APPLY MATERIAL SCIENCE AND METALLURGICAL PROCESSES

UNIT CODE: ENG/OS/MEM/CC/06/6/B

UNIT DESCRIPTION:
The learner will be introduced to performing material testing and metallurgical processes. It
involves analyzing properties of engineering materials, understanding extraction, production
of ferrous materials, ceramics, composites and alloys processes, performing heat treatment,
material testing and prevention of corrosion in materials.
ELEMENTS AND PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
ELEMENT
These describe the key outcomes
PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
which make up workplace function
These are assessable statements which specify the
required level of performance for each of the elements
(Bold and italicized terms are elaborated in the Range)

1. Identify propertiesof engineering

materials 1.I Type of engineering materials is identified as per
the procedures
1.2 Physical properties of engineering materials are
identified
1.3 Mechanical properties of engineering materials are
identified
1.4 Crystal structure of materials are identified

2.Demonstrate understanding of
ore extraction processes
2.1 Safety procedures are observed according OSHA
2.2 Method of extraction is determined as per material
properties and its composition
2.3 Procedure in extraction process is determined as
per extraction method
2.4 Extraction bi-products are stored as per SOPs 2.5
Extraction bi-products are disposed as per SOPs

3.Demonstrate understanding of
Production of ferrous materials 3.1 Perform ore smelting according to standard
operating procedures.
3.2 Composition of iron is determined
3.3 Method of producing iron material is established
3.4 Refinement processes are identified based on iron
material required
4.Demonstrate understanding of 4.1 Non-ferrous materials are extracted according to SOP
production of non-ferrous materials 4.2 Extracted non-ferrous material is smelted and
purified as per the SOP
4.3 Non-ferrous material is tested according to SOP

5. Demonstrate understanding of
alloys 5.1 Materials in alloy formation are identified 5.2 Alloy
formation process is identified based on alloy to be
produced
5.3 Alloy is tested based on alloy production requirement
4.4 Alloying elements for nonferrous materials are
identifed
5.5 Alloy formation process is identified based on alloy to
be produced
5.6 Alloys for non-ferrous material are tested based on
production requirement

6. Demonstrate understanding of
6.1 Composition of ceramic materials is identified
production of ceramics
6.2 Manufacturing process is identified
6.3 Ceramic materials are produced according to
manufacturing processes
6.4 Finishing processes are identified

7.Demonstrate understanding of 7.1 Type of composite to be produced is identified

composite materials production 7.2 Elements involve in composite formation are
identified
7.3 Formation process of composite to be produced is
identified
7.4 Composite is tested as per composite production
requirement
8. Demonstrate understanding of 8.1 Safety practices are observed according to OSHA
heat treatment processes 2007
8.2 Heat treatment processes are identified
8.3 Procedure in heat treatment processes
8.4 Heat treatment of metals are performed
 9. Perform material testing
9.1 Safety is observed in material testing procedures
9.2 Material testing methods are identified depending
on material
to be tested
9.3 Procedure of material testing is followed as per
material testing method
9.4 Material testing results are tabulated,calculated
and interpreted
9.5 Material testing equipment are taken care of and
maintained.

10.Prevent material corrosion 10.1 Safety is observed during corrosion

10.2 Corrosion type is identified
10.3 Corrosive atmosphere is identified
10.4 Methods of corrosion prevention are identified
10.5 Corrosion is prevented

RANGE
This section provides work environments and conditions to which the performance criteria
apply. It allows for different work environments and situations that will affect performance.
VARIABLE RANGE
Physical propeties may Density
include but not limited to: Color
Texture
Melting point
Thermo conductivity
Electrical resistivity
Mechanical properties may Ductility
include but not limited to: Malleability
Elasticity
Toughness
Hardness
Brittleness
Elasticity
Strength
Iron (II) oxide
Composition of iron may
Iron(III)oxide
include but not limited to:
 Cast iron
Iron materials may inclode but nol Steel
limited to

Non-ferrous materials may include Aluminum

but not limited to Copper

Ceramic materials may include but Oxides

not limited to: Nitrides
Carbides
Silica
Finishing processes may include but Lapping
not limited to: Fine grinding
Polishing
Other engincering materals may Rubber
include but not limited to: Plastics
Wood
Glass
Galvanic
Corrosion type may include but not
Stress corrosion cracking
limited to:

Methods of corrosion Painting

prevention may include but not ·Electroplating
limited to: Galvanizing
·Cathodic
·Chromizing

4
 STRUCTURE OF MATERIALS

- Classification of Engineering Materials

(i) Metals and their alloys
(ii) Non-metals
- Types of Engineering Materials
(a) Metallic materials – include (i) Ferrous – contain iron as the chief constituent : these are
pig iron ,cast iron, steels and their alloys
(ii)Non Ferrous – all other metals and their alloys that do not
contain iron as the chief constituent.
(b) Ceramics – include engineering ceramics (e .g silicon oxide) and naturally occurring ceramics
consisting mainly of clay.
(c) Composites – consists of more than one type of engineering material e.g a metal and non -
Metal
(d) Organics- contain mainly Carbon as the main element in their structure: include plastics and
Rubbers and are also referred to as Polymeric materials.
- Forms of supply
• Sheet

• Plate

• Strip

5
 • Bars

• Tubes

• Rolled sections

• Granules, pellets and powder

- Metals - are solid at room temperatures.

- are malleable and ductile.
- have good electrical and thermal conductivities.

6
 - have high density and high melting points.
- have good strength and hardness.
- In liquid state , they are used as metallic sprays.

- Non – Metals - can be used in solid or non- solid state

- in solid state, they are brittle and have poor electrical and thermal conductivities
- in non- solid state, they are either viscous or have low viscosity

- Solid substances are either amorphous or crystalline in nature.

- Amorphous – atoms (or molecules) are arranged in a disorderly and indefinite manner.
- Crystalline - atoms (or molecules) are arranged in an orderly and definite manner forming
crystals.
- Molecules - contain more than one atom of the same or different elements.
- Element – consists of atoms of one type only
- Atom - smallest and chemically indivisible particle of matter and the smallest quantity of an
element which can exist on its own though in rare circumstances
- the atom consists of a minute (very small) nucleus that contains protons that are
positively charged and neutrons that are negatively charged.
- The nucleus of an atom is surrounded by negatively charged electrons whose number is equal to
the number of protons so as to keep the atom electrically neutral.
- The number of protons determines the type of element and is indicated as the Atomic Number
of the element.
- Atomic Number – is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of an element.
- Atomic Mass (Atomic Weight) - is the number of both protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom of an element.
- Isotopes - are atoms of the same element (i.e have same number of protons) but with different
atomic weight (i.e have different number of neutrons)
- Electrons of an atom are arranged in a series of orbits (shells or energy levels) around the nucleus
- Each shell contains a specific number of electrons. e.g the first shell nearest the nucleus contains a
maximum of two electrons, the second a maximum of eight electrons etc
- Due to their opposite charges , electrons are attracted to the protons in the nucleus of the atom.
But the electrons in the outermost shell known as valence shell may be attracted to the protons in
the nucleus of neighbouring atoms leading to formation of bonds between atoms.
-Bond - refers to the attraction between atoms (or ions or molecules)

- Types of Bonds

i) Ionic bond (electrovalent bond)

- formed when one or more electrons in the valence shell of an atom are transferred to the
valence shell of another atom.
- Note – this leaves both atoms having the maximum number of electrons in their outermost
shells .
- the two atoms become oppositely charged atoms(ions) that attract each other to form the ionic
bond.
- the bond is formed between a metal and a non – metal

7
- example .

ii) Covalent bond

- formed when the valence electrons of an atom are shared with valence electrons of another or
other atoms.
- formed between atoms of non-metals
- the bond is typical of most gas molecules.
- example

8
 iii) Van der waals forces
- occurs in neutral molecules or atoms e.g in inert gases whose atoms have their valence shells
containing the maximum number of electrons.
- when the atoms or molecules are brought together, there is a separation of the centres of
positive and negative charges and a weak attractive force occurs ; the van der waals forces of
attraction .

iv) Metallic bond

- valence electrons of metal atoms are loosely held by their nuclei and at room temperature , the
atoms lose their valence electrons which form an electron cloud or pool of electrons
surrounding the now positively charged atoms(atoms)
- the positively charged ions repel each other and arrange themselves in regular pattern in which
they are firmly held in position by the attractive force of the electron cloud

- Note : the regular arrangement of atoms makes them crystalline in nature and due to the
nature of the bond , metals are ductile , good conductors of electricity and heat and are lustrous
in appearance.

Space Lattice (crystal lattice)

- metals are crystalline in nature i.e the atoms are arranged in a definite and orderly manner.
- The three dimensional network of imaginary lines connecting the atoms of a crystalline element
is called Space Lattice

9
- Unit Cell – is the smallest unit in the space lattice having the full symmetry of the crystal
- The unit cell is defined by the parameters a , b and c which are the edges of the unit cell and
the angles 𝛼 , 𝛽 and 𝛾 between the edges.

- Currently , there are fourteen known types of space lattices which are grouped into seven
systems or classes.

Classes (Systems) of space lattices(crystal structure)

1. Cubic system - has three equal axes that are mutually perpendicular
i.e a = b = c and 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 = 900
- types of cubic system crystal structures are:
a) Simple cubic

10
 b) Body Centred Cubic (B C C)

- Examples of metals with bcc crystal structure are Chromium(Cr) , Tungsten(W),

Molybdenum(Mo), Vanadium(V),Sodium(Na), α - iron , δ - iron
c) Face Centred Cubic (F C C)

- Examples of metals with fcc crystal structures are Aluminium(Al), Nickel(Ni),

Copper(Cu),Gold(Au), Silver(Au), Lead(Pb),Platinum(Pl) and γ – iron.
2. Tetragonal System – has three perpendicular axes of which only two are equal.
i.e a = b but not = c and 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 𝛾 = 900
- types of tetragonal system crystal structures are
a. Simple Tetragonal

11
 b. Body Centred Tetragonal (BCT)

3. Hexagonal System - has three equal co – planar axes at 1200 and a fourth unequal axis
perpendicular to their to plane.
i.e a = b but not = c and 𝛼 = 𝛽 = 900 γ = 1200
- the Close Packed Hexagonal (c p h) crystal structure shown below
belongs to this system

- Examples of metals with c p h (h c p) crystal structure are magnesium(Mg). Beryllium(Be),

Zinc(Zn). Cadmium(Cd)

12
 Note
I. Ability of an element to exist in more than one space lattice is known as Polymorphism
e.g Carbon(C) can exist either as graphite which is very soft or as Diamond which is very
hard

II. Ability of an element to exist reversibly in more than one crystal structure is known as
Allotrophy. E.g iron can exist as α – iron , γ – iron or δ – iron depending on temperature

Mechanism of crystallization (Dendritic solidification of metal)

- Atoms of a liquid are in constant motion and possess kinetic energy.They are only contained in
one space by the container.
- When a liquid metal solidifies , the kinetic energy of each atom is reduced and is given out as
latent heat of solidification which for a pure metal occurs at a constant temperature as shown
in the cooling curve below.

13
- Mechanism of Solidification - Solidification begins by the formation of small nuclei scattered at
random in the cooling liquid metal. At these points , a few atoms arrange themselves in an
orderly manner to form the unit cell of the crystal structure.
- Growth of the crystal takes place in three dimensions .

- From the main arms of the crystal , secondary growth occurs resulting in small tree-like crystals
called dendrites.

14
 - Growth of the crystals continues until all metal between the branches has solidified.The crystals
outward growth is stopped when two crystals meet.
- Each of these small crystals is called a grain and the contact surfaces between adjacent crystals
are called grain boundaries.

- Grain – a small crystal consisting of atoms arranged in an orderly and definite manner

Alloying of metals
- Pure metals are rarely used in engineering work because they have poor mechanical properties
- In order to make these materials suitable for engineering use, some other materials are added
to them to form an alloy
- Alloy – a substance that has metallic properties and is composed of two or more chemical
elements of which at least one is a metal
- The metal , which is present in the alloy in large proportions is known as base metal while all the
other elements (metal or non-metal) that are added are called alloying elements
- Alloying is done to improve mechanical properties.Many physical properties are also
improved . Corrosion resistance of many metals can also be improved by alloying
- Effects of alloying include :
(i) Melting temperature is lowered : it is easier to melt and cast metals at lower
temperatures.
15
 Note : melting point of copper is raised by alloying with copper.
(ii) Electrical conductivity is lowered : pure metal is best for electrical conductivity
(iii) Electrical resistivity is raised : this principle is applied in development of high
resistance electric heater elements.
(iv) Thermal conductivity is lowered
(v) Tensile strength is raised
(vi) Fatigue strength is raised
(vii) Ductility is lowered

- Properties of a metal can also be improved by

(a) Reduction in grain size - a fine-grained material possess high tensile strength and better
mechanical properties than coarse – grained material.
- stirring of melt and fast cooling rates causes formation of fine grain
(b) Strain hardening (cold work) – this is a process of deforming a metal at room
temperature to improve its hardness ,tensile strength etc.
- ductility is lowered by cold work
- mechanical work that do not cause strain hardening is
known as hot work
(c) Heat treatment – effective in alloys ; pure metals do not show any improvement in strength
by heat treatment and are only strengthened by cold work.
- in alloys, alloy metal atoms are dispersed throughout the crystal structure
for the optimum effect
- among the alloys that respond to heat treatment are the steels and
aluminum alloys

