Remote Sensing: EMR, Sensors and Platforms,

Applications

Remote Sensing

Remote sensing refers to various methods for collecting data about an object
from a distance using a recording device. This includes but is not limited to
satellite imaging. In essence, remote sensing encompasses any technique for
studying an object or area without direct contact, broadening its scope well
beyond satellite images of Earth's surface.

Historical Evolution of Remote Sensing

●​ Early Beginnings:

○​ Remote sensing dates back to the late 19th century, where

binoculars and cameras were used for military reconnaissance,
creating lasting images for analysis.
○​ Aerial photography began in the 1920s, revolutionizing mapping
and planning applications through clearer, more extensive visual
data.

●​ World War II Innovations:

○​ During the war, sonar and radar technologies emerged, broadening

remote sensing capabilities by detecting objects via sound waves
and radio waves, respectively.

●​ Post-War Developments:

○​ The field expanded to include systems capable of capturing data

across the electromagnetic spectrum.
 ○​ New electronic radiation detectors facilitated non-image data
storage and later conversion to visual representations using
specialized software.

Classification of Remote Sensing Systems

Remote sensing systems are categorized

based on their interaction with radiation:

1. Passive Remote Sensing Systems

Passive systems measure natural radiation,

often sunlight, that reflects from Earth's
surface or is emitted by objects.

●​ Examples:
○​ Photography and digital photography, which capture visible light.
○​ Scanning mirror systems (MSS) and push broom scanners for
continuous imagery.

2. Active Remote Sensing Systems

Active systems emit radiation towards the object and then measure the
reflected energy. This allows them to operate under various light conditions.

●​ Examples:
○​ Radar: Widely used in resource monitoring; effective in areas with
cloud cover as radar waves penetrate clouds and even some
vegetation.
○​ Sonar and Echo-Sounders: Used for underwater mapping and
detecting seabed features.
○​ Lidar: A laser-based system often applied in high-resolution
topographic mapping and digital elevation models.

Theories of Electromagnetic Energy in Remote Sensing

Electromagnetic energy in remote sensing is explained through two core
theories:

1. Wave Theory

●​ Concept:
○​ According to wave theory, electromagnetic energy travels in waves
at the speed of light (c), represented mathematically as sinusoidal
waves.
○​ Waves are characterized by two primary features: wavelength (λ)
and frequency (ν).
●​ Key Terms:
○​ Wavelength (λ): The distance between successive wave peaks,
typically measured in micrometers (μm) or nanometers (nm) for
remote sensing applications.
○​ Frequency (ν): The number of wave cycles passing a fixed point per
second, measured in Hertz (Hz).
●​ Wave-Speed Relation:
○​ The speed of light equation c=ν×λ establishes that wavelength and
frequency are inversely related: as one increases, the other
decreases.
○​ Speed of Light (c): Approximately 3 × 10^8 m/s in a vacuum.
●​ Electromagnetic Spectrum:
○​ The electromagnetic spectrum classifies energy based on
wavelength, ranging from high-energy, short-wavelength gamma
rays to low-energy, long-wavelength radio waves.
○​ Importance in Remote Sensing:
■​ Different materials on Earth reflect and absorb EM waves
differently across the spectrum, allowing remote sensing to
identify materials based on their spectral responses.

2. Particle Theory
 ●​ Concept:
○​ Particle theory posits that all matter with a temperature above
absolute zero (0 K or -273°C) emits electromagnetic energy as
particles.
●​ Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law: The total energy emitted by an object is
proportional to the fourth power of its temperature, according to
Stefan-Boltzmann’s Law:

Variables:

○​ M: Total energy emitted by the object.

○​ σ: Stefan-Boltzmann constant:
○​ T: Absolute temperature in Kelvin (K).

●​ Application in Remote Sensing:

○​ This law helps in thermal imaging by distinguishing materials based
on heat emissions. Objects emit more energy at higher
temperatures, allowing sensors to detect subtle temperature
variations.

