

Improving Agricultural Productivity through Fertilizers

Plants need large amounts of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus to grow. Chemical fertilizers
can help provide these nutrients to crops, which in turn provide humans with food. Advances
in biotechnology also offer the potential to further increase worldwide food production. In
addtion, chemical engineers are at the forefront of food processing where they help prevent
spoilage and foster preservation.

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 8

Petrochemicals
Chemical engineers have helped develop processes like catalytic cracking to break down the
complex organic molecules found in crude oil into much simpler species. These building
blocks are then separated and recombined to form many useful products including: gasoline,
lubricating oils, plastics, synthetic rubber, and synthetic fibres. Petroleum processing is
therefore recognized as an enabling technology, much of modern life depends on it.

Synthetic Rubber
Chemical engineers have played a prominent role in developing today's synthetic rubber
industry. A considerably large fraction of products for human use is made of rubber, a
malleable substance that suits multifarious applications. Examples include, tyres, gaskets,
hoses, and conveyor belts, shoes etc.

We present below in more detail the oil and gas industry, which is considerably complex and
is one of the most significant achievements of chemical engineering research, development,
design and operation. It is also one of the engines of global economy as it provides the fuel
for energy extraction so as to accomplish industrial activities as well as enabling human
mobility.

3. Petroleum: For Fuel and Plastics

Petroleum is so important to the modern society that it has rightfully earned the title "black
gold." When used to supply energy, petroleum is converted into gasoline, fuel oils, lubricants,
kerosene, and jet fuels. However, it is also necessary for plastics, waxes, asphalt, and all nature
of fine organic chemicals. Because of its value as a raw material, some claim that petroleum
is too valuable to burn! About a third of all chemical engineers are employed by the petroleum
industry; and a huge industry it is (see fig. 1, 1 barrel = 160 litres). The petroleum industry is
one of the main reasons chemical engineers have enjoyed such success.

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 9

 Fig. 1. Petroleum consumption across countries

Petroleum refineries are a highly complex outcome of modern chemical engineering. Within
them a maze of pipes, distillation columns, and chemical reactors turn crude oil into valuable
products. Large refineries cost billions of dollars, employ several thousand workers, operate
around the clock, and occupy the same area as several hundred football stadiums. These
refineries turn out the gasoline and chemical feedstocks that keep the world running. It is the
industry that transformed the profession of chemical engineering during the mid-20th century
through both scientific and technological innovations, and which still forms the basis of core
chemical engineering knowledge.

Locating an oil field is the first obstacle to be overcome. Geologists and petroleum engineers
employ a variety of methods for such search. Instruments to aid the search include; geophones
(uses sound), gravimeters (uses gravity), and magnetometers (uses the Earth's magnet field).
While these methods narrow the search tremendously, a person still has to drill an exploratory
well, to see if the oil actually exists.

There are three main types of drilling operations (see fig. 2); cable-tool, rotary, and off-shore.
Cable-tool drilling involves a jack-hammer approach were a chisel dislodges earth and hauls

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 10

up the loose sediment. Rotary drilling works at much greater depths, and involve sinking a drill
pipe with a rotating steel bit in the middle. Off-shore drilling involves huge semi-submersible
platforms which lower a shaft to the ocean floor for locating oil reserves.

Fig. 2. Typical Drilling Machine

All crude oil contains some amount of methane or other gases dissolved in it. Once the drilling
shaft makes contact with the oil it releases the pressure in the underground reservoir. The
pressure of the dissolved gases pushes crude oil to the earth’s surface. The dissolved gases will
allow about 20% recovery of oil. To get better recovery water is often pumped into the well,
this forces the lighter oil to the surface. Water flooding allows recoveries of about 50%. The
addition of surfactant allows even more oil to be recovered (termed “enhanced oil recovery”)
by preventing much of it from getting trapped in pores of the soil.