Definitions and concepts related to alloying

(i) Solid solution – this is a microscopically homogeneous and random distribution of atoms
of one kind throughout atoms of another kind in solid state .
- any solution is composed of two parts ; a solute and a solvent . The solute is
the minor part of the solution while the solvent is the major portion of the
solution
- solid solutions are like liquid or gaseous solutions except as differences exist
between solid , liquid and gaseous states of matter
- a gas can dissolve an unlimited amount of any other gas but a gas , liquid or
solid can only dissolve a limited amount of liquid or solid.
-similarly , solubility limits of most solutions of one pure metal in another
metal exist except in solutions of copper- nickel and silver-gold.
Types of solid solutions
(a) Interstitial solid solution – occurs when solute atoms whose atomic radii
-8
are less than 10 cm disperse themselves in
spaces between solvent atoms e.g. atoms of
Hydrogen (H) ,Carbon (C) ,Boron (B) , Nitrogen (N)
16
 e.g. iron – carbon solid solution
(b) substitutional solid solution - solute atoms replace some solvent atoms so that
they lie at normal lattice points in the crystal
structure

e.g. copper- nickel solid solution

- both types of solid solutions produce distortion of the crystal structure
accompanied by an increase in strength and hardness and a loss in ductility
and electrical thermal conductivity.
Conditions for a solution
(a) Unsaturated – if the solvent is dissolving less of the solute than it could dissolve
at a given temperature and pressure
(b) Saturated - if the solvent is dissolving the limiting amount of solute at a given
temperature and pressure
(c) Supersaturated - if the solvent is dissolving more of the solute than it should
under equilibrium conditions.
- supersaturated solutions are unstable and given enough time
and energy , solution tends to become stable by rejecting or
precipitating the excess solute
(ii) Intermetallic compound – tends to form when the difference in the electronegativity of the
elements forming an alloy is very large
- usually forms in solid solutions when the limit of solubility is
exceeded
Electronegativity - ease with which an atom gains or looses an
electron
(iii) Mechanical mixtures – formed when a liquid solution of an alloy is cooled and the crystals
of its constituents separate simultaneously from one another to form
a close mechanical mixture also known as eutectic mixture
(iv) System - a series of alloys made from the same components
(v) Components – the pure metals or compounds of which the alloy is made.
(vi) Phase - this is a homogeneous portion of a system that has uniform physical and chemical
properties.
- thus solid solutions are phases , pure metals are phases and the various states of
matter(liquid,gas,solid) are phases.
- if a metal can exist in more than one crystalline form , the different crystal structure
represent different phases.
17
(vii) Constituent – microscopically identifiable portion of an alloy
- phases being microscopically identifiable are constituents but constituents
are not always single phases
(viii) Equilibrium - this is when a condition of no net change exist in a system.
- with regard to alloys , a system is said to be in equilibrium when there is no
net change between the amounts and compositions of the phases present.
- the atoms of a solid metal are relatively immobile and when the temperature
changes , the attainment of equilibrium takes a longer time.
Thus by quenching (cooling rapidly) a solid metal , it is possible to
leave equilibrium conditions so far behind that the metal reaches a
pseudostable state at room temperature.
(ix) Equilibrium diagram – this is a convenient graphical representation of the relationship
between temperature and the compositions of phases present
in an alloy system at equilibrium conditions.
- do not show the rate of reaction but only the phases present at
different temperatures.
- equilibrium diagrams are sometimes called phase diagrams if they
show phases present or constitution diagrams if they show
constituents present in an alloy system .

uses of equilibrium diagrams

(a) Predict what phases are in equilibrium for selected alloy composition
at desired temperatures.
(b) Predict phase transformation which occur if the alloy is subjected to very
slow cooling or heating.
(c) Determine the microstructure as a result of phase transformation.

18
 Diagram below shows an equilibrium diagram of an alloy system between metals A and B in which
there is no limit of solubility . i.e. metal A can absorb any amount of metal B

Liquidus – line on an equilibrium diagram above which alloy compositions are always liquid

Solidus – line on an equilibrium diagram below which alloy compositions are always solid

19
 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Properties – quantity which defines the specific characteristics of a material

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
- Properties that define the behavior of a material under the action of external loads/forces.
- Mechanical properties assist the engineer in selecting a suitable material for various structures
and components of a machine.
- Most mechanical properties are expressed in terms of stress , strain or both.

- Stress – internal resistance set up by the molecules of a material to resist deformation due to
application of external forces
- mathematically stress is expressed as the force/load per unit area of cross-section

𝑃
i.e 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠(𝜎) = (units N/M2) P = force applied (N) A = Cross-section area (m2)
𝐴

- Strain - deformation or change in length per unit length under the external forces
- mathematically

𝐿 1−𝐿0
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎i𝑛 (c) = units (m/m) L1 = original length (m) L0 = final length (m)
𝐿0

- According to nature of load applied , there are various types of stresses and corresponding
strains : e.g.
(i) Tensile stress -stress induced at any section of the material when subjected to
two equal and opposite axial pulls.

- the ratio of increase in length to the original length is tensile strain

(ii) Compressive stress – stress induced at any section of the material when subjected
to two equal and opposite axial pushes.

- the ratio of decrease in length to original length is compressive strain

- mechanical properties include :

20
 (i) strength – ability of a material to withstand or support an external force or load
without failure/rupture/fracture
- depending on nature of stress , types of strength include ,tensile strength
, compressive strength etc.
(ii) Elasticity - ability of a material to retain its original size and shape after the
removal of load or force
(iii) Plasticity - ability of material to deform permanently without fracture under the
action of external forces
(iv) Ductility - ability of a material to be drawn into wire or be elongated by the
application of a tensile force before rupture takes place.

- ductility is measured by

(a) %𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡i𝑜𝑛 = 𝐿1−𝐿𝑂 𝑋100 L0 =original length

𝐿0
L1 =final length

𝐴0−𝐴1
(b) %𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡i𝑜𝑛 i𝑛 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡i𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑋100
𝐴0

A0 =original cross- section area

A1 = final cross- section area
(v) Malleability – ability of a material to be hammered to shape or rolled into thin
sheets

Note : a malleable material should be plastic but not necessary strong but a
ductile material must be both plastic and strong

(vi) Brittleness – property that makes a material break or fracture without any
significant deformation or change in size
(vii) Toughness - ability of a material to absorb maximum energy before fracture
(viii) Hardness - ability of a material to resist wear , scratching , indentation and
machinability
- its also the ability of a material to cut another material
(ix) creep - a slow and permanent deformation of a material at a constant stress
usually at an elevated temperature
(x) Fatigue - failure of a material at a stress below the yield point stress when the
material is subjected to repeated or cyclic stresses.
(xi) Stiffness (rigidity) – ability of a material to resist deformation or deflection under
stress

PHYSICAL PROPERTES
- Properties that are inherent in a material and are determined by electronic structure
and bond

21
 - Physical properties include :
(i) Melting point – temperature at which a solid material changes to liquid
(ii) Density - weight of a material per unit volume
- ratio of density of a material to density of water is known as specific gravity
(iii) colour - display particular hue in normal daylight
(iv) lustre – ability of surface to reflect light
others include thermal and electrical conductivity etc.

TECHNOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
- Properties which define the behavior of a material during shaping ,forming and fabrication
operations during the manufacturing process
- Technological properties include :
(i) Machinability - indicates the ease with which a material can be cut or removed by
cutting in various machining processes such as turning ,drilling ,milling
etc.
(ii) Weldability - indicates the ease with which two similar or dissimilar metals are joined,
with or without application of pressure , with or without the use of filler
metal
(iii) Formability /workability – indicate the ease with which a material can be formed i.e
pressed into different shapes and sizes
(iv) Castability – indicate the ease with which a material can be cast into different shapes
and sizes

TYPES OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

- Materials mainly used in Machine Shops and Tool Rooms are metals which are broadly classified
into :

(a) Ferrous metals - contain Iron as their chief constituent

- these are pig iron , cast iron ,steels and their alloys
(b) Non-ferrous metals - metals which contain a metal other than iron as the chief constituent
- these include aluminum , copper etc. and their alloys.

IRON (Fe)
- Pure iron exists in more than one crystal structure i.e it is allotropic in nature.
- Figure below is a heating curve for pure iron showing the temperatures over which each
crystal structure is stable.

22
 - From room temperature to 9100c, pure iron has a b.c.c structure called α-iron which is magnetic
upto 7680c (curie point).
- Above 9100c upto 14040c , pure iron has an f.c.c structure called γ- iron.
- Above 14040c , pure iron has a b.c.c structure called δ- iron which has longer cube edges than α-
iron and is stable upto 15390c , the melting point (m.p) of iron.
- Pure iron is greyish , soft and ductile metal with a tensile strength of 29000 psi (200 mpa) ,
specific gravity (s.g) of 7.7 and %age elongation of 41% in 2 inch.

NOTE : 1 psi (pound per square inch or lbf/inch2) = 6895 N/m2

1 pa (pascal) = 1 N/m2
1 mpa (megapascal) = 1 x 106 N/m2

ALUMINUM (Al)
- is a silverly white , soft , ductile , light metal with an f.c.c structure.
- has a tensile strength of 13000 psi (90 mpa) , specific gravity of 2.7, melting point 6600c and a
%age elongation of 45% in 2 inch.
- have good corrosion resistance , good electrical and thermal conductivities and a high
reflectivity to both heat and light.

COPPER (Cu)
- is a reddish brown , soft , malleable and ductile metal with an f.c.c structure.
- has a tensile strength of32000 psi (221 mpa) ,specific gravity of 8.9 , melting point 10830c and
%age elongation of 45% in 2 inch.
- have good corrosion resistance , good electrical and thermal conductivities and good soldering
characteristics.

23
 NOTE : (i) Copper has as good electrical and thermal conductivities as Aluminum and is non-corrosive
under ordinary conditions.It is easily joined by soldering making it superior to Aluminum in
the electronic industry.
(ii) Due to its light weight, Aluminum is used for overhead cables for transmission of electricity
while copper being heavy is used for indoor electrical wiring
(iii) Due to the non-toxicity of the corrosion products of Aluminum , it is used in making cooking
utensils and in the food industry.
iv Copper can be cast ,forged ,rolled and drawn to wire and is extensively used for electrical
conductors and heat exchangers.

Structure Properties and Uses of common Non-Ferrous Metals

Metal & Physical Mechanical properties Other properties Uses
structure properties
Zinc (Zn) - bluish white - soft,malleable & - readily worked & rolled into - coating steel sheets
h.c.p - m.p ; 4200c ductile at 1000c thin sheets at 1000c (galvanized iron)
- s.g ; 7.1 - tensile strength 19-25 - high resistance to - coating fencing wires,nails
- boiling point ; mpa atmospheric corrosion -alloying element in copper
9400c for making brass
Nickel (Ni) - silvery white -good corrosion resistance - alloying element in steel &
f.c.c - m.p ; 14520c - resistant to attack by most cast iron;stailess steel,alloy
- s.g ; 8.85 acids but dissolves readily in cast iron
- ferromagnetic nitric acid -coating steel & copper
Tungsten (w) - m.p ; 34100c - strong and stiff -good corrosion resistance - making carbide tools for
b.c.c -Stiffness ;345 000 psi machining at high speeds
-tensile strength of -alloying element in tool
0.46φ wire ; 246 000 psi steel
0
Molybdenum -m.p ;2460 c -Good corrosion resistance -Uses as for Tungsten
(mo) b.c.c
Titanium (Ti) -m.p ; 16700c (Structure changes to -Excellent corrosion -Used as a substitute for
h.c.p - s.g ; 4.5 b.c.c at 8820c) resistance and high stainless steel where weight
temperature strength saving is important
Magnesium -Very light -Brittle -Easily machinable but thin -Used in equipment where
(Mg) h.c.p -s.g ; 1.74 -soft chips and dust can be a fire weight is a problem e.g
-m.p ;6500c harzard portable ladders,handdrills
-Flashlight powder
-In alloys of zinc
,Aluminum,copper etc
Vanadium (V) - m.p ; 17100c - Harder than quartz but -Used as alloying element in
b.c.c - s.g ; 5.68 malleable and tough alloy steels
Tin (Sn) - Brightly - soft -Making solder
b.c.t shinining white - ductile -Coating iron/steel
-Making thin sheets (tinfoil)
Lead (Pb) - Bluish grrey - Very soft - resistant to corrosion and - rechargeable batteries
- m.p 3260c acids - lining acid tanks,cisterns
- s.g ; 11.36 -no longer used in water
(heavy metal) pipes as its toxic
24
 PRODUCTION OF IRON AND STEEL

PIG IRON

- is the crude form of iron used as a raw material for the production of other ferrous materials
(steel, cast iron etc)
- obtained by smelting iron ores in a blast furnace.
- Iron ores are found in various forms :-

(i) Oxides - include heamatite(Fe2O3 –widely used),magnetite(Fe3O4), limonite(Fe2O3.H2O)

(ii) Carbonates - include siderite(FeCO3)
(iii) Sulphides - include pyrites(FeS2)

- other than iron ores , other charging materials in the blast furnace are :-
(a) Fuel - hard coke is most commonly used ; provides heat for melting iron ore and combines with
oxygen to form carbon monoxide which reduces the ore.
(b) Flux - limestone (CaCO3) is most commonly used ; limestone decomposes to give lime(CaO)
which removes impurities such ash,sulphur and burnt fuel residue.

- Pig iron is obtained from iron ore in the following steps

(i) Concentration - iron ores obtained from mines are broken into pieces and impurities
such as clay,sand etc removed by washing with water.
(ii) Calcination/Roasting - concentrated ore is heated in shallow kilns to remove moisture ,
CO2 , Sulphur etc.
(iii) Smelting – calcined ore is then smelted i.e reduced by carbon monoxide in the presence
of a flux in the blast furnace.

The blast furnace

- is a chimney-like structure made of heavy steel plates lined inside with firebricks to a thickness
of 1.2 to 1.5 meters.
- it is about 30 meters high with a maximum internal diameter of 9 meters at its widest section.

- Shown below is a section of the blast furnace

25
Operation of the blast furnace

- The charge is transferred from the ground level by skip cars travelling on an inclined hoist to
the top of the furnace
- The charge is fed into the furnace from the top through a double cup and cone
arrangement(large and small bell) which prevents escape of gases into the atmosphere while
charging the furnace.
- Fusion zone ( lower part of the furnace)
- heated air under pressure from special heaters(blast stoves) is forced into the
furnace through tuyere’s(blowing pipes)
- Oxygen in the hot air blast combines with carbon in coke to form carbon dioxide
producing a lot of heat.
- Porous iron slinding down from above melts.
26
- Heat absortion zone ( middle part of the furnace)
- carbon dioxide rising up is reduced to carbon monoxide by the coke
- limestone sliding down decomposes to give lime and carbon dioxide.
- the lime combines with silica to form calcium silicate (slag)

- Reduction zone(upper part of the furnace)

- iron oxide ore is reduced to spongy(porous) iron by carbon monoxide
- Hearth (bottom of the furnace)
- molten iron sinks while above it the slag floats protecting it from oxidation.

- The slag is tapped off at intervals of 2-3 hours while the iron(pig iron) is drawn off at intervals of
of 4-6 hours and is either poured into sand moulds to solidify or taken directly to steel making
industry to be converted to steel.

