~H A PT ER

. ~ .
Defi ition ·. • , ·.• ' · : i; : th t is treated as a s1.ngle data 1tern. Each ch
,, ~

•••0 •• n • •
of characters t af the array in contiguous memory locations.
ti j t .,, ln ,

. .h
ence an eIemen o
A string 1s•a se•qutored as Th e strin g w1t zero character is
is s . haracter '\O'.
within the stnng m 11
a nu c
the strings are ter inated with
ing. , ~ -· _ . ,, ., _, .~ ., "f""'."
Empty string or Null str p•• rese nt at io n (?f1§ .~!.V.98 . ~;rt;:;_~....~' ,~ .
• str·,=ngQs"'"'<t.t'e ~~
'"'r1·~·ng I
··o
'm' ~'R e~ )'i•ifilit ♦ «W-~~, .._ r; ~
~-• •

>
0 rd NL) $➔re,-
' ,-; ~W
Th
C• ';:H ), t tt
ar.e·• •
three typ es. ey
Stnngs are generally stored in
• Fixed length storage
• Variable length storage
• Linked storage
(~ ~ ~ !. '~ h ti !d L :: '. ~ -= = ==-
~ F l! e d ~ g th stDrag8 aware of the storage
e of sto rag e wh ere len gth of string is fixed. ~ e are
• {It is a typ
of str ing cann ot be ch an ge d, once define9! ._!4or example;
n$rirement. Length
/ char country[20]; /
otted for the string co un tr y
~
20 m em ory loc ati on s are all
Here,
ea te a str in g co nsistin g of th e word "INDIA''. To bo!d
/ The following initialization cr size of the ch arac ter array containing the stnng JS
array, the
~-character at the end of the rs in ·the word "INDIA".
than the nu m be r of ch ara cte
one more
', 'I', 'A', '\ O '} )
char countryf6] = ( 'I', 'N', 'D
t as
arr ay in itializa tio n the n yo u can write the above statemen
If you follow the rule of
follows:
char country[ J="INDIA";
 (!onow ing is the memory representation of the above defined string in C.

[ Index I 0 I 1 I 2 I 3 I 4 I 5

[ Variable I N D I A \0

[ Address I0XlOOO I 0XlOOl I 0X1002 I 0X1003 I 0X1004 j 0X1005 l)

~ant ages :
• Easy to accessing data from any given record.
_ / • Easy to updating data in any given record.
/Disad vantag es:
• • Time is wasted reading an entire record, if most of the storage consists of
inessential blank spaces.
• Certain records may require more space than available.
• When the correction consists of more or fewer characters than the original text,
changing a misspelled word requires the entire record to be changed.

(!t is a type of st.ring whose length is unknown as the name suggests. Storage container
contracts and expands according to requirement of string length. For example:

Ich~ *ci~y; J)
city. _
This means that the memory locations are allotted based on input string for the string
_..._ --·---
~dvan tages : These ways of storing strings will obviously save space and are sometimes
used in secondary Il!emory when records are relatively permanent.
/f)isadvantages : Storage are usually inefficient when the strings and their lengths are
frequently being changed.
2,2..
( Strings may be stored in linked list Each memory cell is assigned one character or a
fixed _n~mber of characters, and a link contained in the cell giv~s the address of the cell
contaimng the next character or group of characters in the strin~
( Example:
Consider the string "BSC AND BCA'' stored in memory as follows:
fil3-.tsH ►lcH ►I H ►IAl•I ►INl•I ►lol-l ►I 1-1 ~el-I ►lcl•I ►IAI-I ►,
 /4v ant age s: . .
• Modification, Inse rtion and Dele tion oper ation .
s are easi er.
• Storage representation is efficient.
/ois adv anta ges :
• Extr a mem ory is required for the link field.
• One cannot directly access a character in the mid
dle of the list.
~ ti •"&S'AoT" ·~:::
~ g_~, ~ ...
~' • ;
n : ··=·-: .-~ ~- ·' l
t> "....,
• -~~ - :-• ' • ~ • • ~ • ,
• - - • lWHr>c ••• S' "--''.... ...t....i_ ......,.;. ......._.