Because crude oil is a liquid it is much easier to move it than natural gas or coal. Coal is solid
and dense, so it does not require large holding containers, but it cannot be pumped. Conveyor
belts and cranes cannot compete with pipelines for economic efficiency. Natural gas can be
pumped using expensive compressors, but it requires enormous holding tanks. A recent
development has been to inject huge amounts of water into salt strata. The water dissolves the
salt, leaving enormous caverns. The natural gas is then pumped in and stored until needed. The
ease in transporting oil is one of the reasons humans have become so dependent upon it. Weight
on weight, natural gas and coal cannot compete with oil, though the former two are both
available in much greater amounts.

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 11

Burning hydrocarbons as energy source, however, releases carbon dioxide, a strong greenhouse
gas (along with water and methane), into the earth’s atmosphere, and the impact on the global
environment could be catastrophic to human life. Nuclear fission, solar power, hydroelectric
power, and geothermal power offer immediate alternatives; however, energy produced by these
methods has been more expensive so far than burning oil, coal, or natural gas, though that is
changing presently in favour of the natural, renewable forms of energy. Power production
using nuclear fusion, continues to elude scientists and engineers. In any case, in the near future,
refining techniques will remain vital to produce not only fuels but raw materials for
petrochemical industries (plastics, pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, etc.).

Primary Distillation of Oil

Oil contains a complex mixture of hydrocarbons. The first step in obtaining something of value
from this muck is to de-salt and de-water it. Then the oil is heated and sent into a huge
distillation column operating at atmospheric pressure. Heat is added at the reboiler, and
removed at the condenser, thereby separating the oil into fractions based upon boiling point. A
typical atmospheric column can separate about 4,000 cubic meters (25,000 barrels) of oil per
day. The bottom fraction is sent to another column operating at a pressure of about 75 mm Hg
(one tenth of an atmosphere). This column can separate the heaviest fraction without thermally
degrading (i.e., cracking) it. Whereas atmospheric columns are thin and tall, vacuum columns
are thick and short, to minimize pressure fluctuations along the column. Vacuum columns can
be over 40 feet in diameter! Fig. 3 provides a summary of petroleum refining and products
thereof. Table 1 shows the properties of different “cuts” obtained from petroleum refining.

Table 1. Properties of Petroleum Cuts

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 12

 Fig. 3 Petroleum Refining and its Products (fractions)
The commercial importance, and hence the demand, of the various petroleum fractions vary
across the year. Modern refineries are able to alter the ratios of the different fractions to meet
the dynamic demand, and maximize profit.

4. Distillation Processes
As is evident distillation is the key process in fractionating the different components of
petroleum. There are essentially two types of distillation processes, batch and continuous.

Batch distillation
In a batch distillation apparatus (or a commercial kettle), a condenser is required to turn the
vapours back to liquid so they can be easily collected (fig. 4). A tall column is also desirable
because it greatly improves the separation by giving high boiling compounds another chance
to condense before they reached the top and are collected. Finally, by using different collection

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 13

vessels, the original mixture can be separated into fractions. The basic principle involved in the
process is that by applying heat a distillation column separates compounds in a mixture based
upon their boiling points.

Fig. 4 A Batch Distillation Apparatus

Continuous Distillation
One of the characteristics of the Industrial Revolution has been a shift from small scale batch
(craft like) operations to large scale continuous (plant based) mass production. Labour intensive
batch distillation was thus eventually replaced with continuous distillation which allowed a
much greater chemical throughput. It also greatly reduced the cost of the distillation apparatus
and operation.

There are two major types of continuous distillation columns, but both operate in basically the
same way. In both cases, liquid is continuously fed into the column, and at least two streams
(distillate and bottoms), together containing the same amount of total material, are continuously
removed. Heat is added to the reboiler (bottom pot) and removed at the condenser. The re-
boiler vaporizes some of the liquid, which then follows a tortuous path to the top of the column,
where it is re-condensed. Along the way most of the high boiling compounds will have been
left behind, and the distillate will be relatively pure. To further aid the separation process, some

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 14

of the liquid distillate is often returned (refluxed) to the column where it flows back to the
bottom. Along the way this reflux condenses some of the higher boiling liquids (i.e., liquids or
fractions with high boiling points) out of the vapor phase helping to purify or enrich the vapor
in low-boiling components. Tray distillation columns (fig. 5) consist of physically separated
(in individual trays) pools of liquid which are in intimate contact with a vapor. Such columns
are often used to force the upward flowing vapor through these pools of downward flowing
liquid. Each of these trays operates as an equilibrium stage (like the batch distillation process),
i.e., the contact liquid and vapour phases are in equilibrium as they leave a plate or tray.

