1.

**Advantages of DBMS over a file system:**

- Data consistency: DBMS ensures that data remains consistent across the database by enforcing
integrity constraints.

- Data sharing: Multiple users can access and modify data concurrently without conflicts, unlike in a
file system.

- Security: DBMS provides access control mechanisms to regulate who can access and manipulate
the data, enhancing security.

- Data integrity: With built-in features like transactions and ACID properties, DBMS maintains the
accuracy and reliability of data.

- Data independence: Changes to the database structure do not affect the applications interacting
with the data, ensuring flexibility and ease of maintenance.

2. **Explain the Architecture of DBMS:**

- Three-tier architecture: Consists of presentation, application, and data layers.

- Presentation layer: Interfaces with users, displaying information and receiving inputs.

- Application layer: Contains business logic and processing functions, translating user requests into
database operations.

- Data layer: Stores and manages the actual data, handling storage, retrieval, and manipulation
operations.

3. **Explain ER Model:**

- Entity-Relationship (ER) model: A conceptual framework for representing data entities, attributes,
and relationships.

- Entities: Represent real-world objects or concepts, such as people, places, or things.

- Relationships: Describe associations between entities, indicating how they are related to each
other.

- Attributes: Properties or characteristics of entities, providing additional details about them.

- Diagrammatic representation: Entities are represented as rectangles, relationships as diamonds,

and attributes within the rectangles.

4. **What is relation mapping:**

- Relation mapping involves translating the ER model's entities, relationships, and attributes into
relational database tables, columns, and keys.
 - Each entity becomes a table, each attribute becomes a column, and each relationship becomes a
foreign key constraint.

- The process ensures that the structure of the database reflects the conceptual model represented
by the ER diagram.

- Proper mapping facilitates efficient data storage, retrieval, and manipulation operations.

- Relation mapping is crucial for maintaining data integrity and consistency within the database.

5. **Create a table of employee(emp_id, emp_name, emp_add, emp_age, emp_sal) using primary

key, not null constraints:**

```

CREATE TABLE employee (

emp_id INT PRIMARY KEY,

emp_name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,

emp_add VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL,

emp_age INT,

emp_sal DECIMAL(10,2)

);

```

- emp_id: Primary key uniquely identifying each employee.

- emp_name: Not null constraint ensures that the employee's name is always provided.

- emp_add: Not null constraint ensures that the employee's address is always provided.

- emp_age: Stores the age of the employee.

- emp_sal: Stores the salary of the employee.

6. **Add column emp_add into the above table and Rename the table name as emp_details:**

```

ALTER TABLE employee

ADD emp_add VARCHAR(100);

EXEC sp_rename 'employee', 'emp_details';

```

- Added emp_add column to store employee addresses.

 - Renamed the table from "employee" to "emp_details" for clarity and consistency.

7. **Explain DDL command:**

- Data Definition Language (DDL) commands are used to define, modify, and remove database
objects such as tables, views, and indexes.

- Examples of DDL commands include CREATE, ALTER, and DROP.

- CREATE: Used to create new database objects like tables or views.

- ALTER: Used to modify the structure of existing database objects.

- DROP: Used to delete database objects.

8. **Explain different types of attributes in ER Model:**

- Simple attribute: Represents a single atomic value, such as an employee's age or salary.

- Composite attribute: Composed of multiple simple attributes, forming a hierarchy, such as an

employee's address consisting of street, city, and zip code.

- Derived attribute: Derived from other attributes, calculated based on existing attributes, such as
age derived from the employee's date of birth.

- Multi-valued attribute: Can hold multiple values for an entity, such as an employee's phone
numbers.

9. **Explain the steps of an algorithm for ER to relation mapping:**

- Identify entities and their attributes from the ER diagram.

- Map each entity to a separate table in the relational database schema.

- Identify relationships and map them to foreign keys in corresponding tables.

- Ensure each attribute is properly mapped to a column in the respective table.

- Normalize the schema if necessary to remove redundancies and improve data integrity.