Types of Radiators in Remote Sensing

●​ Blackbody:
○​ An idealized surface that absorbs all incident radiation, emitting
energy based on its temperature.
●​ Greybody:
○​ A real-world object with a constant emissivity across wavelengths,
typically emitting less than a blackbody.
●​ Selective Radiators:
○​ Materials with emissivity that vary with wavelength. Selective
radiators are common in nature, and understanding their emission
patterns is crucial in thermal remote sensing.

Electromagnetic Spectrum
Remote sensing uses specific
regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum, each with unique
applications:

1. Visible Spectrum

●​ Range: Visible light spans

from approximately 0.4 to
0.7 μm, with three primary
wavelength bands—blue, green, and red.
●​ Applications: Visible wavelengths are critical for conventional
photography and image interpretation, allowing the human eye to easily
interpret colors based on material reflectance.

2. Near-Infrared (NIR)

●​ Range: The NIR band spans from around 0.7 to 1.4 μm.
●​ Applications: Widely used to monitor vegetation health and soil
moisture, as healthy vegetation reflects strongly in NIR.

3. Thermal Infrared (TIR)

●​ Range: Ranges from approximately 3 to 14 μm.

●​ Applications: TIR is used for temperature measurements and thermal
imaging, as objects emit thermal infrared energy based on their
temperature.

4. Microwave and Radar Wavelengths

●​ Range: Microwave wavelengths are longer, beyond 1 mm.

●​ Applications: Radar remote sensing is valuable for detecting terrain and
surface features, even through clouds and vegetation, thanks to its ability
to penetrate materials.
Atmospheric Effects on Electromagnetic Radiation

The Earth's atmosphere affects incoming electromagnetic radiation through

scattering and absorption, impacting the clarity and quality of remote sensing
data.

1. Scattering

Scattering occurs when radiation

collides with particles, changing its
direction.

Types of Scattering:

●​ Rayleigh Scattering:
○​ Occurs with particles smaller than the wavelength, causing blue
light to scatter and giving the sky its color.
●​ Mie Scattering:
○​ Occurs when particle size matches the wavelength, typically
scattering longer wavelengths and often resulting in hazy conditions
on overcast days.
●​ Non-Selective Scattering:
○​ Involves particles much larger than the wavelength, scattering all
wavelengths equally, such as in clouds.

Impact on Remote Sensing:

●​ Scattering causes image distortion, especially for longer distance imagery.

Filters are used to counteract these effects in photography.

2. Absorption

Absorption occurs when atmospheric gases take in radiation, reducing the

amount that reaches Earth's surface.
Key Absorbing Gases:

●​ Water Vapor: Absorbs radiation in specific infrared bands.

●​ Carbon Dioxide (CO2): Absorbs in thermal bands, relevant in climate
studies.
●​ Ozone (O3): Absorbs harmful UV radiation, protecting biological life.

Atmospheric Windows: Wavelengths where absorption is minimal, allowing

energy to pass through the atmosphere and be captured by remote sensors.

Albedo in Remote Sensing

●​ Definition: Albedo is the ratio of reflected radiation to total incident

radiation on a surface. It essentially quantifies how reflective a surface is.

●​ Factors Affecting Albedo:

○​ Different objects and surfaces exhibit varying albedo levels based
on their composition, structure, and the incident wavelength.
○​ For example, snow has a high albedo in the visible part of the
spectrum (over 70%), meaning it reflects most visible light.

Substance Albedo (% reflectance)

Whole Planet 0.31

Cumulonimbus Clouds 0.9

Stratocumulus Clouds 0.6

Cirrus Clouds 0.5

Water 0.06 - 0.1

Ice & Snow 0.7 - 0.9

Sand 0.35

Grass lands 0.18 - 0.25

Deciduous forest 0.15 - 0.18

 Coniferous forest 0.09 - 0.15

Rain forest 0.07 - 0.15

Spectral Reflectance and Surface Characteristics

Reflectance of Earth’s surface

varies between surface types (like
soil, vegetation, and water), which
can be analyzed through spectral
reflectance curves. These curves
demonstrate how different
materials reflect across various
wavelengths, which is foundational
in remote sensing.