Fig. 5 A Tray Column Continuous Distillation System

The other type is a “packed column”. Such columns are filled with a saddle shaped packing
that provides large surface area for the vapor to condense upon and ensures that the liquid and
are in intimate contact for better interphase mass transfer.

Whereas the composition of the distillate and bottoms in batch distillation changes over time,
a continuous column operates under steady conditions where the composition at a given
location does not change over time. This steady state operation is desired in almost all
continuous unit operations. Because the composition only depends upon the position in the

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 15

column, additional product steams can be easily tapped at different heights and each tray will
have a different composition of compounds. The trays at the top of the column are rich in light
boiling compounds while those at the bottom are rich in compounds that only boil at high
temperatures.

5. The Key Reactive Processes of Petroleum Refining

While distillation can separate oil into fractions, chemical reactors are additionally required to
create more of the products that are in high demand (see fig. 6). Refineries rely on four major
processing steps to alter the ratios of the different fractions. They are: Catalytic Reforming,
Alkylation, Catalytic Cracking, and Hydroprocessing. Each of these methods involves feeding
reactants to a reactor where they will be partly converted into products. The unreacted reactants
are then separated from the products with a distillation column. The unreacted reactants are
recycled for another pass, while the products are further separated and mixed with existing
streams. In this way complete conversion of reactants can be obtained, even though not all of
the reactants are converted on a given pass through the reactor. The four processing methods,
along with distillation, are the pillars of petroleum refining.

Fig. 6 Products of Reactive Oil Processing

Catalytic Reforming
Catalytic Reforming produces high octane gasoline for automobiles. Gasoline and naphtha
feedstocks are heated to 5000C and flow through a series of fixed-bed catalytic reactors (fig.

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 16

7). Because the reactions which produce higher octane number compounds (aliphatic in this
case, used as anti-knocking agents) are endothermic (absorb heat), additional heaters are
installed between reactors to keep the reactants at the proper temperature. The catalyst is a
platinum (Pt) metal on an alumina (Al2O3) base. While catalysts are never consumed in
chemical reactions, they can be fouled (due to deposit of undesirable products), making them
less effective over time. The series of reactors used in catalytic reforming are therefore
designed to be disconnected, and swiveled out of place, so the catalyst can be regenerated.

Fig. 7 Catalytic Reforming Process

Alkylation
Alkylation (fig. 8) is another process for producing high octane gasoline. The reaction requires
an acid catalyst (sulfuricacid, H2SO4 or hydrofluoric acid, HF) at low temperatures (1-400C)
and low pressures (1-10 atmospheres). The acid composition is usually kept at about 50%
which makes the mixture very corrosive.

Fig. 8 Alkylation Process

Fluidized Catalytic Cracking

Catalytic Cracking takes long molecules and breaks them into much smaller molecules. The
cracking reaction is very endothermic, and requires a large amount of heat. Another problem

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 17

is that reaction quickly fouls the silica (SiO2) and alumina (Al2O3) catalyst by forming coke on
its surface (fig. 9). However, by using a fluidized bed to slowly carry the

Fig. 9 Fluidized Catalytic Cracking

catalyst upwards (the cracker is typically positioned vertically), and then sending it to a
regenerator where the coke can be burned off, the catalyst is continuously regenerated. This
system has the additional benefit of using the large amounts of heat liberated in the exothermic
regeneration reaction to heat the cracking reactor. The FCC system is an innovative reaction
scheme, which turns two negatives (heating and fouling) into a positive, thereby making the
process considerably economical.

Hydro-processing
Hydro-processing includes both hydrocracking and hydrotreating techniques. Hydrotreating
involves the addition of hydrogen atoms to molecules to achieve a variety of purposes.