10. **Draw ER diagram of Hospital:**

- (Diagram representation of hospital entities and their relationships)

- Entities: Patient, Doctor, Nurse, Department.

- Relationships: Treats (between Doctor and Patient), Works in (between Doctor/Nurse and
Department), etc.

11. **Explain ‘SELECT’ clause. Give its syntax:**

 - The SELECT clause is used to retrieve data from a database.

- Syntax: SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name WHERE condition;

- column1, column2: Columns to be retrieved from the table.

- table_name: Name of the table from which data is to be retrieved.

- WHERE condition: Optional condition to filter the rows to be selected.

12. **Role of Database Administration (DBA):**

- Database administration involves managing and maintaining the database system to ensure its
smooth operation.

- Responsibilities include performance tuning, security management, backup and recovery, and
user access control.

- DBA ensures data integrity, availability, and security.

- DBA monitors database performance, troubleshoots issues, and optimizes database structures.

- DBA plays a crucial role in planning and implementing database upgrades, migrations, and
scaling.

13. **Explain Aggregate function with example:**

- Aggregate functions perform calculations on a set of values and return a single value.

- Examples include SUM(), AVG(), COUNT(), MAX(), and MIN().

- Example: SELECT SUM(salary) FROM employee; (Calculates the total salary of all employees)

14. **Explain Integrity constraints with example:**

- Integrity constraints are rules that enforce data integrity and consistency in a database.

- Examples: PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY, UNIQUE, NOT NULL.

- Example: CREATE TABLE employee (emp_id INT PRIMARY KEY, emp_name VARCHAR(50) NOT
NULL); (Defines emp_id as the primary key and ensures emp_name is not null)

15. **Write a short note on:**

a) **Selection operation:**

- Retrieves rows from a table based on specified conditions.

- Allows filtering of data based on criteria specified in the WHERE clause.

- Helps in extracting specific subsets of data from large datasets.

 - Example: SELECT * FROM employees WHERE department = 'IT';

b) **Projection Operator:**

- Retrieves specific columns from a table while ignoring the rest.

- Helps in selecting only the required information, reducing data retrieval overhead.

- Useful for improving query performance and optimizing resource usage.

- Example: SELECT emp_name, emp_salary FROM employees;

16. **What is inner join:**

- Inner join combines rows from

two or more tables based on a related column between them.

- Retrieves only the rows that have matching values in both tables.

- Excludes unmatched rows from the result set.

- Syntax: SELECT * FROM table1 INNER JOIN table2 ON table1.column = table2.column;

17. **What is Outer Join:**

- Outer join retrieves all records from one table and the matching records from another table.

- Preserves unmatched rows from one or both tables in the result set.

- Types: LEFT OUTER JOIN, RIGHT OUTER JOIN, FULL OUTER JOIN.

- Useful for including non-matching rows in the result set for analysis.

18. **Explain Any ALL and Exists operators with example:**

- ANY and ALL operators compare a value to a set of values returned by a subquery.

- ANY returns true if any value in the set satisfies the comparison.

- ALL returns true if all values in the set satisfy the comparison.

- EXISTS operator checks for the existence of any rows in a subquery result.

- Example: SELECT * FROM products WHERE price > ANY (SELECT price FROM discounts);

19. **Explain Relational Constraints:**

- Relational constraints are rules applied to maintain data integrity in a relational database.
 - Examples: Entity integrity, referential integrity, domain integrity.

- Entity integrity ensures that each row in a table is unique and has a primary key.

- Referential integrity ensures that relationships between tables are maintained through foreign
key constraints.

- Domain integrity ensures that data values adhere to specified data types, ranges, or formats.

20. **What is Relational Algebra Operation:**

- Relational algebra operations are mathematical operations used to manipulate relational data.

- Operations include Selection, Projection, Union, Intersection, Difference, Join, and Cartesian
Product.

- Relational algebra provides a theoretical foundation for querying and manipulating relational
databases.