- Pig iron contains 90-92% iron , 1-5% carbon ,1-2% silicon ,1-2%manganese and 1-2% sulphur and
phosphorous.

STEEL
- Methods of production include :-

(i) Open Hearth process

- Furnace is of reverberatory type i.e the charge is heated by heat reflected from the roof of the
furnace .It has chambers on either side which are partly filled with built-up rows of checker-
work(evenly spaced) of silicon bricks

27
- The charge consists of either iron ore and pig iron or scrap and pig iron
- The pre-heated gaseous fuel (coal gas and air) is conveyed to the hearth through the chamber
on one side and the waste hot gases made to pass to the other chamber to heat the bricks and
the direction then reversed.
- Refining of the metal is effected by the oxidation of the excess quantities of
impurities(silicon,manganese,phosphorous) which passes off as slag.
- Carbon escapes in the form of gaseous oxide and when all carbon is removed , a measured
quantity of ferro-manganese is added.

- This process is suitable when a large quantity of mild steel with definite quality and chemical
composition is required as samples of the metal can be taken out from time to time and
tested.

(ii) Bessemer process

- In the first position , molten pig iron is poured into the refractory-lined egg-shaped vessel called
converter until the level of the blast holes.
- In the second position , the converter is turned upright and cold air under pressure blown
through the molten pig iron until elements like silicon , manganese , carbon are removed.
- Due to heat of molten pig iron ,the air burns out most of the impurities.
- First silicon and manganese burns out as indicated by a brown smoke at the mouth of the
converter .Carbon then oxidizes as indicated by a white flame.

28
- When the white flame drops indicating the end of the refining process ,the contents are poured
into a ladle and a small quantity of an alloy rich in carbon and manganese (ferromanganese) is
added.
- The manganese combines with any remaining sulphur and picks up some of the oxygen leaving a
steel with good strength and ductility.
- The carbon is in the right percentage for the required type of steel e.g mild steel,high carbon
steel etc .

- Disadvantages – the air blast contains only 20% oxygen for the refining process and much heat
is carried away by the 80% nitrogen which may lead to the furnace ‘blowing
cold’
- some nitrogen may be dissolved in the charge resulting in poor mechanical
properties for deep drawn mild steel

(iii) L – D Process (Basic Oxygen process)

- in this process , a jet of very pure oxygen is introduced at a high pressure through a nozzle in a
lance suspended above the molten pig iron in a pear-shaped converter that is refractory-lined.
- On striking the molten iron , the oxygen steam produces intense heat(25000c-30000c) which
burns impurities(carbon ,silicon ,manganese ,phosphorous and sulphur)
- The blow is continued for about 18 minutes and after the flame has died out ,the slag is run out
first and adjustment made to the carbon content of the charge and then poured into ladles
before being cast into ingots(blocks of steel)

- Advantages - steel produced is superior to that produced by the Bessemer process

- the basic oxygen process is the only process where sulphur is effectively
reduced under oxidizing conditions

29
 (iv) Electric processes
- Methods include

(a) Direct arc electric furnace

- Consists of a refractory-lined cylindrical steel shell mounted on a roller with bowl-shaped

bottom and a dome-shaped fire-brick cover.
- Electrodes of graphite or amorphous carbon are suspended through the roof and can be raised
or lowered to attain the desired temperature by varying the distance between the charge and
electrodes

- Lime and millscale are added to produce a slag which removes most of carbon ,silicon
manganese , and phosphorous.
- The slag is run off and replaced with a slag containing lime and anthracite which removes
sulphur.
- Ferromanganese is then added to supply desired carbon percentage and if alloy steel is
required, alloying elements are added allowing for half an hour before tapping for proper mixing
of the elements.

30
 (b) Coreless Induction type furnace

- Consists of a crucible lined with acid or basic refractory and surrounded by a water-cooled
copper tube coil which acts as the primary for the high frequency.

- When the metallic charge is placed in the crucible and the high frequency supplied to the copper
tube coil , a magnetic field is set up around the primary coil which induces eddy currents in the
secondary circuit(crucible with metal charge).The eddy currents quickly melts the metal.
- This furnace is mainly for melting a charge of carefully selected materials without much change
in composition.

- Advantages of the electric process – easily operated with cold charges

- generation of heat in furnace is perfectly under control
- cleanest process as electricity does not contaminate
charge
- control over addition of oxidizing ,reducing or alloying
elements is possible

31
 CAST IRON

- Cast iron is obtained by re-melting pig iron with coke and limestone in a cupola furnace to
refine it

- Air is blown through

tuyeres placed regularly round the circumference of the furnace near the bottom.
- The limestone combines with impurities left in pig iron and the molten iron obtained is
called cast iron that is cast into moulds or into the desired shape.

PRODUCTION OF NON-FERROUS METALS

ALUMINUM
- Chief ore is bauxite(Al203 .2H2O)
- Ore is first purified and then dissolved in molten cryolite(AlF3.3NaF)
- Aluminum is separated from the solution by electrolysis at 9000c .

32
- When electric current(D.C) passes , Aluminum ions (+ve) are attracted to the lining of furnace
(cathode) and collect at the bottom.
- Oxygen is given off at the anodes which burns and needs to be replaced frequently.

COPPER
- Chief ore is copper pyrites (CuFeS2)
- Ore is concentrated , calcined and then smelted in a blast furnace resulting in molten copper
sulphide known as Matte.
- Charging materials in the blast furnace are ore , silica(sand) and coke.
- The matte is oxidized in a Bessemer converter to obtain Blister Copper (contains some iron)
- Blister copper is then refined in a current of air in a reverberatory furnace treated with coal and
stirred with a green pole to obtain Crude Copper.
- Crude copper is remelted in a furnace to obtain Tough Pitch Copper (contains some copper
oxide)
- Addition of a small amount of phosphorous to tough pitch copper just before casting results in
Deoxidized Copper which is suitable for welding but not for electrical conductivity.

- Pure copper also known as Cathode Copper is obtained from crude copper by electrolysis
(illustrated below)

33
 - Oxygen Free High Conductivity Copper (OFHC Copper) is obtained from cathode copper by
melting it , casting ,rolling and drawing to wire.

MAGNESIUM
- Principle ores ; dolomite(CaCo3.MgCO3) , magnesite(MgCO3)
- Obtained by electrolysis in an airtight vessel the walls of which is cathode(-ve)
- The vessel has a hooded graphite anode from which chlorine gas escapes and collected.
- The electrolyte is a mixture of chlorides of sodium(Na) , potassium(K) , magnesium(Mg).
- Magnesium is liberated at the cathode and rises to the top where it is tapped.

ZINC
- Chief ore ; zinc blende (zinc sulphide)
- The ore is roasted in a reverberatory furnace to convert zinc sulphide (ZnS) to zinc oxide (ZnO)
- ZnO is mixed with some form of carbon , put in clay enclosures with outlets and then put in a
furnace at 11000c
- Zinc distils and is collected outside the furnace through the outlets in the clay enclosures.

NICKEL
- Chief ore ; iron sulphides with 3% nickel
- The ore is roasted to reduce sulphur and then smelted in a blast furnace resulting in a matte
- The matte is put in Bessemer converter to oxidize iron
- Siliceous flux (limestone and quartz) is added to combine with iron oxide to form a slag.
LEAD
- Chief ore ; lead sulphide (PbS)
- The ore is concentrated and then smelted in a reverberatory furnace in controlled air supply so
that only a part of the ore is converted to lead oxide and sulphate.
- Air is then cut off and the temperature raised to red heat and a little lime(CaO) and lead
sulphide added.
- Lead oxide and sulphate react with lead sulphide to give metallic lead.
34
 CARBON STEELS
- Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with the carbon content from 0.06% to a maximum of 1.5%.
Carbon is present either in free form or in the form of iron carbide. Iron carbide increases the
hardness and strength of the steel.
- Other elements are also present in steel though not intentionally added and do not affect
properties as significantly as carbon does.
- These elements include
(i) Silicon - added to low carbon steels to prevent them from becoming porous . It
removes gases and oxides and prevent blow holes thereby making the steel tougher and
harder.
(ii) Sulphur - combines with iron to form iron sulphide which causes red shortness :-a
form of brittleness occurring in steel when formed at low temperatures.
(iii) Manganese - combines with sulphur to reduce its harmful effect.
(iv) Phosphorous – makes the steel brittle and should not exceed 0.25%
- Most of the steel produced are plain carbon steels or carbon steels and are divided into the
following types depending upon the carbon content
a. Dead mild steel – upto 0.15% carbon
b. Low carbon steel or mild steel – 0.15% to 0.45% carbon
c. Medium carbon steel – 0.45% to 0.8% carbon
d. High carbon steel – 0.8% to 1.5% carbon
- Properties – (i) Low Carbon Steels – are the most ductile and weakest of the carbon steels.
- are not are not responsive to heating and quenching and
are only strengthened by cold work.
(ii) Medium Carbon Steels – can be hardened by heat treatment as they contain
enough carbon.
(iii) High Carbon Steels –are the hardest and strongest but least ductile of the steels
-respond best to heat treatment.
-are not readily welded as welding causes localized hardening
and loss of ductility.
- Applications – (i) Low Carbon Steels – automobile body parts requiring great ductility and good
ductility.
- used in large amounts for tin cans
- used for structural members such as I- beams.
- other applications include nails, chains, rivets, screws etc
(ii) Medium Carbon Steels – used for railroad rails and wheels
-connecting rods, steering rods and crankshafts
- other applications include gears,wire ropes, axles etc
(iii) High Carbon Steels -used for agricultural cutting tools, high tensile strength
wire and springs
-other applications include screwdrivers, saws,
hammers,wrenches, dies, cold chisels, punches etc

35
 - Steel produced by various cold working processes is known as Bright Steel.It has a clean and
smooth surface and possess close dimensional accuracy and may be used directly in assemblies.

- Free – Cutting Steels (Free Machining Steels) -contain sulphur and phosphorous in higher
content than other carbon steels. They are used where rapid machining and high quality
surface finish is the most important requirement.

Structure of plain carbon steels

-Pure iron is a polymorphic element appearing in more than one crystal form

-It has a b.c.c structure upto 9100c called α –iron. Above 9100c , its structure changes to an f.c.c
structure called γ – iron. Upon heating to 14040c structure changes to a b.c.c structure called δ –iron
which has longer cube edges than α –iron and is stable upto 15390c ; the melting point of iron ........... ( α
– alpha , γ - gamma , δ – delta )

Shown below is the heating curve of pure iron.

-Addition of carbon in iron causes the change in structure from b . c. c to f . c . c to occur over
temperature range (not at a constant temperature) during which time structure is a mixture of ferrite
and austenite (α + γ)
36
α –iron can only dissolve in solid solution a maximum of 0.02%c at a temperature of 7230c. γ – iron
dissolves in solid solution a maximum of 2.08%c at a temperature of 11300c.

The solubility limits decrease with decrease in temperature as shown in the Iron – Carbon equilibrium
diagram shown below. The time it takes for change in structure is not shown on the equilibrium
diagram.eg changes in structure for pure iron are shown on the vertical axis i.e 0%Carbon

Note : When the solubility limit is exceeded , an intermetallic compound called iron carbide (Fe3c) or
cementite is formed.

- Ferrite - Its an interstitial solid solution of carbon in α –iron

- has a b . c . c structure
- has a maximum solid solubility of carbon of 0.02%c
-Austenite - its an interstitial solid solution of carbon in γ – iron
- has an f . c . c crystal structure
- has a maximum solid solubility of carbon of 2.08%c
37
- Cementite - it’s the intermetallic compound iron carbide (Fe3c) and contains 6.67%c

The horizontal line at 7230c represents a eutectoid reaction and any austenite present in alloy during
cooling transforms at that constant temperature into a fine eutectoid mixture (in this case, the mixture
is of ferrite and cementite called pearlite)

Pearlite - it’s a eutectoid mixture of ferrite and cementite formed during cooling at 7230c. It consists
of alternate layers of ferrite and cementite.

-This eutectoid reaction is written as

-The horizontal line at 11300c represents a eutectic reaction and any liquid present in an alloy during
cooling transforms into a fine eutectic mixture (in this case , a eutectic mixture of austenite and
cementite known as ledeburite

-This eutectic reaction is written as

-The region of the diagram in which δ – ferrite is not important because these temperatures are not
employed in various mechanical or heat treatment processes

38
-On the basis of carbon content , the diagram can be divided into those alloys containing less
than 2% carbon known as steels and those steels containing more than 2% carbon known as cast irons
The steel portion is further divided into steels containing less than 0.8% carbon known as
hypoeutectoid steels and those containing more than 0.8% carbon known as hypereutectoid steels

Slow cooling of steels

- Consider the slow cooling of a hypoeutectoid steel i.e steel with less than 0.8% carbon
- Diagram below shows a portion of the Iron – Carbon equilibrium diagram showing the changes
in structure that occur when a hypoeutectoid steel is slowly cooled.

39
- Point 1 - steel contains homogeneous austenite ( γ solid solution)

- Point 2 –crystals of ferrite (α solid solution) begin forming at the grain boundaries of
austenite
- Point 2 - 3 –ferrite continues growing at the austenite boundaries
- Point 3 - remaining austenite transform into pearlite at the constant temp. of 7230c
- Pearlite is stable up to room temperature & final microstructure is pearlite
surrounded by ferrite.

- Consider now the slow cooling of a hypereutectoid steel i.e steel with more than 0.8%carbon
- Diagram below shows a portion of the Iron – Carbon equilibrium diagram showing the changes
in structure that occur when a hypereutectoid steel is slowly cooled.

40
 - Point 4 - structure is homogeneous austenite i.e uniform γ solid solution
- Point 5 – cementite , (fe3c) begins to form at the austenite grain boundaries
- Point 5- 6 – cementite continues growing at the austenite grain boundaries
- Point 6 – remaining austenite transforms at the constant temperature of 7230c into
Pearlite which is stable upto room temperature.

A eutectoid steel (steel with 0.8% carbon ) transforms at 7230c from homogeneous austenite into
100% pearlite when slowly cooled

41
 HEAT TREATMENT
-Heat treatment

- an operation or a combination of operations involving the heating or cooling of a metal or metal

alloy in the solid state for the purpose of obtaining certain desirable conditions or properties

- the aim of heat treatment is to achieve one or more of the following objectives

(i) to increase the hardness of metals

(ii) to relieve the internal stresses set up in the material after hot or cold working

(iii) to improve machinability

(iv) to soften the metal

(v) to change grain size

(iv) to improve mechanical properties like tensile strength , shock resistance etc

(vi) to increase the qualities of a metal to provide better resistance to heat, corrosion and

wear.