Fig. 8 Hydro-processing Schema

Hydrotreating is an efficient method to remove several compounds, including:

• Sulfur is the most critical compound to remove. It is present in nearly all crude oil
feedstocks as sulfur mercaptans, sulfides, disulfides, polysulfides, and thiophenes.
• Nitrogen is typically treated with hydrogen gas and transformed into ammonia gas.

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 18

 • Oxygen is reacted with hydrogen and eliminated as water. Most oxygen in distillation
cuts is not present as oxygen gas, but bonded to hydrocarbons.
• Olefins (i.e., alkenes) are volatile and unstable, and they are not desirable in fuels.
Olefins are transformed into stable paraffinic hydrocarbons.
• Metals are removed because they can deposit on catalysts and in engines

Hydrotreating involves temperatures of about 3250C and pressures of about 50 atmospheres.

Many catalysts will work, including; nickel, palladium, platinum, cobalt, and iron.
Hydrocracking breaks longer molecules into smaller ones. Hydrocracking involves
temperatures over 3500C and pressures up to 200 atmospheres. In both cases, very long
residence times (about an hour) are required because of the slownature of the reactions.

The considerations in the last two sections, with petroleum refining as an example, therefore,
demonstrates the intrinsic complexity of chemical engineering knowledge and practice, and the
multiple expertise that is necessary to develop, design and operate chemical plants.

5. The Future Scope of Chemical Engineering

As the foregoing presentations have attempted to demonstrate, it is indubitable that the
practice and application of the principles of chemical engineering has led to wide-ranging
technological innovations that has contributed to the rise of the modern human civilization,
with many benefits for human beings to recount. Unfortunately, however, the discoveries of
chemical engineers have also been responsible for the production of chemicals that will persist
in the environment indefinitely, greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to climate change,
plastic materials that accumulate in landfills and the oceans, and the chemicals of war that
have inflicted long-term or permanent damage on humans and the environment. Thus, the
field of chemical engineering t oday faces opportunities and challenges not only to innovate
for the future, but also to innovate in ways that repair the unintended consequences of the past.

Chemical engineering is a discipline and a profession that evolved from the roots of industrial
and applied chemistry, which in turn emerged from such ancient chemical processes as
fermentation and leather tanning. Its academic legacy traces back to the late 1880s, when
steam engines still powered the world, and internal combustion was a nascent idea. The world
has of course changed since then, and continues to do so at a rapid rate, as illustrated by the

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 19

pace at which technology is disrupting established practices and organizations. The core
chemical engineering knowledge has evolved more slowly over the preceding decades, even
as the challenges facing engineers have expanded and become more difficult.

Challenges faced today include not only addressing climate change and the energy transition
to renewable forms, but also reducing raw material usage and increasing recycling to move
from a linear to a circular economy, generating and distributing food worldwide while
conserving water and other resources, and creating and scaling the manufacture and
distribution of new medicines and therapies. Some of the key developments likely in the
future are:
• Increasing economic power and the rise of the middle class in developing countries
driving demand for more materials, energy, products, and access to technology
• Need for new, more efficient and safer methods of materials production; process
intensification, energy intensity improvements, and zero emissions technologies
• Increasing demand for food will need to be satisfied by the application of enhanced
farming and food-generation methods using nontraditional farming techniques, new
bio-based active agents, and data sciences
• Increasingly reduced access to water will continue to drive technology advancements
for purification, desalination, and recycling capabilities
• Demand for lighter-weight, more-durable materials that are fully and easily recyclable
is expected to increase
• Renewal of civic infrastructure — bridges, roads, electric grids, water systems, and
others will involve more-cost-effective and innovative designs in which chemistry and
materials will be critical

Across all these applications, chemical engineers have opportunities to address today’s most
important problems by collaborating with multiple disciplines and engaging, large-scale,
systems-level thinking. To leverage these opportunities, now and in the coming decades,
chemical engineering will need to define and pursue new directions.

CL101-IITB-An Introduction to Chemical Engineering–Sandip Roy 20