- These operations help in performing various data retrieval and manipulation tasks efficiently.

21. **Explain Cross Product with example:**

- Cross product combines each row of the first table with each row of the second table.

- Resulting in a Cartesian product, where every combination of rows from both tables is included.

- Useful for generating all possible combinations between two datasets.

- Example: SELECT * FROM table1 CROSS JOIN table2;

22. **Explain String Function with example:**

- String functions manipulate string data stored in the database.

- Example functions include CONCAT(), SUBSTRING(), LENGTH(), UPPER(), LOWER(), etc.

- CONCAT(): Concatenates two or more strings.

- Example: SELECT CONCAT(first_name, ' ', last_name) AS full_name FROM employees;

23. **What is Joins:**

- Joins are SQL operations used to combine data from two or more tables based on related
columns.

- Different types of joins include INNER JOIN, LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN, FULL JOIN.

- Joins allow for querying related data from multiple tables in a single query.
24. **Explain Date Function with example:**

- Date functions manipulate date and time values stored in the database.

- Example functions include GETDATE(), DATEADD(), DATEDIFF(), DATEPART(), etc.

- GETDATE(): Returns the current date and time.

- Example: SELECT GETDATE() AS current_datetime;

25. **Explain types of join:**

- Inner Join: Retrieves rows that have matching values in both tables.

- Left Join: Retrieves all rows from the left table and matching rows from the right table.

- Right Join: Retrieves all rows from the right table and matching rows from the left table.

- Full Join: Retrieves all rows from both tables, including unmatched rows from each table.

26. **Explain various inbuilt function in SQL:**

- SQL provides various built-in functions for performing operations on data.

- Categories of functions include String functions, Numeric functions, Date functions, Aggregate
functions, Conversion functions, etc.

- Examples: CONCAT(), SUBSTRING(), ROUND(), DATEPART(), SUM(), AVG(), etc.

27. **Explain any four date function with example:**

- GETDATE(): Returns the current date and time.

- Example: SELECT GETDATE() AS current_datetime;

- DATEADD(): Adds or subtracts a specified time interval from a date.

- Example: SELECT DATEADD(day, 7, '2022-01-01') AS new_date;

- DATEDIFF(): Returns the difference between two dates.

- Example: SELECT DATEDIFF(day, '2022-01-01', '2022-01-10') AS date_difference;

- DATEPART(): Returns a specific part of a date (e.g., year, month).

- Example: SELECT DATEPART(year, '2022-01-01') AS year_part;

28. **What are views? Explain the advantages of views:**

- Views are virtual tables derived from one or more base tables.

- Views do not store data themselves but provide a dynamic result set based on the underlying
tables.
 - Advantages of views:

1. Data security: Views can restrict access to specific columns or rows, enhancing security.

2. Simplified querying: Views abstract complex SQL queries, making them easier to write and
understand.

3. Data abstraction: Views hide the underlying table structure, providing a layer of abstraction to
users.

4. Performance optimization: Views can precompute aggregated data or filter rows, improving
query performance.

29. **What do you mean by an index? Explain different types of indexes:**

- An index is a database object that improves the speed of data retrieval operations on a table.

- Types of indexes include:

1. Primary index: Automatically created when defining a primary key constraint. Used to enforce
uniqueness and speed up primary key lookups.

2. Unique index: Ensures that the indexed columns contain unique values, similar to a primary key
constraint.

3. Clustered index: Organizes table data physically based on the indexed columns, improving
range scans and sequential access.

4. Non-clustered index: Creates a separate structure from the table data, allowing for efficient
lookups and sorting operations.

30. **Explain types and causes of Database System Failure:**

- Types of failures include:

1. Hardware failure: Malfunction of storage devices, servers, or network components.

2. Software failure: Bugs, crashes, or compatibility issues in the database management system or
related software.

3. Human error: Accidental deletion, incorrect data entry, or misconfiguration of database

settings.