- Common heat treatment processes are:

1. Annealing
2. Normalizing
3. Hardening
4. Tempering
5. Case hardening

Heat treatment of Plain Carbon steels (processes)

1. Annealing a) objectives

• Softens steel so that it may be machined or cold worked

• Refines grain size to improve mechanical properties
• Relieve internal stresses due to cold working

Types of annealing

(i) Full annealing a) objectives

• Soften metal
• Refine grain structure (fine grained material have better mechanical properties e.g toughness)
• Relieve internal stresses in metal
• Remove trapped gas in metal

42
 b) Procedure

I. Heat the steel 250c above the upper critical temp. for hypoeutectoid steels or 250c above the
lower critical temperature for hypereutectoid steels ( hatched area in the diagram below
showing a section of the Iron – Carbon equilibrium diagram)

II. Hold at that temperature( 3 to 4 minutes for each mm of thickness) to allow for internal
changes to take place (uniform austenite)
III. Cool slowly in furnace. ( switch power off)

(ii) Spherodise annealing

N.B : Slow cooling during annealing produces pearlite in ferrite network for hypoeutectoid steels
and pearlite in cementite network for hypereutectoid steels

a) objectives of spherodise annealing

• Improves machinability of hypereutectoid steels that have been annealed { the hard and brittle
cementite network is broken into spheroidal graphite(rounded) }

b) Procedure

I. Heat to a temperature just below the critical temp.(650-7000c)

(hatched area in the diagram below showing a section of the Iron – Carbon equilibrium diagram)
43
 II. Hold at that temperature for a prolonged time (24 hrs.)
III. Cool slowly in furnace

(iii) Process annealing (a) objectives

• Causes recrystallization in low carbon steels [0.3%c] that have been severely cold worked.eg.in
sheet metal or wire industries
• Increases ductility and plasticity

b) Procedure

- Heat the steel to a temp below the lower critical temp (550-6500c)
(hatched area in the diagram below showing a section of the Iron – Carbon equilibrium diagram)

44
 I. Hold at this temperature for sometime
II. Cool slowly ( in furnace)

2. Normalizing a)objectives

• Produces a uniform structure that is harder and stronger than that of annealing.
• Improves machinability
• Refine grain structure

b) Procedure

I. Heat 400 above the upper critical temp for both hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels
(hatched area in the diagram below showing a section of the Iron – Carbon equilibrium diagram)

45
 II. Hold for the desired time
III. Cool in still air.
• Cooling in air produces less ferrite in hypoeutectoid steel and less cementite in hypereutectoid
steel
•

3. Hardening a) objectives

• Increase hardness of metal for it to resist wear.

• Enable the metal to cut other metals; as a cutting tool

b) Procedure

I. Heat metal 30-500c above the upper critical temperature for hypoeutectoid steels and 30-500c
above the lower critical temp for hypereutectoid steels.
(30-500c approximates to 7600c for hypereutectoid steels)
(hatched area in the diagram below showing a section of the Iron – Carbon equilibrium
diagram)

46
 II. Hold at that temperature depending on thickness
III. Quench ( cooling suddenly) in suitable medium usually water

Note: Due to fast cooling, structure becomes martensite

Martensite ; is a super saturated solid solution of carbon in a body centered tetragonal structure and
is responsible for high hardness in hardened steel but the steel is brittle and lacks ductility and may
crack due to stress of uneven cooling of interior and surfaces.

angles between a , b and c = 90 0c

Body Centred Tetragonal (B.C.T) structure

47
4. Tempering a) objectives

• Reduce brittleness of hardened steel and increases ductility

• Removes the internal stresses caused by rapid cooling during hardening process thus
preventing cracking and distortion
• Toughen steel for it to resist shock and fatigue

b) Procedure

Immediately after quenching , reheat the hardened steel to some temperature below the lower critical
temp followed by any rate of cooling

Note: avoid prolonged holding at tempering temp to avoid loss of hardness.

5. Case hardening (surface hardening)

a) objectives

• Produce a steel with a hardened surface (case) that resists wear and tear and a tough and soft
interior(core) that absorbs shock

b) Applications

Gears, ball bearings, rail wheels, slideways etc

c) Methods of case hardening

(A) Carburizing – involves addition of carbon to the surface of low carbon (0.2%c) steel so that only the
surface with higher carbon content will be hardened.

-The low carbon steel is heated at temp. of 900-9500c in an atmosphere containing carbon monoxide

- Types of carburizing methods include

I. Pack carburizing (Carburizing in solid medium)

Procedure
- Steel is surrounded by a carburizing compound and heated to the right temperature, for the
required time and then cooled slowly
N.B
- carburizing compound cosists of hardwood charcoal, coke and 20% barium carbonate as an
energizer
- the closed container ensures for formation of carbon monoxide
- the right temperature is 900-9500c
- cooling slowly is because its not possible to remove steel from the box immediately for quenching
the surface to form martensite.

- -Further treatment to harden surface involves two steps:

48
 Refining the core (interior)
• Due to slow cooling, the interior becomes coarse (large grains)
• To refine core, component is heated to a temperature above the upper critical temperature and
then quenched

Refining the case (surface)

• During refining core, surface becomes coarse

• To refine surface, steel is heated to 7600c and then quenched. N.B 7600C is for hypereutectoid
steel and only surface has enough carbon content for hardening

Advantages of pack carburizing

➢ Does not require prepared atmosphere (with carbon monoxide)

➢ Economical for small parts ( in lots) or large parts

Disadvantages of pack carburizing

➢ Difficult to control surface carbon content

➢ Parts cannot be quenched directly
➢ Time is wasted in heating and cooling

II. Gas carburizing (Carburizing in gaseous medium)

- Steel is heated at 900-9500c in the furnace (may also be continuous line production) in contact with
carbon monoxide and/ or a hydrocarbon (methane, propane etc), held for the required time and
then quenched.
- Advantages
• Allows quicker handling by direct quenching
• Lower cost
• Cleaner surroundings
• Closer quality control
• Greater flexibility

III. Liquid carburizing (carburizing in liquid medium)

- Steel is placed in a bath (tank furnace) of molten cyanide salt (usually Sodium Cyanide- NaCN),
heated to 900-9500c (carburizing temp), held for the necessary time and then quenched.
- Advantages
• Freedom from oxidation and sooting problems
• Direct quenching
• Uniform case depth and carbon content
• Rapid rate of carbon absorption

-Disadvantages

• Parts must be thoroughly washed after treatment to prevent corrosion (rusting)

49
 • Regular checking and adjustment of bath composition is required as carbon is being absorbed in
metal
• Cyanide is poisonous and extreme care is required
• Some parts are difficult to handle as they float

(B) Cyaniding and carbonitriding

- Produces cases that contain both carbon and nitrogen

- Lower temps (8500c instead of 900-9500c) allows more nitrogen to be absorbed in the case
- Presence of nitrogen in austenite makes it stable at lower temperatures and permits slower
cooling rates during quenching and distortion is avoided

- Cyaniding is similar to liquid carburizing except for the difference in temp (8500c) and
composition of the liquid salt bath (concentration)

Carbonitriding is similar to gas carburizing but atmosphere in furnace contains a mixture of:
➢ Carrier gas; mixture of nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon monoxide
➢ Enriching gas; propane or natural gas- source for carbon
➢ Ammonia- source for nitrogen

Applications: screws, small gears, nuts and bolts

Advantages and disadvantages are the same as those of liquid and gas carburizing.

(C) Nitriding

➢ Process for case hardening alloy steel that contain alloying elements that form nitrides eg.
Aluminum, Chromium, Molybdenum
➢ Finished Steel articles are placed in airtight container made of high nickel-chromium steel which
has inlet and outlet tubes for ammonia and placed in an electric furnace at 450-5500c for 40-
90hrs
➢ Ammonia breaks down and reacts with surface of articles to form nitrides.

Advantages of nitriding
• Quenching is not required to form the very hard nitrided surfaces
• Nitrided surfaces are not affected by heating to temps. below original nitriding temps.
(Carburized parts begin to loose hardness at much lower temps. than the hardening
temperatures of 7600c)
• Good wear resistance
• Good fatigue resistance
➢ Disadvantages
• Long cycles required
• Use of alloy steel
50
 • High cost of ammonia atmosphere
• Technical control required
- Applications ; aircraft engine parts such as cylinder liners, shafts, piston rods, cams etc.

(D) Flame hardening

- Surface of a steel part whose carbon content enables the steel to be hardenable throughout is heated
by an oxyacetylene torch and is immediately quenched by a jet of water from a supply built into the
torch assembly so that only the surface is hardened.

- Advantages

• Equipment can be taken to the job and adjusted to treat specific areas
• Parts too large for the furnace can be handled easily and quickly
• Components can be treated after surface finish as there is little scaling or distortion.

Disadvantages

• Possibility of overheating
• Difficulty in producing thin hardened zones (necessary for best properties for a case hardened
surface)

Applications: Slideways, precision gears, shafts, rolls, wrenches etc

(E) Induction hardening

- Surface to be hardened is surrounded by an inductor coil which carries high frequency

alternating current. A high magnetic field is set up which induces high frequency eddy currents
in the metal. Heating at only the surface of metal results from resistance of the metal to the
passage of these currents.
- To avoid conduction of heat into the steel from the surface, provision for rapid quenching must
be made as the carbon content of the steel is uniform throughout and steel may be hardened
throughout.
- Advantages
• Less distortion
• Equipment can be fitted directly into production line
• Unskilled labour can be used as process is automatic
• Less heating time
- Disadvantages
• High cost of equipment
• High maintenance cost
• Not economical for small parts or irregular parts
- Applications
➢ Piston rods, pump shafts, spur gears, cam shafts, brake drums.

51
 ALLOY STEELS
- When carbon is present as iron carbide in plain carbon steels (carbon steels) it increases the
strength and hardness of steels.
- But steels have some limitations .The steels:
i. Are not deep hardenable
ii. Fast quench rates are necessary to attain fully martensitic structure
iii. Have poor corrosion resistance
iv. Have low impact strength at high and low temperature
v. Their strength may not exceed 100,000 psi without loss in ductility
- The limitations are overcomed by use of alloying elements

- Alloy steels; steels whose properties are due to some other element other than carbon.

- Effects of alloying elements in alloy steels

➢ Lower critical temperatures eg. Nickel(Ni) and Manganese(Mn). Note: Sufficient amounts of
Ni and Mn may lower critical temperatures enough to make austenite stable at room
temperatures and are called austenite stabilizers.
➢ Raise critical temps eg. Molybdenum(Mo),Aluminum( Al), Silicon(Si), Tungsten(
W),Vanadium(V)
➢ Enlarge ferrite region and contract the austenite region and are known as ferrite stabilizers
eg. Mo,Chromium(Cr), Si,Titanium( Ti)
➢ Reduce eutectoid carbon content
➢ Dissolve in ferrite thus strengthening and toughening it. Eg. Ni, Mn, small amounts of Cr or
Mn
➢ Improve hardenability by forming carbides which dissolve in austenite before quenching eg.
Cr, W, Mo, V
➢ Retard softening rate during tempering eg. Cr, W, Mo, V

Types of alloy steels

a) Construction steels
- For machine parts that are highly stressed.
- Include

i) Nickel steels
- Nickel - dissolves in ferrite thus strengthening it and toughening it
- lowers critical temperature thus stabilizing austenite at lower temperatures
- reduces eutectoid carbon content resulting in more pearlite which is stronger.

- Applications ; bus and truck gears, cams and cam shafts, drive gears, connecting rods, bolts
and studs.

ii) Chromium steels

- Small amounts of Cr dissolve in ferrite thus toughening and strengthening the steel
52
 - Higher amounts of Cr increases hardness and wear resistance by forming carbides.
- Applications; Springs , engine bolts, studs, axles, ball and roller bearings, permanent
magnets
iii) Nickel-chromium steels
- Effects of Ni (toughness and ductility) are combined with effects of Cr (hardenability and
wear resistance) but these steels suffer from temper brittleness :- brittleness resulting from
holding or cooling slowly from the tempering temperature.
- Applications; Automotive connecting rods and drive shafts.
iv) Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels
- 0.3%Mo eliminates temper brittleness in Ni-Cr steels
- Mo imparts high hardenability
- Applications; Aircraft structural parts :- wing assembly, fuselage, landing gear

b) Heat resisting steels

- Resisting creep and oxidation at high temperatures and retain sufficient strength

- Addition of Chromium, small amount of Silicon increase resistance to oxidation by forming a thin
impermeable surface layer of oxide.

- Small amounts of tungsten, titanium or columbium increase strength at high temperatures by

forming stable carbides

- Applications; exhaust valves for internal combustion engines, conveyor chains in furnaces,
annealing boxes, rotors for steam and gas turbines.

c) Corrosion resistant steels (stainless steels)

- Have high chromium content (at least 12%Cr to make them ‘stainless’) which forms a thin protective
oxide film.

- Types include:

i) Ferritic stainless steels

- Contain 14-27%Cr and less than 0.12%C.