Spectral Reflectance Curves

●​ Dry Soil, Vegetation, and Water:

○​ Different surfaces, such as dry soil, vegetation, and water, each have
unique spectral reflectance patterns.
○​ For instance:
■​ Dry Soil: Shows moderate reflectance with less variation
across wavelengths.
■​ Green Vegetation: Reflects primarily in the green part of the
spectrum and exhibits high NIR reflectance.
■​ Water: Absorbs most wavelengths, especially beyond the
visible spectrum, making it a good absorber and low reflector.

Reflection Characteristics of Key Surface Types in Remote Sensing

The spectral reflectance properties of vegetation, soil, and water play a

significant role in environmental and resource mapping applications.
1. Vegetation

●​ Reflectance in the Visible and NIR Bands:

○​ Vegetation has a distinct peak in the green band, which is why it
appears green to the human eye. However, its maximum reflectance
is in the NIR band (0.7 to 1.4 μm), beyond human vision.

●​ Photosynthetic Activity:
○​ Chlorophyll in plants absorbs blue and red wavelengths (0.45 -
0.67 μm), leading to high green and NIR reflectance.

●​ Water Absorption and Reflectance Variability:

○​ Water absorbed by plants affects reflectance, creating dips in the
spectral curve at 1.4, 1.9, and 2.6 μm.
○​ Water content within vegetation is indirectly monitored in remote
sensing, as stressed plants reflect more in the red spectrum and
less in NIR.

2. Soil

●​ Reflectance Properties:
○​ Dry soil typically has a consistent, moderate reflectance across the
spectrum, while humid soil shows more variability.

●​ Factors Influencing Soil Reflectance:

○​ Moisture: Humidity in soil lowers its overall reflectance, particularly
in the NIR spectrum.
○​ Texture and Color: Coarse, sandy soils reflect more light compared
to fine, clay soils.
○​ Organic Matter: Soils rich in organic matter retain water better,
which influences their spectral signature.

●​ Variations in Soil Type:

 ○​ Different soil types can be distinguished based on their reflectance,
particularly in NIR and visible bands, aiding in soil mapping and
agricultural planning.

3. Water

●​ Absorptive Nature:
○​ Water absorbs most of the incident radiation, especially beyond the
visible spectrum, making it a poor reflector.

●​ Reflection in the Visible and NIR Bands:

○​ In visible wavelengths, water reflects primarily in the blue and UV
bands, which is why it often appears blue.
○​ In NIR, water has low reflectance and appears almost black,
distinguishing it from other surfaces.

Remote Sensing Platforms

A platform is the structure or vehicle that carries the sensor. It enables the
sensor to be positioned at various altitudes and angles for optimal data
collection. Examples of platforms range from simple handheld devices to
satellites orbiting Earth.

Types of Platforms in Remote Sensing

Platforms in remote sensing are categorized

based on their altitude above the Earth’s
surface and mobility. Each type has distinct
features that determine its suitability for
specific applications.

1. Ground-Based Platforms
Ground-based platforms are stationary or near-surface structures equipped
with sensors. They are often used for detailed studies at close range.

●​ Types of Ground-Based Platforms:

○​ Handheld Devices: Portable and often used for close inspection of

individual plants or small patches of terrain.
○​ Tripods: Offer stability for handheld sensors, allowing for more
precise measurements.
○​ Towers and Cranes: Permanent ground-based structures used for
long-term observation and atmospheric studies.

●​ Examples of Ground-Based Platforms:

○​ Cherry Picker Platforms: Extendable up to 15 meters, commonly

used for carrying spectral reflectance meters and cameras in labs.
○​ Portable Masts: Lightweight and mobile, used to mount cameras
and sensors, though they may be unstable in windy conditions.
○​ Permanent Towers and Cranes: These structures can project
sensors above obstacles, such as forest canopies, allowing
multi-level measurements.

2. Balloon Platforms

Balloon platforms are lightweight, cost-effective options,

offering stability with low vibrations. They provide
mid-altitude platforms between ground-based systems and
aircraft.