4. Natural disasters: Events like earthquakes, floods, or fires that damage physical infrastructure.

- Causes of failure vary in severity and impact on the database system's availability, integrity, and
performance.

31. **Role of Database Administration (DBA):**

- DBA is responsible for managing and maintaining the database system.

 - Roles include:

1. Performance tuning: Optimizing database performance through query optimization, indexing,

and resource allocation.

2. Security management: Implementing access controls, encryption, and auditing mechanisms to

protect data from unauthorized access or breaches.

3. Backup and recovery: Developing and executing backup strategies to ensure data availability
and disaster recovery.

4. User management: Creating and managing user accounts, permission and roles to control
access to data and resources.

32. **Explain types of Keys:**

- Primary Key:
1. Uniquely identifies each record in a table, ensuring data integrity.
2. Typically consists of one or more columns defined as NOT NULL.
3. Used as a reference in foreign key constraints to establish relationships between tables.
4. Indexed for faster data retrieval and to enforce uniqueness.
5. Example: EmployeeID in an employee table.

- Foreign Key:
1. Links a table with another table's primary key to establish relationships.
2. Enforces referential integrity, ensuring that values in the referencing table correspond to
values in the referenced table.
3. Helps maintain data consistency across related tables.
4. Can contain NULL values unless specified as NOT NULL.
5. Example: DepartmentID in an employee table referencing DepartmentID in a department
table.

- Candidate Key:
1. A set of attributes that can uniquely identify tuples in a relation.
2. Similar to the primary key but not chosen as the primary key.
3. Each candidate key is unique within the relation.
4. Can become the primary key if chosen by the database designer.
 5. Example: Both SSN (Social Security Number) and EmployeeID could be candidate keys in
an employee table.

- Super Key:
1. A set of attributes that uniquely identifies a tuple within a relation.
2. May include more attributes than necessary to uniquely identify a tuple.
3. Any subset of a super key is also a super key.
4. Can be a combination of candidate keys and other attributes.
5. Example: A combination of EmployeeID and Email in an employee table.

- Alternate Key:
1. A candidate key that is not selected to be the primary key.
2. Can uniquely identify tuples but is not chosen as the primary means of identification.
3. Exists alongside the primary key in a relation.
4. Example: Phone number in an employee table could be an alternate key if not chosen as the
primary key.
5. Used for querying and referencing tuples but does not hold the primary identifier status.

33. **Write a short note on Relational Data Model:**

- Relational Data Model:
1. Organizes data into tables (relations) consisting of rows and columns.
2. Each table represents an entity, with rows representing individual records and columns
representing attributes.
3. Supports relational operations like select, project, join, and set operations.
4. Ensures data integrity through keys, constraints, and normalization techniques.
5. Provides a flexible and standardized way of storing and querying structured data, widely
used in modern database management systems.

34. **Short Note on String Function:**

- String functions manipulate character string data stored in the database.
- Examples include functions for concatenation, substring extraction, case conversion, etc.
- These functions enhance the flexibility and usability of SQL queries for handling text data.
- String functions can be used for data cleaning, formatting, and transformation tasks.
 - Examples of string functions include CONCAT(), SUBSTRING(), UPPER(), LOWER(), etc.

35. **How to create View write syntax:**

- Syntax to create a view:
```sql
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
```
- view_name: Name of the view to be created.
- column1, column2: Columns to be included in the view.
- table_name: Name of the table from which data is to be retrieved.
- condition: Optional condition to filter rows in the view.

36. **What is a Database System Failure:**

- Database system failure occurs when a database system cannot perform its functions
correctly.
- Failures can result from hardware failures, software bugs, human errors, or natural disasters.
- Database failures can lead to data loss, corruption, or unavailability, affecting business
operations.
- Recovery mechanisms like backups, redundancy, and disaster recovery plans are essential to
mitigate the impact of failures.
- Monitoring, maintenance, and regular testing help identify and prevent potential failure
points in the database system.