- Cr is a ferrite stabilizer (expands the ferrite region) and these steels do not undergo the ferrite to
austenite transformation and are thus not heat treatable as they remain ferritic

- Properties; Can be cold worked or hot worked, easily cold formed, magnetic, soft, ductile, good
corrosion resistance

- Applications- Deep drawn parts such as vessels for chemical and food industries, architectural and
automobile trim, annealing boxes, quenching racks, automobile exhaust systems, restaurant equipment,
furnace parts

53
ii) Martensitic stainless steels

- Contain 14 to 18%Cr and 0.1 to 1% C

- Carbon in an austenite stabilizer and therefore enlarges the austenite region making the
steel heat treatable forming a martensitic structure.
- Properties; Magnetic, can be cold worked, easily welded and machined, good toughness,
easily hot worked
- Applications; cutlery, surgical and dental instruments, instrument bearings,
nozzles,scissors, steam turbine blades

(iii) Austenitic stainless steels

- These are Chromium-Nickel or Chromium-Nickel-Manganese steels (combination of Cr and

Ni should be not less than 23%)
- Ni and Mn are austenite stabilizers and in 18/8 steels (18% Cr 8% Ni) structure is austenitic
at room temperature and therefore not heat treatable.
- Properties; Readily hot worked, can be cold worked, extremely shock resistant, difficult to
machine, have best high temperature strength and resistance to oxidation among stainless
steels.
- These steels are prone to intergranular corrosion :- precipitation of chromium carbides at
the grain boundaries when alloy is slowly cooled through 10500c. The precipitates cause
chromium percentage in areas next to grain boundaries to fall below 12% necessary for
corrosion resistances
- Intergranular corrosion avoided by
➢ Lowering carbon content
➢ Cooling rapidly
➢ Painting
➢ Addition of titanium or Columbium(forms carbides at higher temperatures than
chromium)
- Weld decay in stainless steels- a form of intergranular corrosion occurring in welded
stainless steels . Occurs when Chromium carbides are precipitated at grain boundaries in
areas on either side of the weld where the temperature is at 10500c
Weld decay is avoided by the above methods except cooling rapidly

- Applications of austenitic stainless steels; Dye tanks, food processing equipment, turbines,
heat exchangers, oven lining, furnace parts

54
 CAST IRONS
- Are alloys of iron and carbon; contain more carbon than the maximum solid solubility of
carbon in austenite (2.08%c) but high carbon content makes cast iron brittle hence carbon
is limited to 2.5 to 4%c
- Also contain1-3% Silicon .
Effects of elements in cast iron
➢Silicon :-causes formation of free carbon (graphite) in cast iron which makes it soft and
easily machinable
:- produces sound cast iron free from blow holes -----> it has high affinity for oxygen
➢Sulphur: Is a carbide stabilizer and makes cast iron hard and brittle and is kept at 0.1%,
➢ Manganese: Is a carbide stabilizer . it Combines with Sulphur to neutralize its carbide
stabilizing effect
➢Phosphorous: Aids in fusibility but induces brittleness and should not exceed 1%
- Cast irons are called cast irons as they are intended to be cast to the desired shape rather
than being worked in the solid state; they melt easily and can be cast into complicated
shapes and are cheap.
- Carbon content, alloy and impurity content, cooling rate during and after solidification
and heat treatment after casting determine the type of cast iron, in which carbon is in the
form of cementite (iron carbide-Fe3C) or in form of free carbon (graphite).
- Cast iron is obtained by re-melting pig iron with coke and limestone in a cupola furnace to
refine it

- Air is blown through

tuyeres placed regularly
round the circumference
of the furnace near the
bottom.
- The limestone
combines with impurities
left in pig iron and the
molten iron obtained is
called cast iron that is
cast into moulds.

55
 Types of cast irons include

(i) White Cast Iron

- Due to fast cooling, all carbon is in the combined form of cementite and cast iron structure consists of
pearlite and cementite.

Structure of white cast iron

-consists of pearlite in a cementite matrix (matrix – continuous network)

- Properties: Due to massive cementite network, they are hard, brittle, wear resistant non-
machinable but they have good fluidity and good compressive strength
- Application; Drawing and extrusion dies, rolls, liners for cement mixers, agricultural
implements, raw materials for malleable cast iron.
- Called white cast iron as its fracture is whitish in appearance due to the cementite.

(ii) Gray cast iron

- Called gray cast iron as fracture surface appearance has a grey sootish appearance due to
the carbon being in the free form of graphite which is in the form of flakes (flat sheet like)
- High silicon content promotes graphitization process :
Fe3C→3Fe +C (graphite)
- Structure of gray cast iron : consists of either graphite flakes in a ferritic matrix or graphite
flakes in a pearlitic matrix depending on cooling rate

56
 - More Manganese than that required to combine with Sulphur is added to the cast iron melt
if pearlite structure is required.
- Properties
1. Brittle- due to flakes cutting across grains leading to low tensile strength
2. Good damping capacity (ability to absorb energy caused by vibrations)- due to free
graphite
3. Good machinability- due to presence of graphite
4. Wear resistance- graphite has a lubricating effect and oil is retained in graphite
areas
5. Good fluidity
6. Castability
- Applications
➢ Piston bore and rings, slideways, brake drums ------ →due to wear resistance
➢ Gear covers, cylinder blocks and heads ―> due to damping capacity
➢ Furnace doors, motor frames, sewer covers, pump housing, lift counterweights,
guards of machines etc.

(iii) Ductile cast iron

- Made by adding special alloy called inoculants (eg Magnesium) to the molten iron which
disrupts the effect of Sulphur of restricting growth of graphite
- Graphite grows in form of nodules or spherical particles which do not interrupt the grain
structure leading to lack of brittleness and good ductility

Structure of ductile cast iron

- Consists of either graphite nodules in a ferritic matrix or in a pearlitic matrix

- Properties; Good fluidity, castability, excellent machinability, good wear resistance, high
strength, toughness, ductility, hot workability, hardenability.
- Applications; Pump bodies, crank shafts, pistons, gears, rollers, slides, clamp frames, chuck
bodies, furnace doors, cylinder heads etc.

57
(iv) Malleable Cast Iron

- Obtained from annealing heat treatment of white cast iron which converts it to a more
malleable and tough structure with graphite nodules that are irregular in shape.
- Matrix (continuous phase) is either ferritic or pearlitic

- Applications; Iron grillwork, railroads, gear cases, chain links, auto hinges

(v) Alloy Cast Iron

- Contains other alloying elements to improve properties such as heat, corrosion, wear and
wear resistances.

- Effects of alloying elements include

a) Chromium (Cr) :- is carbide stabilizer added in small amounts for increase in strength,
hardness, resistance to wear and heat but decrease machinability
b) Copper (Cu) :- is a graphite stabilizer that breaks cementite matrix
c) Molybdenum (Mo) :- is a mild carbide stabilizer; improves fatigue and tensile strength,
heat resistance, hardness and machinability.
d) Vanadium(V) :- strong carbide stabilizer that increases tensile strength, hardness, heat
resistance and machinability
e) Nickel(Ni) :- Graphite stabilizer that slows transformation of austenite thus stabilizing
pearlite.

- Heat resistance alloy cast iron resist oxidation and high temperature scaling and growth
due to addition of either Silicon, Nickel or Chromium.

- Growth is a permanent increase in volume of cast iron at elevated temps due to the
expansion that accompanies the reaction of carbide changing to graphite and oxidation of
iron after graphite is oxidized away as carbon monoxide.

*Chilled Cast Iron

- Has a white cast iron surface layer (case) that is hard and abrasion resistant and a tougher gray
cast iron interior (core).

- Produced by casting the molten metal against a metal or graphite chill to provide rapid cooling
of solidifying metal.

58
 NON FERROUS ALLOYS.
(A) Alluminium Alloys

- Classified into those that are wrought, cast, heat treatable and non-heat treatable
- Cast alloys are cast from the melt into the required shape.
- Wrought alloys are rolled to sheet, plate or strip, drawn to wire or extruded as tubes.
-Non –heat treatable alloys are strengthened by cold working after which they are annealed to refine
the grain size
- Heat treatable alloys are strengthened by age/ precipitation hardening.
- Precipitation/ age hardening- an increase in hardness and strength accompanied by a decrease in
ductility brought about by precipitation of a constituent from a super saturated solid solution.

- If precipitation hardening occurs slowly at room temperature, it is known as natural aging.

- If precipitation hardening is carried out at an elevated temperature, it occurs with a greater speed and
is known as artificial aging or precipitation heat treatment.

- Precipitation hardenable alloys show a rapid decrease in the solubility of one component in another
with decrease in temperature as shown below in a portion of an equilibrium diagram

Most widely used Aluminum alloys include;

59
(i) Wrought Aluminum alloys that are heat treatable

- Best known is of the duralumin type based on 4% Copper

Section of the Al – Cu equilibrium diagram

- Consider the slow cooling of a Al – 4%cu alloy

Point A - Alloy is uniform α- solid solution with 4% Cu

Point B - on slow cooling, precipitates of CuAl2 begin to form at the grain boundaries.

Point C - Most of the Copper is in the form of CuAl2 at the grain boundaries, leaving only 0.2% Cu in

solid solution making alloy brittle and lacking strength.

Precipitation hardening is obtained by:

1. Solution treatment- alloy is heated into the single phase region, held at this temperature until
structure is uniform solid solution.
2. Quenching to room temperature- Copper is retained in super saturated solid solution at room
temp. resulting in an increase in strength.
3. Aging- either natural or artificial; fine CuAl2 precipitates form within crystal lattice resulting in a

further increase in strength.

60
The original Duralumin with 4% Cu, 0.8%Mg, 0.5%Si and 0.7% Mn has high strength and light
weight and is used for stressed aircraft parts . After solution treatment, it is refrigerated to
prevent aging so that if used for rivets, rivet heads may be easily formed.
Other wrought aluminum alloys that are heat treatable contain small amounts of Magnesium
and Silicon that form Mg2Si precipitates.
(ii) Cast Aluminum alloys that are not heat treatable
Most widely used contain 10-13% Silicon.
Silicon improves gas tightness (no absorbed gases), fluidity of castings, reduces shrinkage and
imparts excellent feeding characteristic (filling up of mould cavity)
A section of Al-Si phase diagram

These alloys are approximately eutectic (ie solidify at a constant temperature) making them suitable for
die casting where rapid ejection is desirable. ( note : sand mould is broken up to remove casting)

Eutectic structure of Al-Si casting alloys is coarse but can be refined by Sodium modification; addition of
a small amount of sodium (0.025%) just before casting.

Applications; radiators, gear boxes.

61
B. Copper Alloys

Mechanical properties of copper are improved by solid solution strengthening ie by alloying, in this case
with Zinc(Zn), Tin(Sn), Aliminum or Nickel

Copper-Beryllium(Cu – Be) alloys can be precipitation hardened like Al-Cu alloys.

Most have high solid solubility as shown below in the equilibrium diagrams, with large areas having the
α- solid solution

Note :

The α- solid solution is a tough, ductile phase and these alloys are not heat treatable as they do not
undergo change in structure in solid state and are cold working alloys.

Some alloys with duplex structures (two phases) are also useful and are hot working alloys and can be
heat treated in the same way as steels.

62
Copper alloys include:

1. Brasses – alloys of copper and zinc cointaining upto 45% Zn

Properties;

➢ high resistance to atmospheric corrosion

➢ easily soldered
➢ easily fabricated
➢ sufficient thermal conductivity for heat transfer.
➢ Can be electroplated with metals like Nickel and Chromium.

Types of brasses include:

a) α-brasses- containing upto 37% Zn include:

(i) Gilding metal (90% Cu 10% Zn) annealed

Used for imitation jewellery (coins, medals, tokens, emblems) on account of its gold-like colour
(ii) Catridge brass (70% Cu 30%Zn) annealed
Have best combination of strengthen and ductility
Used for catridge and shell cases, radiator cores and tanks, locks, hinges, plumbing accessories.
(iii) Standard brass (65% Cu 35% Zn) annealed
Uses as for catridge brass except ammunition i.e catridge and shell cases.

b) α+β brasses
(i) Yelloy or Muntz metal (60% Cu 40% Zn) hot rolled- presence of β phase makes alloy heat
treatable
Used in sheet form for ship sheathing (covering), condenser tubes, brazing rods.
c) Alloy brasses- contain additional alloying elements other than zinc
(i) Leaded or free cutting brass (58% Cu 39% Zn 3%Pb)
Addition of lead improves machinability
Used for screw machine parts, engraving plates keys, lock parts, gears, watch parts.
(ii) Admirability brass or tin brass (71% Cu 28% Zn 1% Sn)
Addition of tin improves sea water corrosion resistance
Used for condenser, evaporator, distiller and heat exchanger tubing.
Small addition of arsenic (0.04%ar) prevents dezincification :- corrosion attack in which Zinc is
corroded leaving a porous residual of copper
Note:α brasses containing more than 15% Zn in the cold worked condition if in contact with a
trace of ammonia in presence of oxygen and moisture are prone to season cracking also known
as stress corrosion cracking :– failure by cracking under the combined action of stress and
corrosion

Methods of preventing season cracking;

➢ Stress relieving
➢ Keep zinc below 15%
➢ Painting
63
2. Bronzes- originally referred to copper- tin alloys but currently refers to other Copper alloys
except Copper-Zinc ie brasses.
-Types include

a) Tin bronzes- Cu-Sn alloys

Sometimes referred as Phosphorbronze as phosphorous is always used as deoxidizer.
α tin bronze (7%Sn max) cold working alloys are tough, ductile, strong and corrosion resistant;
used in manufacture of springs, coins, sheet metal for ornamental work.
α+δ tin bronze (>10% Sn) are unsuitable for cold working and are used as cast; major
application is as bearing materials and gear blanks
Addition of Zn to tin bronze reduces cost and improves casting performance and alloy is known
as gun metal
High lead tin bronze (25% Pb) is used for bushing and bearings under moderate or light loads.

b) Aluminum bronze- Alloys of Cu- Al

- α aluminum bronze are ductile, have good strength and corrosion resistance and are used for
condenser tubes, nuts and bolts, protective sheathing in marine applications.
- The copper (90%) Al (10%) alloy can be heat treated like steels.
- on slow cooling from the β phase region(A), α forms at the grain boundaries(B) and at the
entectoid temperature(C), remaining β transforms into a entectoid of α + γ2 similar to pearlite in
steels. Quenching from the β phase region produces β’ whose appearance is like martensite in
steels.

64
 -
-
-
Heat treated aluminum bronzes are used for gears, propeller blades,
pump parts, bearings,bushings, non-sparking tools, forging dies etc.
c) Cupro-nickels - alloys of Cu – Ni :- contain upto 30% Ni

- Are single phase alloys (α) and are therefore not heat treatable.

- Have high strength, oxidation resistance and corrosion resistance especially to

erosive action of rapidlymoving sea water.

- Used for condenser, distiller, evaporator and heat exchanger tubes for naval
vessels and coastal powerplants.

d) Beryllium-bronze- Cu- be alloys with upto 2% Be

- Strengthened by precipitation treatment as they show a rapid decrease in

solid solubility withdecrease in temperature

- have very high tensile strength

- Used for tools requiring high hardness and non sparking characteristics such
as in gas and chemicalindustries; also used as electrical contacts due to high
electrical conductivity

65
CERAMICS

Ceramics - products made by high temperature firing of natural clay and certain inorganic materials
having non-metallic properties.
Types- i) Traditional ceramics- based on silicate industris where the raw materials are naturally
occuring materials such as clay, silica, feldspar and talc
ii) Engineering ceramics- Include

(a) oxides –e.g Aluminum (alumina) , beryllium(beryllia) , magnesium (magnesia),Thorium (Thoria),

Zirconium (Zirconia).
(b) Carbides ; e.g Boron Carbide, Silicon Carbide, Tungsten Carbide, Chromium Carbide, Zirconium

Carbide.
(c) Nitrides; Boron Nitride (Borazon).