●​ Types of Balloon Platforms:

○​ Free Balloons: Operate without attachment to the
ground and can reach the upper atmosphere,
providing a platform for sensors at intermediate altitudes.
 ○​ Tethered Balloons: Anchored to the ground using strong, flexible
cables, providing controlled stability and altitude.
○​ Powered Balloons: Equipped with propulsion systems to control
their direction and altitude.
●​ Altitude Range:
○​ Balloons can operate between 22 and 40 km, suitable for
intermediate remote sensing needs.

3. Aircraft Platforms

Aircraft, including both fixed-wing

planes and helicopters, are
frequently used for aerial
photography and detailed data
collection over large areas.

●​ Types of Aircraft Platforms:

○​ Low-Altitude Aircraft:
■​ Operate below 30,000 feet and are ideal for collecting
high-resolution data over small areas.
■​ Commonly used for regional surveys where large-scale
images are needed.

○​ High-Altitude Aircraft:
■​ Operate above 30,000 feet and are
suitable for collecting imagery over
extensive areas at smaller scales.
■​ Equipped with high-powered engines,
they can capture imagery in a single
pass over vast regions.

●​ Examples of Aircraft Applications:

 ○​ Helicopters: Useful for pinpoint location imaging, though more
prone to vibrations and less stable than fixed-wing aircraft.
○​ Notable Programs: NHAP, NAPP, and AVIRIS programs use aircraft
for systematic aerial data collection.

4. Rocket Platforms

Before airplanes were common, rockets were used to capture aerial images by
launching cameras into the sky and retrieving them after descent.

●​ Applications:
○​ Rockets provide high-altitude, wide-angle imagery for short-term
observation over vast areas.
○​ Example: The Skylark Earth Resource Rocket is a mobile rocket
platform used in environmental surveys, reaching altitudes between
90 and 400 km.

●​ Limitations:
○​ Rocket platforms are typically single-use and limited to
short-duration observations, making them unsuitable for ongoing
data collection.

5. Spacecraft as Platforms

Spacecraft platforms, including

satellites and space shuttles,
orbit Earth, offering consistent,
broad coverage for remote
sensing.

Historical Development:

Since the 1960s, satellites have

replaced aircraft as the primary
remote sensing platforms, with systems like TIROS-1 marking the beginning of
satellite-based Earth observation.

●​ Advantages:
○​ Satellites provide repetitive, consistent data for large-scale
monitoring of Earth's surface and atmosphere.
○​ Images captured from space offer extensive spatial coverage,
unmatched by ground or air platforms.

●​ Advancements in Space-Based Remote Sensing:

○​ Programs like Landsat and SPOT revolutionized satellite imagery,
improving data quality and accessibility.

Types of Orbits for Satellite Platforms

Satellites are positioned in specific orbital patterns to optimize data collection

frequency and area coverage, each orbit type serving unique remote sensing
needs.

1. Sun-Synchronous Orbits

In a sun-synchronous orbit, the satellite moves in sync with the Sun, passing
over each point on Earth at the same local time each day.

●​ Characteristics:
○​ This orbit is nearly polar, typically between 300 and 1,000 km
altitude.
○​ Satellites in these orbits pass over a location at fixed times, such as
near noon or near dawn/dusk, for consistent illumination.

●​ Advantages:
○​ The standardized Sun angle enhances lighting consistency across
images, reducing shadow variations and improving image quality.
○​ The polar nature of this orbit allows nearly global coverage, making
it ideal for environmental and resource monitoring.
 ●​ Applications:
○​ Most Earth observation satellites, such as Landsat, SPOT, IRS,
NOAA, SEASAT, and TIROS, operate in sun-synchronous orbits).

2. Geostationary (Geo-Synchronous) Orbits

Geostationary satellites appear stationary relative to the Earth, providing

continuous coverage of a specific region.

●​ Characteristics:
○​ Positioned approximately 36,000 km above
the equator, these satellites cover latitudes
from 70° N to 70° S.
○​ They move west to east at the same speed
as Earth's rotation, maintaining a fixed
position relative to the ground.