37. **Explain inner join with example:**

- Inner join combines rows from two tables based on a related column between them.
- Retrieves only the rows with matching values in both tables.
- Excludes unmatched rows from the result set.
- Example:
```sql
SELECT *
 FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2 ON table1.column = table2.column;
```
- This query retrieves rows from table1 and table2 where the values in the specified column
match.

38. **Explain various inbuilt function in SQL:**

- SQL provides a variety of built-in functions for performing operations on data.
- Categories include string functions, numeric functions, date functions, aggregate functions,
conversion functions, etc.
- String functions manipulate character string data (e.g., CONCAT(), SUBSTRING()).
- Numeric functions perform operations on numeric data (e.g., ROUND(), ABS()).
- Date functions manipulate date and time data (e.g., GETDATE(), DATEADD()).
- Aggregate functions perform calculations on sets of values and return a single value (e.g.,
SUM(), AVG()).
- Conversion functions convert data from one data type to another (e.g., CAST(), CONVERT()).

39. **Explain DCL Command:**

- Data Control Language (DCL) commands are used to control access to data within a database.
- Examples of DCL commands include GRANT and REVOKE.
- GRANT: Grants specific privileges to users or roles, allowing them to perform certain actions
on database objects.
- REVOKE: Revokes previously granted privileges, restricting users' access to database objects.
- DCL commands are essential for managing data security and access control in a database
environment.

40. **How to create and delete views:**

- **Creating a view:**
```sql
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
```
 - view_name: Name of the view to be created.
- column1, column2: Columns to be included in the view.
- table_name: Name of the table from which data is to be retrieved.
- condition: Optional condition to filter rows in the view.

- **Deleting a view:**
```sql
DROP VIEW view_name;
```
- view_name: Name of the view to be deleted.

41. **How to create Index:**

- Syntax to create an index:
```sql
CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name);
```
- index_name: Name of the index to be created.
- table_name: Name of the table on which the index is created.
- column_name: Name of the column(s) to be indexed.

42. **Explain types and causes of Database System Failure:**

- Covered in question 36.

43. **Aggregate Function:**

- Aggregate functions perform calculations on a set of values and return a single

value.
- Examples include SUM(), AVG(), COUNT(), MAX(), and MIN().
- Used with the GROUP BY clause to calculate values for groups of rows.
- Example: SELECT SUM(salary) FROM employee; (Calculates the total salary of all employees)
44. **Key Constraints:**
- Key constraints enforce rules related to keys in a database table.
- Examples include PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY, UNIQUE, NOT NULL.
- PRIMARY KEY constraint ensures uniqueness and identifies a unique record in a table.
- FOREIGN KEY constraint establishes relationships between tables based on a primary key
and foreign key relationship.
- UNIQUE constraint ensures that values in a column or a combination of columns are unique.
- NOT NULL constraint ensures that a column does not contain NULL values.

45. **Explain Relational Data Model:**

- Covered in question 33.

46. **String Function – concat, instr:**

- CONCAT(): Concatenates two or more strings together.
- Example: SELECT CONCAT(first_name, ' ', last_name) AS full_name FROM employees;
- INSTR(): Returns the position of a substring within a string.
- Example: SELECT INSTR('hello world', 'world') AS position;

47. **Subqueries – IN, ALL:**

- IN: Checks whether a value matches any value in a subquery result.
- Example: SELECT * FROM products WHERE category_id IN (SELECT category_id FROM
categories WHERE category_name = 'Electronics');
- ALL: Compares a value to all values returned by a subquery.
- Example: SELECT * FROM orders WHERE order_amount > ALL (SELECT order_amount
FROM previous_orders);

48. **DML (Data Manipulation Language):**

- DML commands are used to manipulate data within a database.
- Examples include INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE.
- INSERT: Adds new rows of data into a table.
- UPDATE: Modifies existing data in a table based on specified conditions.
- DELETE: Removes rows of data from a table based on specified conditions.
- DML commands are essential for maintaining and updating the contents of database tables.