(d) Borides.

(e) Silicates.

Typical uses

➢ Insulation for cold and heat preservation.

➢ Refractory for furnace lining.

➢ Tips for cutting tools eg. Silicon carbide.

➢ Abrasives

➢ Fibre for reinforcement of plastics and optical data transmission.

➢ Glass, porcelain, enamels etc.

Classification;

a) Crystalline ceramics- have simple crystal structure ; Al2O3, MgO, SiC.

b) Amorphous Ceramics - molecules not arranged in regular geometrical shapes (eg fused silica
(SiO2). 66
 - Used for mirrors, optical lenses, fibres for glass reinforced plastics (GRP)
and optical fibres for data transmission.
c) Bonded Ceramics- contain both crystalline and non-crystalline material bonded together by a
glassy matrix after firing.
- Used for electrical insulators, furnace lining, spark plugs etc.

Structure of ceramics

Ceramic are inorganic materials that have structures that are more complicated than structures of

metallic materials eg

➢ The basic structural unit in the silicate, the basis of clay products and most glasses is SiO 4-4

tetrahedron.

➢ The bonds between the oxygen and silicon atoms are known as resonance bonds ie bond appear

to have features of both ionic and covalent bonds

➢ The four oxygen atoms having a shared electron of silicon still lacks an electron to produce a full

valence electron octect which may be possible if the oxygen is shared between two tetrahedra
67
 leading to formation of large three dimensional structures (SiO2)

➢ If the tetrahedra are arranged in a regular orderly manner, the substance is known as quartz.

➢ If the tetrahedra are arranged in a more random fashion, the material is known as silica glass,

fused silica or vitreous silica.

➢ The electronic requirements of the oxygen atoms can be made by joining with positive metallic

ions to form an ionic bond which is not as strong as the Si-O bonds; cleavage(cracking) usually

occurs along these lines.

68
Properties of ceramics

Dense, hard and strong.

Stronger in compression than in tension.
Have low impact strength.
Good corrosion resistance, unaffected by chemical action except with strong acids and alkalies
Stable at high temperatures.

-With an exception of diamond and graphite, ceramics are good thermal insulators, they have no free
conducting electrons.

-Silicon Carbide and Silicon Nitride have high mechanical strength, low co-efficient of thermal expansion
which gives them excellent thermal shock resistance; they retain high strength above 12000c and are
used in gas turbines for blades and other parts; they have low friction and wear characteristics and are
used for ball and other bearings.

-Have high compression strength (even at high temperatures) compared to tensile strength; lack of
tensile strength in due to microcracks.

-High hardness (higher than heat treated alloys) makes them useful for abrasive and cutting tools.

-With an exception of graphite, they have high electrical resistivity at temperatures below 3000c and are
used as insulators; alumina is used for spark- plug body as insulator; glazed porcelain insulators are used
as supporting high and medium voltage overhead electric cables, telephone cables; hard glaze prevents
weathering and accumulation of dirt which is quickly washed by rain.

-Magnesium Oxide powder is used in insulated copper cables and in sheathed heating elements.

Clay and clay products

- principal ingredients of clay are Silica (m. p 17280c), alumina (m . p 20500c) and water (absorbed on the
surface of particles or chemically combined); absorbed water is driven off at 1200c and almost all
chemically combined water is eliminated at 7050c.
-Oxides of Fe, Na, K, Ba, Ca if present in clay lower softening temperature of clay and should not be
present in clay products used in high temperatures.
-Kaolins contain alumina, silica and water with only trace amounts of other substances.They are white in
nature and are used for making attractive bone china, high quality refractory material and white filler in
paper, rubber and plastic objects.
-Fire clays do not remain white on firing as they contain Iron oxide which darkens them.They are used
to make brick with high temperature resistance
-Ferrogeneous and calcareous clays contain larger amounts of iron , alkalies (Na and K) and alkaline
earth (Ba, Ca, Mg) and have lower softening temperature.Their colour varies from near white to deep
red . They are used for building block and bricks, structural tile, sewerage tile and similar products.
69
Forming methods of ceramics;

- In general ceramics are made by taking mixtures of either clay, earthen elements, powders and water
and shaping then into desired form and firing them at high temperatures.Usually they are glazed for
decoration and water proofing.

-Raw materials include;

Plastics substances :- are plastic when they contain water eg. Clay.
Non-plastic materials :- are coarse grained, non-porous, have limited plasticity and minimal
shrinkage when fired.
Fluxes- glassy substances that promote coalescing of particles during sintering.

-methods include;
(i) shaping (ii) drying (iii) grazing (iv) firing and sintering
i) Shaping :- processes include;

a) Casting- carried out in metal moulds at low pressures using relatively viscous mixes. some mixes are
injection moulded under heat and higher pressure. Used to make hollow objects like pots and
containers.

b) Slip Casting- fine ground substances containing 25-40% water are filled in porous moulds usually
made of plaster of paris that absorb moisture .Thin walled hollow objects are made by pouring out
contents after a thin layer has solidified. The casting is then dried, removed from mould and fired.

c) Plastic forming – mixes contain 15- 25% water . An organic plasticizer to improve plasticity and reduce
friction at die walls is included in the mix . The mix is degassed in vacuum in first stage and extruded in
second stage. Used for making bricks, rods, tubes and blanks for subsequent pressing.

d) Pressing- Mixes contain 5-15% moisture. Mass produced components such as spark plug bodies are
made by compacting ceramic powder in dies.The powder is placed in a strong rubber bag mould and
subjected to external fluid pressure to ensure uniform compaction.

ii) Drying

- after product has been shaped, it is dried slowly to avoid cracking . Heat is required though not always.

iii) Glazing
- after drying some products are coated with fluxes.

70
iv) Firing and Sintering-

Sintering

- involves heating of compact in a controlled atmosphere to prevent oxidation .The temperature is

sufficient enough to cause diffusion and recrystallization across particle boundaries. Use of pressure
promotes coalescence at lower temperatures.

Firing

- converts the armophous ceramic particles into a glassy vitreous bond or matrix. Surface
moisture is driven off at 1200c and chemically combined water at 7050. At 9000c fusion
commences. At the temperature of incipient fusion, glass begins to form in clay products
accompanied by shrinkage, decrease in porosity and increase in hardness and strength.
Controlled cooling allows for volumetric changes caused by crystal formations

Ceramic coating - process is achieved by

i) Flame spraying
- molten ceramic is sprayed onto surface of component The powder is passed through oxy acetylene
flame (a ceramic rod may be melted, atomized and sprayed).
ii) Chemical Vapour deposition
- vapours of ceramic material are passed over heated component. Reaction takes place at the surface
giving a dense impermeable coating that has better resistance to abrasion, wear and chemical attack.
Ceramic composites

- ceramic- metal composites are formed by a chemical reaction that bonds the two materials when
heated below the melting point of either.The ceramic cause metal to form oxide and the crystals of
oxide row into crystal structure of ceramic forming an extremely strong and permanent bond. For
optimum strength, the two materials are usually kept hot for several hours while clamped together.

71
Refractories

These are materials capable of withstanding high temperatures and other severe service conditions
without appreciable deformation eg firebricks and fire days used for furnace lining.
-Protect furnace material of construction from abrasion, slag, chemical attack and thermal shock.

-Minimize heat losses through furnace walls.

-Mainly contain alumina and silica . Alkalies (Na2O, K2O) provide refractory lining in coke ovenss, blast
furnaces, cement kilns, boilers and glass tank furnaces.

-Categories include

i. Acid refractories- contain silica and is used in furnaces with acidic slag.
ii. Basic refractories- mainly contain Magnesia (MgO) which is obtained by calcining Magnesite
(MgC03) and is used to protect against basic slag.
iii. Neutral refractories- protect against acidic and basic slags; example, graphite, Zirconia, Alumina
and Silicon Carbide.

-Alumina, Beryllia, Magnesia, Thoria and Zirconia, Carbides of Silicon, Boron, Titanium and Zirconium
also used as refractories due to their high melting points.

-Boron nitride have high melting point , hardness as good as diamond , can withstand high temperatures
upto 19250c and is used as a refractory.

Refractrory products include fire bricks, insulating fire bricks (less thick), refractory mortor (for joining
fire bricks) and refractory fibres.

72
COMPOSITES

-A Composite is a material made up of two or more materials made up of two or more constituents that
are combined in a way that allows the material to remain distinct and identifiable unlike in alloys where
its impossible to tell one particle, element or substance from the other
-The purpose of composites is to allow the new material to have strength from both materials often
compensating the original materials weaknesses
-Most composites have two constituent materials; a matrix (binder) and a reinforcement. The
reinforcement is embedded into a matrix that holds it together in an orderly manner as reinforcements
are usually discontinuous. The matrix also helps to transfer the load among the reinforcements.
-The reinforcement is used to strengthen the composite eg. In a mud brick , the mud is the matrix and
the straw is the reinforcement.
-Matrices are usually some type of plastic and are referred to as reinforced plastics. Other types of
matrices such as metals or ceramics are most common.
-Composites are usually classified by the type of reinforcement they used. Types include
(i) Particulate Reinforcement- particles have roughly equal dimension in all directions
(ii) Discontinuous Reinforcement- also known as random or short fiber reinforcement have fibers that
vary in length from a few millimeters to a few centimeters. The fibers are only a few microns in diameter
and the matrix transfers loads at short intervals
(iii) Continuous Fiber (Long Fiber)- have few if any breaks in the reinforcement and composite
properties are much higher.
-Other composites include flake reinforcement or filler reinforcement
-Composite materials are available in form of plies or laminas. A single ply consist of fiber oriented in a
single direction (unidirectional) or in two directions (bidirectional). Multiple plies stuck together are
referred to as laminates
-Composite properties are best in the directions of the fibers. Perpendicular or transverse to the fibers,
the matrix properties dominate as load must be transferred by the matrix
-Even though one direction may dominate, it is necessary to orient fibers in multiple directions and this
is accomplished by stacking multiple plies together.
-Common composites include concrete, fiber glass and natural composites such as rock and wood
Fiber Glass
-This is composed of tiny glass shards held together by resin or other components
-In the automotive industry, fiber glass is important for making body kits. The body shell of the car is
made up of different layers of fiber glass such as gel coat layer, tissue layer, matting and cloth.The final
product is a complete waterproof light weight and strong body kit

73
Concrete
-made of cement binder, sand, stone(gravel) reinforcement and water.
-adding another reinforcement (rebar) makes it a three phase composite
-widely used in building and road construction
Natural Composites
-Wood is a composite material because cellulose fibers are held together by a substance called lignin.
Cellulose fiber can be found in cotton thread but it is the power of lignin in wood that makes if tougher
-Rock and sand used in concrete are themselves composite materials .Rock is composed of small rocks
held together and sand is made of small grains

TIMBER

- The term timber is used to refer to wood obtained from exogeneous trees after their full
growth. These trees grow outward from the centre adding concentric layers of fresh wood
every year known as annular rings. Endogeneous trees grow inwards e.g bamboo

- Wood is the most useful portion of a tree and consists of long hollow cells whose axes run
parallel to the length of the tree and cells that radiate from the central axis of the tree.
The cells are cemented together by a natural resin called lignin

Resin – solid or highly viscous material of plant or synthetic origin that is typically convertible
Into polymers - Its usually mixtures of organic compounds - Plants secretes resins
for protection against injury

- Structure of wood

- Pith / medulla - innermost or core of the tree consisting of only cellular tissues
- contains a lot of fluid which nourishes the plant
74
- Annular rings - concentric circles or rings of woody fibre around the pith
- Heartwood - consists of inner annular rings and is compact , strong , durable , darker in
colour and provides best timber
- Sapwood - contains outer annular rings and is weaker, softer , lighter in colour and is
unsuitable for engineering works
- Cambium layer - is just beneath the bark and is yet to be converted to sapwood.
- Medullary rays - radial fibres from the pith to cambium layer. They hold annular rings together
and carry sap from the outside to the inner side of the tree

- Advantages of Timber
- easily available and can be quickly transported
- easy to be worked on by tools
- lighter and stronger than most materials used in construction
- cheap
- suitable for soundproof construction
- non - conductor of heat and electricity
- responds very well to painting and polishing

- Types of Timber
(i) Softwood - obtained from trees having needle shaped leaves known as confers
(evergreen) trees e.g pine which yield softwood .
- softwood is generally light coloured , resinous , light in weight and
weak but easy to be worked

(ii) Hardwood - obtained from trees having broad leaves known as deciduous trees e.g
teak , mahogany , oak , neem , mango which yield hardwood
- hardwood is close grained ,strong , heavy , dark coloured , durable,
non- resinous and do not show distinct annual rings

- Seasoning of Timber
- this is the process of drying timber or removing moisture or sap present in a freshly
felled tree under controlled conditions.

- ideal seasoning of timber aims at producing a moisture content in the wood that is in
in stable equilibrium with moisture content of the surrounding in which it is used.

- seasoning also results in an improvement in most mechanical properties of wood but

toughness may decrease and may cause cracking if moisture is lowered too much.

- Methods of seasoning timber

(i) Natural or Air Seasoning
- logs or planks of wood are stacked in a dry place about 300mm above
above ground with longitudinal and cross pieces one upon another with
spaces in between to allow air circulation around each piece.

- cinder ash or sand is spread on platform to prevent moisture from the

75
 MATERIAL TESTING

NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING.

- Non-destructive testing- an examination of an object in a manner which will not impair the future

usefulness of the object.

-Does not provide direct measurement of properties. Material can be used after test.

Uses;

• Detect faulty material before it is formed or machined into compact parts.

• Detect faulty components before assembly.

• Discover defects that develop during processing or use.

• Examine parts during use.

• Identify and sort material.

• Measure thickness of material.

Methods

1. Radiography.

-Uses X- rays or gamma rays :- short wavelength electromagnetic rays capable of penetrating large

thickness of metal.

-Gamma rays are produced from naturally radioactive material e.g. radium.