●​ Advantages:
○​ Ideal for continuous monitoring of the same area, crucial for
real-time applications like weather forecasting and
telecommunications.

●​ Applications:
 ○​ Geostationary satellites are commonly used in meteorology and
communication networks, with examples including GOMS,
METEOSAT, INTELSAT, and INSAT.

Sensors

A sensor functions by gathering energy, typically in the form of

electromagnetic radiation (EMR) or other energy types, from a target area.
This collected energy is then converted into electrical signals, which are
subsequently processed to extract meaningful information. The processed data
can reveal various attributes of the target, such as its physical characteristics,
composition, and dynamic changes over time.

Classification of Sensors

Sensors in remote sensing are primarily classified based on the source of

electromagnetic energy they utilize for data acquisition. This classification
delineates sensors into two broad categories: active sensors and passive
sensors.

1. Active Sensors
Active sensors are equipped with their own source of electromagnetic
radiation (EMR), which they emit to illuminate the target objects. This
self-generated energy allows active sensors to operate independently of
external light sources, such as the sun, providing greater flexibility in various
environmental conditions.

Key Characteristics of Active Sensors:

●​ Self-Irradiation: Active sensors generate and emit their own EMR, which
interacts with the target before being reflected back to the sensor.
●​ Independence from Natural Light: Since they do not rely on external
light sources, active sensors can function effectively during nighttime or in
areas with minimal natural illumination.

Common Examples of Active Sensors:

●​ Radar (Radio Detection and Ranging): Utilizes radio waves to detect and
map objects, surfaces, and atmospheric phenomena.
●​ Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging): Employs laser light to measure
distances, create high-resolution maps, and analyze surface structures.
●​ Photographic Cameras with Flash Bulbs: Act as active sensors when
equipped with artificial illumination sources like flash bulbs to capture
images in low-light conditions.

2. Passive Sensors

In contrast to active sensors, passive sensors do not emit

their own EMR. Instead, they detect and measure naturally
occurring electromagnetic energy, which is either
reflected from the Earth's surface or emitted by it. Passive
sensors are thus dependent on external energy sources,
primarily the sun, for illumination.

Key Characteristics of Passive Sensors:

 ●​ No Internal EMR Source: Passive sensors rely entirely on ambient
electromagnetic energy, making them simpler in design and operation
compared to active sensors.
●​ Sunlight Dependency: Their functionality is contingent on the availability
of natural light, limiting their effectiveness during nighttime or in the
absence of sunlight unless they measure emitted energy like thermal
radiation.

Common Examples of Passive Sensors:

●​ Photographic Cameras (without Flash): Capture images based on

ambient light conditions, suitable for daylight observations.
●​ Multispectral Scanners: Detect multiple wavelength bands
simultaneously, enabling comprehensive spectral analysis.
●​ Vidicon Cameras: Utilize vacuum tube technology to convert light into
electronic signals for image formation.
●​ Thermal Sensors: Measure emitted thermal radiation from objects,
allowing for temperature mapping and heat detection.

Types of Scanners

Scanners are critical components within remote sensing systems, responsible

for systematically capturing data across the Earth's surface. They determine
how sensors collect information by scanning the target area in a controlled
manner.

1. Whiskbroom Scanner (Transverse/Mirror/Cross-Track)

The whiskbroom scanner, also known as a transverse or cross-track scanner,

employs a rotating or oscillating mirror to sweep the sensor's field of view
perpendicular to the direction of the platform's movement. This scanning
method captures data by sequentially sampling different points on the ground,
building up the image one line at a time.
Operation

●​ Transverse Scanning Mechanism:

The rotating or oscillating mirror
directs the incoming
electromagnetic radiation (EMR) to
a narrow swath of the Earth's
surface, perpendicular to the flight
path of the platform (e.g., satellite
or aircraft).
●​ Sequential Data Acquisition: As
the platform moves forward, the
scanner captures successive scan lines in a left-to-right or right-to-left
sequence, gradually constructing a complete image.
●​ Multiple Detectors: Typically equipped with a limited number of sensitive
diodes or detectors that receive the reflected or emitted EMR from the
scanned area.