[Th e string Abstract Data Type (ADT) consists

of a set of valu es, a defined set of
properties of these values, and a set of operations
for proc essin g the values. The string
ADT values are all sequences of characters up to a specified
length. The re are various string
operations as follows:
• Return the n th character in a string.
• Set the nth character in a string to c.
• Find the length of a string.
• Concatenate two strings.
• Copy a string.
• Delete part of a string )
• Modify and compare strings in other w ~
( " The following is a set of operations we might want
to do on strings:
L[i"ength(str) Returns the number of characters in the string.
pos(strl,str2) Returns the position of the first occurrence of str2 ~
d•
0 1'f no mac
t h. oun 1n str1, or
concat(strl,str2) Reruns a new s~ing consisting of characters in strlfollo
wed by str .
substring(strl,i,n) Returns a substnng of length n starting at pos'ti . . 2
1 .
delete(str,i,n) , Deletes n characters from str starting at positionon i.
z 10 string str.
instfrt(stlli, str2, i)Changes strl into a new string with str2 inse t d .
compare.(strl,str2) Returns an integer indicating whether strl>str r e 10 posi.tion i
~~ ::; .., ,.. ,;, ,c _~ --- --- -.. ..: .:. :..2.:. . •
Example: .~ --- _J ~
Let STR be a string. There are a number of ways in whic ,.,
h this string c be . "
as shown in below: an 1mplemented
Suppose STR= "COMPUTER"
(i) In this case as the length is known, it can be implemented
'
the first element denotes the length of the strmg. h as a fixed length array, where
as s own below:
[8, C,O,M,P,U,T,E,R] .
(ii) If the length is not known, it can be implemented as an
array but With the end of th
string indicated using a special "NULL'' character de~o
ted by '\O' as shown below~
Memory can then be dynamically allocated for the string one we know its length
.
[C,O,M,P,U,T,E,R,\0]

I
 The various string operations are:
I/

• String length, /
l
l

l 'I
J•
• String concatenation
., -I
• String copy
I
j I
I

'
• String Comparison v
- l
I
• String reverse {_,,,/
I

,I
!
• I I •. ., • I

• Substring

we have a library
•!Th e number of characters in string is called its length. In C language,
ftmction called strlen() and the general form for strlen() function is:
Istrlen (string); y _ __
~or ithm :
- - - - - - I•,
- - - - - - -

Step 1: [Initialize], strl, length, i;

- - - - - - -

Step 2: Repeat step 3 while ( *str != '\0').

Step 3: Set str=str+l and i=i+l
.,
Step 4: Set len=i;
Step 5: Return len

/* Length of the string using pointer */

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int length(char *str);
void main()
{
char str[20];
int n;
clrscr();
printf(" String Length \n ");
printf(" ----------------- \n");
printf(''\n Enter a string \n");
gets(str);
_n=length(str2;
printf("\n String Length=O/o~",n);
getch();
}
int length(char *str) '
{
int i=O; J
 while(*str != '\0 ')
{
str++;
i++;
}
return (i);
}
Th e above program prod
uces th e following resu
lt:
String Le ng th
-----------------
En te r a string
College
String Length =7

rA pp en di ng on e string
to th e en d of another
C~ gu ag e, w e have a string is ca lle d string
library function called concatenation. In
function is: strcat() an d th e ge ne ra
l form for str
cat()

Example:
Istrcat (string-1,string-2~
Le t str1= "Computer" an
d str2= "Science,,.
If we concatenate st rl w
ith str2, then we get the
string "C om pu te rS ci en
~ o r it h m : ce ,,.

Step 1: [Initialize], str l,

str2 , ~ ...
Step 2:Repeat step 3 whi
le(*strl !='\O').
Step 3:Set strl =strl + 1
Step 4:Repeat step 5 whi
le (*str2!='\0').
Step 5: Set *strl=*str2
Set st rl= st rl + 1
Set str2=str2+ 1
Step 6: Set *s trl = '\O'
Step 7: Return str1
•

/* Concatenation of two
strings using pointer */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
char concatenate(char *s
trl , char *str2);
 void main()
{
char strl[40],str2[20];
int n;
clrscr();
printf(" String Concatenation \n");
printf(" ----------------- \n");
. printf( "Enter First string \n"); •• .
gets(str1);
printf( "Enter Second string \n");
gets(str2);
.~oncatenate(str l ,str2);
printf("Concatenated String is 0/os",strl);
getch();
}
_char concatenate(char *strl, char *str2)
·t
while( *strl !='\0')
strl++ ;
while(*str2 !='\0')
{
*strl=* str2;
strl++ ;
str2++;

~~-
}
*strl= '\0';
return(0); }
J) ., .

The above progra m produc es the following result:

String Conca tenatio n

Enter First string

Compu ter
Enter Second string
Scienc e
Conca tenated String is ComputerScience

s· Copying one string to anothe r string charac ter by character is known as string copy. The
InizeCof the destination
• string
• should be greater than equal
to the size
• of the source string.
•
1
fun .an~age , we have a library functio n called strcpy( ) and the general form for strcpy()
Ction is:
I

Istrcpy (string? ,string-j); I

 Step 1: [Initialize], str1,str2
Step 2: Repeat step 3 while (*strl !='\0').
Step 3: Set *str2=*strj_
Set strl =str l + 1 I

Set str2=str2+ 1
Step 4: Set *str2='\0'
Step 5: Return str2 I

••

/* Cop y one strin g to ano ther · using pointer */

#include<stdio.h> • I

#include<conio.h>
char copy(char *str l, char *str2); . .'