- X- rays are produced when matter is bombarded by a rapidly moving stream of electrons . when the

electrons are suddenly stopped by matter, part of the kinetic energy is converted to energy of radiation

1
Below is a representation of the use of X- rays.

- X- rays darken the X ray film so that regions of lower density appear dark on the negative .

A hole or crack appears as a darker area.

(radiograph :- a shandow picture of a material that is transparent to radiation.)

- Gamma rays and X-rays are used to detect internal flaws, welding flaws, cracks, porosity,

inclusions, lack of fusion and measuring thickness variations in welded vessels, castings,

forgings and in corrosion survey.

Advantages of X-rays- provide permanent record, highly sensitive, adjustable energy levels.

Advantages of gamma rays- permanent record, portable, low initial cost, source is small.

Disadvantages of X-rays- high initial cost, power source required, radiation hazard, trained technicians

required.

Disadvantages of gamma rays- one energy level per source, radiation hazard, trained technicians

required, source loses strength continuously.

2
2. Magnetic Particle Inspection

-Parts to be inspected is first magnetized by induction :- metal part is made the core of an

electromagnetic coil and is magnetized by the magnetic field created when electric current (D.C, a.c or

rectified) passes through the coil.

-Part is then covered with the fine magnetic particles (iron powder).

-Presence of a discontinuity is shown by formation of particle pattern (indication) on surface of

workpiece which assumes shape of discontinuity.

-When discontinuity is open to the surface, the magnetic field leaks out to the surface and forms small

north and south poles that attract magnetic particles.

-Method is used to detect surface or shallow sub surface flows, cracks, non-metallic inclusions, weld

defects in ferromagnetic materials.

-Advantages; economical, simple, easy to perform, portable, fast.

-Disadvantages; magnetic material required, demagnetizing required after, power source needed, parts

must be cleaned before finishing.

3
3. Dye Penetrant Inspection.

- Parts to be tested are first treated with a penetrant; a light oil like liquid applied by dipping, spraying or

brushing.

- Penetrant is drawn into cracks and other discontinuities by capillary action.

- Part is then wiped or washed and then treated with dry powder (developer) which is stained by the

penetrant from the cracks.

- Alternatively; a fluorescent penetrant may be used which emits visible light when exposed to ultra

violet (black) light

; part is viewed under black light and defects appear as bright fluorescing marks against a

black background .

-Method is used to locate surface cracks, porosity, lack of weld bond, fatigue and grinding cracks and

shrinkage in castings.

Advantages; simple, portable, fast, cheap, easy to interpret, no elaborate set up.

Disadvantages; limited to surface defects, surface must be clean.

4. Ultrasonic Inspection

-Employs electronically produced high frequency sound waves that penetrates metals, liquids and other

material at speeds of several thousand feet per second.

-The ultrasonic waves are produced by piezo electric material; materials that undergo a change in

dimension when subjected to an electric field. (change in dimension produces mechanical vibration).

4
Methods include:

a) Through transmission

- Uses a transducer on each side of part being inspected.

- Transducer :- transforms one form of energy into another form.

-Ultrasonic waves travels through the specimen to the other side and the receiving transducer converts

them to an electrical signal that can be amplified and observed on a C.R.O, meter or other indicator.

- Signal received will be reduced if a flaw is in the path of wave.

b) Pulse-echo

Uses only one transducer which serves as both transmitter and receiver.

5
 - As sound waves enter the material, part of it is reflected back and converted back to an

electrical back and converted back to an electrical pulse which is amplified and appears on

the oscilloscope as an indication or pip.

- When the soundwave reaches the other side it is reflected back and shows another pip.

- If there is a flaw in between, a third pip shows in between the first and second.

-Ultrasonic method is used to detect internal defects, cracks, lack of bond laminations, inclusions,

porosity, shrinkage, cavities.

6
-Advantages; fast, dependable, easy to operate, tests immediately known, portable, highly accurate,

sensitive.

-Disadvantages; interpretation of readings requires training , requires contact (film of oil ensures proper

contact for large parts) or immersion of part in water, oil or glycerin for small parts.

5. Eddy Current Inspection.

- In this method, a source of alternating current is connected to a coil and a varying magnetic field

produced.

- When the magnetic field is placed near a test specimen capable of conducting electric current, eddy

currents are induced in the specimen.

-The eddy currents produce a magnetic field of their own which is measured and converted into a

voltage that can be read on a meter or C. R. O.

- Heat treatment variation or compositions mix-ups require use of two coils with a standard piece in one

coil and test piece in another.

- Used to measure variations in wall thickness of the material or coatings, detecting longitudinal seams

or cracks in tubing, determine heat treatments and metal compositions.

Advantages; high speed, no contact, automatic.

Disadvantages; false indications, result is from many variables , only for conductive material, limited

depth.

7
DESTRUCTIVE TESTS
- - Standardised tests are conducted on various machines to establish mechanical
properties of materials.
- - provides direct measurement of properties of materials.
- - A specimen of the material is tested until its complete structural failure and the
material (specimen) is rendered useless after the test.
- - Types include: Tensile Test, Compression Test, Hardness Test, Impact Test, Fatigue Test
and Creep Test.
- -
TENSILE TEST
- -Used for testing the Tensile Strength of a material.

Tensile Strength – ability of a material to withstand tensile stresses i.e stress induced
at any section of the material when subjected to two equal and opposite pulls

- - In this test, a specially prepared standard round specimen is pulled at a constant rate
in the Tensile Testing Machine by gradually increasing the axial pull till rupture takes
place.
Universal Testing Machine

8
 - - First, micrometer measurements of the specimen (initial length Lo i.e. G and initial
diameter do i.e. D) are made and recorded.
- -The extensometer is then attached to the specimen and the specimen mounted on the
machine where it is held in grips in the tension crosshead A and the adjustable
crosshead C .
- - The load is applied by a hydraulic pump that forces oil into a cylinder thereby raising
the piston E which inturn raises the table D and the tension crosshead A.
- - The piston also exerts an equal downward pressure against an enclosed capsule in the
cylinder.The capsule contains fluid that is forced outwards to uncoil the tubing of a
pressure gauge that is calibrated to read increase in load.
- - One person applies load and makes load readings while another records the
extensometer readings (changes in gauge length) and load readings.
- -In the final stages of loading, the extensometer is removed and a divider and scale used
to measure the length.
- - After the specimen has broken, the machine is stopped and the two halves of the
specimen fitted together to determine the final length.The minimum diameter at the
point of fracture is also measured and the appearance of the fracture noted.

Modern machines are hydraulically loaded and programmed electronically and automatically
analysed results either printed out, plotted on an x-y plotter or displayed on a screen or
oscilloscope.

9
 - - From the universal tensile testing machine,the raw data consists of initial and final
lengths LO and Lf, initial and final diameters do and df and a series of extensometer
readings and corresponding load readings.
- - The extensometer readings are converted to strain readings and the load readings to
stresses.
- - If the loads or stresses(load divided by the original cross – sectional area) are plotted
along the vertical axis and the corresponding elongations or strains( change in length
divided by the original length) along the horizontal axis, the resulting graph is known as
a Stress – Strain Diagram
- - Shown below is a Stress – Strain diagram for a ductile material

Proportional Limit A - stress at which the stress –strain curve begins to deviate from the
straight line.
- from point O to A, the stress is proportional to strain
i.e

The proportionality constant E is referred to as the

Modulus of the material. For tensile or compressive
stresses, it is called Modulus of elasticity or Young’s
Modulus
Elastic Limit B - this is the maximum developed stress in the material without any permanent
set. ie the material will regain its shape and size when the load is removed ;
meaning the material has elastic properties upto point B.

10
Yield Point C - if the load is increased beyond point B, the plastic stage is reached i.e on load removal
- the material does not regain its original size and shape. The strain increases at a faster
. - rate than the stress until point C when the material “yields”

- - this is the point where there is an increase in strain without any increase in stress
- - for mild steel, a small load drops to D after yielding starts resulting in two yield points
- -Yield Stress is the stress corresponding to yield point

Proof Stress - most materials do not have a defined yield point and for such the proof stress is
specified

- - The proof stress is the stress at which the material undergoes a specified value of
strain (usually 0.2% for steel and 0.5% for cast iron)
- - A straight line is drawn parallel to the original stress – strain curve and is offset to the
- right by an amount equal to the specified limiting set e.g 0.2% or 0.002 m/m
- - The proof stress(yield stress) is the stress corresponding to the intersection of the
offset parallel line with the Stress – Strain curve

11
Ultimate Stress E - At D, the material regains some strength and higher values of stress are required

for higher strains

- - At E, the stress which attains its maximum value is known as Ultimate Tensile
- Stress or Tenacity. It is defined as the largest stress obtained by dividing the
- largest value of the load reached to the original cross – sectional area.
-
- A disadvantage of using ultimate tensile strength for design purposes is that metal members
will have deformed so much that they are useless by the time the U.T.S is reached.

Breaking stress – after the U.T.S is reached, a neck is formed which decreases the cross-sectional area

The stress is reduced until the specimen breaks at F

- The breaking stress or rupture strength is determined by dividing the load at the time of
fracture by the original cross –section area

Ductility – this is the ability of a material to deform permanently before fracture takes place

- - It is indicated by measurements of elongation and reduction of cross-sectional area

The area under the curve can be used to approximate the ability of a metallic material to absorb
energy upto the point of rupture ie Toughness since the units imply energy absorbed per unit volume
of material

Ie N/M2 X M/M = N M / M3

12
COMPRESSION TEST

- - Used to test the compressive strength of a material

-
Compressive Strength – ability of a material to withstand compressive stresses i.e
stress induced at any section of the material when subjected to two equal and
opposite pushes

- - The test is generally performed for testing brittle materials such as cast iron, concrete,
stones, bricks, mortors, ceramics etc
- - The test is carried out on the Universal Testing Machine.The specimen is placed
between the compression plates in the Adjustable Crosshead and the Table.
- - A compressometer is attached to the specimen to measure compressive strain.
- - The Stress – Strain diagram for compression is generally the same as that for tension
- - The modulus of the material is the same as in tension and is the Young’s Modulus (E).

HARDNESS TEST
Hardness-

- Property of a material by virtue of which it is able to resist wear, scratching identation,

deformation and machinability.its exhibited on the surface of material
- Also the ability of a material to cut another material.

-Hardness value of material mainly obtained by the indentation method which rely upon the slow
application of a fixed load to an indenter that is forced into the smooth surface of the specimen. Upon
the removal of the load, either the area or depth of the indent is measured as an indication of resistance
to the load.

Types of hardness tests-

a) Brinell hardness test

-Depends upon measurement of area of deformation impression as an indication of resistance to the

load.

- Mechanical or hydraulic loads as large as 3000kg acts through a 10mm hard steel or carbide ball.

- Time for which the load is applied is specified to compensate for variations in the response of
materials to load application :- 15 seconds for hard material and 30 seconds for softer metals.

- After removal of load, diameter of impression is measured by means of a microscope containing an

occular scale.

- Brinell hardness number (HB or BHN) is the ratio of load in kilograms to the impressed area in square
millimetres.

13
 𝑃
BHN = 𝜋𝐷
( )(𝐷−√(𝐷2−𝑑2)
2

P =Load in kg D= diameter of ball in mm, d = diameter of impression in mm

-BHN is usually read directly from a table listing values of d against p.

- Brinell test makes a large impression and is considered destructive but large impression gives a more

representative result and test in less sensitive to rough surface finish and millscale……… ( advantages)

-Brinell hardness no. followed by the symbol HB denotes a standard test: ball Φ 10mm, 3000 kg load

applied for 10-15 sec. Anything else indicates otherwise. eg 75HB 10/500/30 indicates 10mm

ball,500kg load applied for 30 secs.

b) Vickers Hardness Test (Pyramid Test)

Depends on measurement of area of impression as an indication to resistance to load

- A diamond square based pyramid indenter with 1360 angle between faces is used.

14
The impression is a square and length of diagonal is measured through a microscope and VHN read from

available tables.

Advantages; accurate, suitable for thin sections, polished, hardened or nitride surfaces, diagonal easily

measured.

Disadvantage; slow.

Precautions; distance from indentation to edge of specimen & distance between indentations should be

taken into account.

c) Microhardness test (Knoops hardness Test)

-Depends upon measurement of area of impression as an indication of resistance of load and is

expressed in terms of load and area of impression.

-Testing machine known as (Tukon Test Machine) uses a knoop indentor which has included longitudinal

angle of 172030’ and tranverse angles of 1300.

15
The long diagonal of impression is measured optically and knoops hardness number.

𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑘g)
KHN (HK)= 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝑚𝑚2)

Suitable for extremely thin metal plates, very hard and brittle, very shallow carburized or nitrided

surfaces.

d) Rockwell Hardness Test

-Depends upon measurement of depth of impression produced by a specified sequence of loading and

unloading.

-Indenters include a cone-shaped diamond known as brale and hard steel balls ½ inch to 1/16 inch Ø.

The brale has 1200 angle and 0.2 mm radius at tip.

16
-Test is carried out by slowly raising the specimen against the indenter until a fixed minor load is applied.

The major load is then applied and after the pointer comes to rest ,the major load is removed and with

the minor load still acting, the Rockwell hardness no. is read on the dial gauge.

Black scale (RC) : - for brale indenter

Red scale (RB) :- for steel ball indenters.

-A shallow impression indicates a hard material and results in a high reading.

-Performed when quick and direct reading is needed and when materials have hardness beyond range

of brinell test.

-Unlike Brinell test, Rockwell test makes smaller and shallower indents using smaller loads

17
SCHEMATIC SKETCH OF ROCKWELL HARDNESS TESTER

Instructions for operation are given below.

(i) Select the correct combination of weights and penetrators (diamond Brale, 1/16” ball etc.) for the

hardness scale you wish to use. A data plate mounted on the machine gives this information along with

instructions regarding use of the black or red hardness numbers on the dial.

(ii) Make certain crank (4) is in forward position (nearest to you).

(iii) Place sample on anvil, in position for test.

(iv) Slowly turn wheel spokes (1) clockwise. This raises the anvil and sample toward the penetrator tip.

After contact is gently made, continue raising sample until small pointer (5) is about in line with small

black dot and larger pointer (6) is within coloured sector (7). The minor load has now been applied to

the sample.

18
(v) After step (iv), large pointer (6) on dial is nearly vertical. Now, turn knurled collar (2) until “SET” line

on dial scale is in line with and under large pointer (6).