Example

●​ LANDSAT Multispectral Scanner (MSS) and Thematic Mapper (TM):

These sensors utilize a whiskbroom scanning system to capture
multispectral imagery, providing valuable data for applications like land
use mapping, agricultural monitoring, and environmental assessments.

2. Pushbroom Scanner (Along-Track)

The pushbroom scanner, also referred to as

an along-track scanner, utilizes a linear array
of detectors arranged side by side to capture
data continuously as the platform moves
forward. This scanning method captures an
entire swath of the Earth's surface
simultaneously, akin to sweeping a broom along the ground.

Example

●​ Sentinel-2 MultiSpectral Instrument (MSI): Utilizes a pushbroom

scanning system with a high-resolution linear detector array to capture
detailed multispectral imagery, supporting applications such as
agriculture monitoring, forestry management, and urban planning.

Different Sensors and Their Characteristics

Sensors in remote sensing are categorized based on the region of the

electromagnetic spectrum they operate within. Each sensor type offers unique
capabilities, enabling the capture of diverse data tailored to specific
applications.

1. Optical-Infrared Sensors

Optical-Infrared (OIR) sensors are designed to capture electromagnetic

radiation in the visible, near-infrared, and thermal infrared regions of the
spectrum. These sensors are primarily dependent on solar energy for
illumination, except for thermal sensors that can detect emitted thermal
radiation from objects.

Operational Wavelength Range

●​ Visible Spectrum: 400 nm to 700 nm

●​ Near-Infrared (NIR): 700 nm to 1400 nm
●​ Thermal Infrared (TIR): 3 µm to 14 µm
●​ Overall Range: 400 nm to 2000 nm

A. Visible/Near Infrared Remote Sensing: In this, visible light and near

infrared rays of sunlight reflected by objects on the ground are observed. The
magnitude of reflection infers the conditions of land surface, e.g., plant species
and their distribution, rivers, lakes, urban areas etc. In the absence of sunlight or
darkness, this method cannot be used.

B. Panchromatic Imaging System: In this type of sensor, radiation is detected

within a broad wavelength range. In the panchromatic band, visible and near
infrared are included. The imagery appears as a black and white photograph.
Examples of panchromatic imaging systems are Landsat ETM+ PAN, SPOT
HRV-PAN and IKONOS PAN, IRS-1C, IRS-1D and CARTOSAT-series.

C. Multispectral imaging system: The multispectral imaging system uses a

multichannel detectors and records radiation within a narrow range of
wavelength. Both brightness and color information are available on the image.
LANDSAT, LANDSAT TM, SPOT HRV-XS and LISS etc. are the examples

2. Thermal Infrared Remote Sensing

Thermal Infrared (TIR) remote sensing involves capturing the emitted heat
energy from the Earth's surface and atmosphere. Unlike VNIR sensors that rely
on reflected sunlight, thermal sensors measure the thermal radiation naturally
emitted by objects, providing valuable data on temperature variations and
thermal properties.

A. Hyperspectral Imaging System: A hyperspectral imaging system extends

the capabilities of multispectral sensors by capturing electromagnetic radiation
across hundreds of narrow and contiguous spectral bands. Example, Hyperion
data is recorded in 242 spectral bands and AVIRIS data is recorded in 224
spectral bands.

B. Microwave Sensors: These types of sensors receive microwaves, which are

having longer wavelengths than visible light and infrared rays. The observation
is not affected by day, night or weather. The microwave portion of the spectrum
includes wavelengths within the approximate range of 1 mm to1m. The longest
microwaves are about 2,500,000 times longer than the shortest light waves.
Examples of Sensor Systems

1. Thematic Mapper (TM) on Landsat Satellite

●​ Type: Passive Multispectral Scanner

●​ Spectral Bands: Seven bands covering visible to shortwave infrared
wavelengths.
●​ Applications: Land cover classification, agricultural monitoring, water
resource management, and environmental impact assessments.