(vi) Depress trip lever (3). This triggers the mechanism that applies the major load. Crank (4) will

automatically move away from you.

(vii) After crank (4) has come to rest (against a “stop” and away from you), gently pull crank back

toward you as far as it will go. If this is done abruptly, a false reading will be obtained because of jarring.

(viii) Now record the scale reading of large pointer (6). The black scale is read for the diamond

penetrator. (Example: Rockwell C) and the red scale is read for the ball penetrators (Example: Rockwell

B).

(ix) Remove the minor load, which remains on specimen, by lowering the anvil (turn wheel(1)

counterclockwise). Move the sample to position for next test and repeat the above operation.

e) Rebound Hardness Test

Equipment used is known as the shores scleroscope.

An indentor having a small diamond tip weighing 2.5g is allowed to fall freely on the specimen in a

vertically aligned glass tube and the height of rebound is an indication of hardness of material.

Advantages; easy to operate, easy to read, portable.

19
IMPACT TEST (NOTCH TEST)

Impact strength; ability of a material to withstand impact or sudden loading without fracture. It

indicates toughness of the material ie. the amount of energy absorbed during plastic deformation.

Toughness is important in selecting materials which have to withstand shock and vibrations and is

therefore associated with shock/ impact loading.

Impact tests are performed on a pendulum type impact testing machine shown below

Scale is divided from 0 to 300Nm for indication of used impact energy and 0 to 1600 for indication of

angle of swing.

20
Energy absorbed by the specimen during breaking is given by the difference in potential energy at a

height H before pendulum is released and the potential energy at a height h reached by pendulum after

breaking the specimen.

Types of impact tests;

i) Charpy Impact Test

-Carried out on a specimen which is 55mmx10mmx10mm with a 2mm deep notch at its centre making

an angle of 450.

-Specimen is held horizontally as a simply supported beam between anvils so the hammer strikes

specimen opposite the notch.

ii) Izod Impact Test

-Carried out on a specimen 75mmx10mmx10mm with a 2mm deep notch off the centre to facilitate

gripping.

21
-Specimen is held vertically as a cantilever beam between jaws so the hammer stukes the specimen on

the same side as the notch.

FATIGUE TEST.

Fatigue- property of a material by virtue of which it fails at a stress below the yield point stress when the

material is subjected to repeated/ cyclic stresses.

Fatigue strength- stress at which the material fails due to fatigue.

Failure occurs as brittle fracture produced by cyclic stresses usually below the elastic limit. There is no

appreciable plastic deformation and there is no warning that failure is about to occur.

Stresses causing fatigue may be axial, flexural or torsional which vary in intensity.

Fatigue Test is commonly conducted on a rotating specimen supported at both ends with the load

applied between supports in pure bending.

22
-With each rotation all points on circumference of specimen will alternately be in tension and

compression constituting a complete cycle of stress reversals.

-Several specimens are prepared from the same materials.

-Load on first specimen at a constant motor speed is not less than which can produce a stress equal to ¾

of tensile strength upto elastic limit.

-After a sufficient no. of reversals the specimen breaks.

-Subsequent test pieces are tested with lower loads and it is noted that the no. of stress reversals

increases with decrease in loads until a limit is reached when the stress is not enough to break the test

piece even after 10x106 cycles.

-The safe stress which after reversing for 10x106 times does not cause the test piece to break is called

endurance limit.

23
The tests are plotted on an S-N diagram.

-Fatigue failure will occur in any member stressed above the fatigue limit when subjected to cyclic

stresses.

-To avoid fatigue failure, engineering factors of safety are used.

𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

Factor of safety=
𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒 w𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛g 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

-Machine axles, crank shafts, connecting rods, springs, pinion teeth are parts subjected to cyclic stresses

and fatigue consideration is important in their design.

CREEP TEST

-Creep :- plastic deformation of metal or alloys held for long times at temperatures that permit such

deformation at a constant stress.

- creep resistance :-

-Creep Test is performed by applying a static load to one end of a lever system. The other end is

attached to the specimen under test and held at constant temperature. The axial deformation is read

periodically.

24
 𝐿𝑓−𝐿𝑜
-If the strain ( ) of the specimen is determined at suitable time intervals, the results are plotted on a
𝐿𝑜

strain-time(s-t) diagram.

A series of tests of same material at different stresses and temperatures may be run over a period of

months or years.

By extrapolation, the time/period in which the material will fail by creep can be predicted.

25
MACRO AND MICRO EXAMINATION (METALLOGRAPHY)

Metallography- study of structure of metals and alloys by examination of specifically prepared surfaces.

-Deals with constitution and structure of metals and alloys as revealed by metallographic

techniques. (optical microscope, electron microscope, X- ray techniques)

Macrography- use unaided eye or low power magnification (x10 or less).

- Structure revealed is macrostructure.

Micrography - use high magnification (X50 to X2000).

- Structure revealed in microstructure.

MACROSCOPIC EXAMINATION.

-Used to reveal large scale features

➢ Grain structure of castings

➢ Coarse grain in wrought products

➢ Porosity in castings

➢ Cracks resulting from fabrication processes

➢ Segration/ dislocations of alloying elements

➢ Non-intermetallic inclusions

➢ pits

26
Procedure of macroscopic examination

i) Selection of specimen- selected from large surfaces free from major distortion.

ii) Cutting- specimen is cut from large billets by sawing (hacksaw etc) , abrasive slitting wheels or
machining using coolant.
iii) Fine machining

iv) Grinding and polishing . Grinding is done on abrasive cloth/ paper. Polishing is optional but fine
polishing in power machines may cause porosity not to be revealed:- due to flow of metal over the
defect
v) Etching –done only when necessary eg. 20 per aqueous solution ammonium persulphate is used to
reveal dendritic structure of cast steel (size and arrangement of crystallite)
Note: examination of unetched specimen for porosity requires broad illumination; sky without direct
sunlight.

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION

- Done under the microscope to determine structural characteristics that affect mechanical properties-

-Microstructure shows mechanical and thermal treatment on the metal.

- with microscopic examination, its possible to predict behavior of metal under a specific stress.

Features revealed

➢ Different phases of the metal.

➢ Non metallic inclusives

➢ Cracks

➢ Porosity

➢ Pits

Note: for single phase alloys or pure metals, grain boundaries are clearly defined.

27
Procedure for microscopic examination

i) Selecting the specimen (sampling) :- should be as representative as possible eg. Cutting parallel to
direction of rolling for cold rolled material or several specimens due to varying composition from
surface.
ii) Cutting- specimen is not more than 3cm diameter. For soft or non heattreated metals ,manual
hacksaw is used.For hard materials , abrasive cutting off wheel is used
iii) Grinding - rough grinding is done on a rotating belt sander.Specimen is kept cool by regularly
dipping in water.
- Alternatively.the specimen is rubbed to and from on progressively finer silicon carbide
papers clamped on a glass plate, turning through 90o before proceeding to the next paper.
Fine paraffin oil flooded on the papers act as lubricant. For soft metals, a more viscous liquid
paraffin is used.
iv)Mounting- specimen is placed face down in a die , covered with plastic and heat applied for the
plastic to set.

- Iucite (polymethymethacrylate – P.M.M.A), a thermoplastic and bakelite (phenol formaldehyde) a

thermosetting plastic, are used as they are available on powders.
-Bakelite sets and cures at 150o c and specimen may be ejected from die while hot .Its also available in a
variety of colours (easy to identify specimens).
- Lucite is transparent and must be cooled to below 750c before ejecting from die; used when it is
necessary to observe specimen.
Note: before the next step,verify first that structure of metal is not affected by heating.

iv) Intermediate polishing- the mounted specimen polished dry on a series of energy papers with
successively finer abrasives
- may also be done on a polishing wheel rotating at 300rpm and covered with a low nap or cloth such as
selvt.
vi) Fine polishing- done on the polishing wheel with finer abrasive at lower rotation speeds (100rpm)
using medium nap cloth. Diamond powder rubbed into the cloth and lubricated with white spirit is often

28
used as abrasive.light pressure is used in fine polishing. Specimen is then thoroughly cleaned and
verification that it is free from scratches is made under the microscope at x 50 magnification.
vii) Etching- is an oxidation process in which elements with electrode potentials more negative than
hydrogen pass into solution in many solutions (etchants) resulting in grain boundary attack that outline
phases and other structures.
-Due to differences in the rate of chemical attack on the grains, grain boundaries appear as valleys on
the surface, light from the microscope hitting the side of the valleys is reflected out of the microscope
making the grain boundaries appear as dark lines.
-Various phases in an alloy are preferentially attacked due to difference in chemical composition.

Procedure of etching

1. Specimen is washed free of any polishing compound, smeared with finger tip dipped in grit free soap
solution and washed.
2. Specimen is immersed in boiling ethanol for 2 min (no open flame) , removed with nickle crucible
tongs and cooled in running water.
- for specimens mounted on Lucite(thermalplastic), degrease using cotton wool soaked in caustic soda.

3. Examine before etching and record non-metallic inclusion, cracks, porosity, pits.

4. Etch by plunging into etchant and agitate vigorously for several seconds.

5. Flood with water, wash with acetone or alcohol and dry in a blast of hot air
Successively etched surfaces appear slightly dull.
Frequent errors in procedure for microscopic examination include

a) Failure to remove completely distorted metal on the surface during cutting.

b) Overheating leading to change in structure.

c) Lack of cleanliness when polishing or grinding.

d) Staining due to faulty drying after etching.

29
Common etchants

i) Nitric acid (Nital)- for carbon steels, darkens pearlite, reveal ferrite boundaries and differentiate
ferrite from martensite.
ii) Picric acid (picral)- for plain carbon steels and low alloy steels.

iii) Ammonium hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide - for copper and its alloys.

iv) Hydroflouric acid- for aluminum and its alloys.

v) Palmerton reagent- for zinc and its alloys.

Metallurgical microscope

Consists of two lenses; i) the objective lens; resolves fine details of the microstructure.

ii) Eyepiece lens; magnifies the image produced by the objective lense.

-A small plane glass reflector placed inside the tube is used to illuminate specimen from above.

30
 tube length(mm) x power of eyepiece
Magnification=
𝐅ocal length of objective (mm

31
 tube length – distance separating eyepiece and objective lenses

SULPHUR PRINTING

- method for determining distribution of sulphide in steel.

ii)Specimen is finely ground by emery paper, thoroughly degreased and washed.

iii)Photographic silver bromide paper soaked in 2% Sulphuric acid for 5 mins is placed on specimen surface in close
contact for 5 minutes. Sulphuric acid reacts with sulphides to produce hydrogen sulphide. Hydrogen sulphide reacts with
silver bromide to form dark brown deposit of silver sulphide.

iv) Paper print is then rinsed in water, held for 10 minutes in a solution of sodium thiosulphate to dissolve excess
silver sulphide and then washed for 30 minutes in running water.

32
 CORROSION OF METALS
Corrosion- Destruction of material by chemical, electrochemical or metallurgical interaction between
metal and the environment.

Caused by instability of metals in their refined form causing them to revert to their natural states of
compounds.

Types include

1. Chemical corrosion (dry corrosion)

Occurs due to chemical reaction between surface of material and gases or vapours in atmosphere in a
process called oxidation.

Oxidation- involves transfer of elections from metallic atom to the oxygen atom so that positively
charged metallic atoms and negatively charged oxygen ions attract each other forming the oxide layer.

Oxidation refers to any reaction in which metallic atoms lose electrons even to other gases other than
Oxygen.

Oxidation occurs rapidly at high temperatures and may lead to scaling and flaking off of oxidation layer
leading to further oxidation.

2. Electrochemical corrosion (wet corrosion)

Occurs as a result of reaction of metal with water or aqueous solution of salts, acids or bases.

This corrosion is an electrochemical process resulting in the metal being transformed into the ionic state
in the solution (electrolyte).

The process requires flow of electricity through the electrolyte.

To complete the circuit, there must be two electrodes; anode and cathode which must be connected.

Atoms of the anode (corroding metal) forms ions and dissolves into electrolyte and is said to be anodic
to the metal at cathode.

Connection between anode and cathode may be a metallic bridge but in corrosion it is usually achieved
by simple contact.

Electrodes may be two different kinds of metals or may be different areas of the same piece of metal
(due to impurity and composition differences).

➢ Stress corrosion- refers to acceleration of corrosion in certain environments when metals are
externally stressed or contain internal stresses due to cold working.

➢ Intergranular corrosion- occurs when anode and cathode areas are established between grain
boundary and the rest of grain due to precipitation.

33
 ➢ Dezinfication occurs when brass is in contact with sea water or fresh water with high contact of
oxygen and carbon dioxide.zinc corrodes leavin behind mass of porous copper
Methods of prevention of corrosion
i) Use of high purity metals- minimizes inhomogeneities (non uniformitiy) that create anode and
cathode areas on metal
ii) Alloying- Intergranular corrosion in stainless steels may be avoided addition of titanium and
columbium.
Chromium forms a thin protective oxide layer in stainless steels
iii) Heat treatment- leads to homogenization of solid solutions.
iv) Cathodic protection- Obtained by placing the metal that would corrode in electrical contact
with a more active metal which become the anode and metal to be protected the cathode.
v) Surface coatings

Surface coatings

Painting is only effective if paint film is not broken.

Salt and oxide film are obtained by reacting the metal with a solution which produces the desired
protective film.

Metallic coatings may be obtained by the following methods

a) Hot dipping- in a bath of low melting material.

Galvanizing provides a thin layer of zinc coating on iron or low carbon steel by dipping in molten zinc.
Zinc is anodic to iron and will corrode if iron/ steel is exposed. (Application; iron sheets, pipes, fencing
material)

In tin plating, iron is anodic to iron and the tin coating must thus not be broken

b) Electroplating- a thin layer of metal coating is deposited on the metal by passing a direct current
through an electrolyte containing a salt of the coating material .metal to be coated is made the cathode
and the coating metal the anode

*Anodizing

Process by which an oxide film is deposited on metal surface.

An electrolytic circuit is used in which the metal is made the anode

The electrolyte which is an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid, oxalic acid and chromic acid gives up
oxygen which forms an oxide film on the metal which being the anode does not corrode.

c) Metal spraying- involves depositing an atomized (molten and sprayed) metal on the metal.

d) Metal cladding- done by hot rolling in which thin sheets of coating metal and base metal are passed
through rollers under pressure and heat.

34