2. RADAR Sensors on Sentinel-1

●​ Type: Active Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)

●​ Spectral Bands: C-band (5.405 GHz)
●​ Applications: Topographic mapping, oceanography, disaster
management, and land deformation studies.

3. Hyperion on EO-1 Satellite

●​ Type: Hyperspectral Imaging System

●​ Spectral Bands: 242 narrow and contiguous spectral bands spanning the
visible to shortwave infrared regions.
●​ Applications: Mineral exploration, vegetation health assessment,
environmental monitoring, and habitat mapping.

4. RISAT (Radar Imaging Satellite)

●​ Type: Active Microwave Radar Sensor

●​ Spectral Bands: C-band
●​ Applications: Agriculture monitoring, forestry management, disaster
response, and surveillance.

5. Multispectral Instruments on SPOT Satellites

●​ Type: Passive Multispectral Scanner

 ●​ Spectral Bands: Five bands covering visible and near-infrared
wavelengths.
●​ Applications: Urban planning, agricultural monitoring, forestry
management, and environmental assessments.

Characteristics of some Scanners

1.​ LANDSAT Series:

○​ Initiated as ERTS, rebranded to LANDSAT in 1975.
○​ Equipped with RBV, MSS, TM, and ETM+ sensors.
○​ Provides multispectral and high-resolution imagery for land use and
environmental monitoring.
○​ Landsat 7 ETM+ includes a high-resolution panchromatic band (15
m).

2.​ SPOT Series:

○​ Initiated by France in 1978, partnered with Belgium and Sweden.
○​ SPOT 1, 2, and 3 equipped with HRV instruments for multispectral
and panchromatic imaging.
○​ SPOT 5 offers enhanced resolution (5 m PAN, 10 m multispectral)
and HRS sensors for DEM production.
○​ VEGETATION sensor provides daily global coverage at 1 km
resolution.

3.​ Indian IRS Series:

○​ Started in 1979, includes satellites like IRS-1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, P2, P3,
P4, and Resourcesat.
○​ Resourcesat equipped with LISS and WiFS sensors for
multispectral imaging.
○​ CARTOSAT-2 series and IKONOS-2 provide high-resolution
imaging (1 m PAN, 4 m multispectral).

Applications of Remote Sensing

1. Sustainable Agriculture

●​ Identifying Culturable Wastelands: Maps non-arable lands for potential

cultivation, expanding agricultural areas.
●​ Optimizing Cropping Practices: Aids in crop rotation and scheduling to
boost yields without expanding land use.
●​ Improving Soil Fertility: Enables precise soil mapping and targeted
fertilizer application, reducing costs and preventing degradation.

2. Crop Acreage and Production Estimation (CAPE)

Facilitates accurate agricultural planning by:

●​ Preharvest Crop Area Estimation: Uses spectral analysis to estimate

district-level crop areas for market forecasting.
●​ Implementing CAPE Programs: Integrates satellite data to monitor crop
health and growth, improving yield forecasts and food security.

3. Rural Development

Supports rural planning and growth through:

●​ GIS and Remote Sensing Integration: Maps land use, infrastructure, and
resources to optimize allocation.
●​ Visualization Tools: Provides interactive maps to identify development
needs and track project progress.

4. Wetland Inventory

Aids in wetland conservation and management by:

●​ Creating Wetland Atlases: Documents wetland boundaries and

classifications for conservation purposes.
●​ Detailed Wetland Mapping: Develops scalable maps for water resource
planning and habitat preservation.
5. Glacier Retreat Mapping

Monitors climate change impacts on glaciers and water resources by:

●​ Tracking Glacier Changes: Uses satellite imagery to monitor glacier

boundaries and volume over time.
●​ Snow Cover Monitoring: Utilizes high-resolution data to assess snow
cover dynamics, aiding water availability forecasting.

6. Fishing Zone Identification

Enhances sustainable fisheries management through:

●​ Identifying Potential Fishing Zones (PFZ): Analyzes oceanographic data

to locate rich fishing areas.
●​ Integrating Environmental Data: Combines biological and environmental
information for accurate PFZ forecasts.