void main() ,
{
char strl[20],str2[20]; •
int n;
cksc r();
printf(" Strin g Cop y \n");
printf(" -------------- \n ");
prin tf(''\ n Ente r a string \n") ;
gets (strl );
copy (strl ,str2 );
p~n tf(:'\ n Giv~n Stri~g is 0/os",strl);
prm tf( '\n Cop ied String is O/os",str2);
getch();
}
char copy(char *str l, char *str2) ·
{
whil e(*s trl !='\O')
{
*str 2=* strl;
strl+ +;
str2++;
}
*str 2='\ 0' '•
,
return (0);
}
 { .
(iNTRODUCTION TO STRINGS

The above program produces the.following result:

String Copy .
---------------
Enter a string
College
Given String is College
Copied String is College
_....,........___..........,.._______-"'":"'.~
. .4 String C·omparison . '. •' i .

/This function compares two strings to find out whether they are sa_m_e_o·r- different. In
c);nguage, we have a library function called strcmp() and the general form for strcmp()
function is:

C strcmp (string-1,string-2);
The strcmp() function returns one of the following value:
0 - both strings are equal
-1 - string-I less than string-2
+ 1 - string- I greater than string-2
~ample:
~ char strl[lO]= "India";
char str2[10]= "India"; \

01 strcmp (strl,str2); /
the aboVe example, returns the value 0, since both strings are equak'
,orithm:
Step 1: [Initialize], strl, str2
Step 2: Repeat step 3 and step 4 while (*sl == *s2).
Step 3: if (*sl=='\O' && *s2=='\0')
Return (1)
Step 4: Set sl=sl+I
Set s2=s2+1
Step 5: Return
Program:
/* String Comparison using pointers */
#include <stdio.h>
int compare(char *sl, char *s2);
void main()
{
char sl [20],s2[20];
int x=O;
clrscr();
printf(" String Comparison \n");
• &(" ------------------ \n")·,
pnnti,
 printf("Enter the first string \n");
scanf("O/os",s 1); •
printf("Enter the second string \n");
scanf("O/os",s2);
x=compare(s l ,s2);
if (x==l)
printf(" 1\vo strings are identical");
else
printf(" 1\vo strings are not identical");
getch();
}
int compare(char *sl, char *s2)
{
while (*s 1 == *s2)
{
if( *s1==' \0' && *s2=='\0')
retum( l);
s1++;
s2++;
}
return (0);
}
The above program produce s the following result:

String Comparison
-----------------------
Enter the first string
India
Enter the second string
India
Two strings are identical

It is used to find the reverse of the given string. In C language, we have a library functio
. . n
ailed strrev() and the general form for strrev() function is:

[strlen (strin g);~

 Step 1: [Initialize], str1, str2, i
Step 2: Repeat step 3while (strl [i] !='\O').
Step 3: Set i = i + 1
Step 4: Repeat step 5 for j=i-1 too.
Step 5: Set *str2=*(strl +j)
Set str2 = str2+ 1
Step 6: Set *str2='\0'
Step 7: Return

/* Reverse of a String using C */

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
char reverse (char *strl, char *str2, inti);
void main()
{
char str1[25], str2[25]; I t
int i=O;
clrscr();
printf (" String Reverse \n");
printf(" ------------------ \n");
printf("Enter a string \n");
gets(str1);
while(strl [i] !='\O')
i++;
reverse (str1, str2, i);
printf("\n Reverse string is 0/os" ,str2);
getch();
}
char reverse (char *strl, char *str2, inti)
{
intj;
for(j=i-1 ;j>=O;j--)
{
*str2=*(strl +j);
str2++;
}
*str2='\0';
return (0);
}
 The above program produc es the following result:
String Reverse

Enter a string
Colleg e
Reverse string is
egello C

a
I'This function is used to extrac t a part of string from the given string. Accessing
s ~ g from a given string require s three pieces of information: .
• The name of the string
• The positio n of the first charac ter of the substring in ·the given s~ng.
• The length of the substri ng or the position of the last character of the substring.
We call this operat ion SUBS TRING , and we write
SUBS TRING (string, initial, length);
·/
Step 1: [Initialize], strl, str2, s, n
Step 2:Repeat step 3 for i=s to s+n.
Step 3: Set *str2=*(strl +i)
Set str2=str2+ 1
Step 4: Set *str?='\O';
Step 5: Return

/* Substr ing operation using C */

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h> .
char substr(char *strl, char *str2, inti, intj);
void main()
{
char strl [25],str2[25];
int s,n;
• clrscr();
printf (" Substring \n ");
printf(" ----------- \n ");
printf("Enter a string \n");
gets(strl);
printf("Enter starting position \n");
scanf("O/od",&s);
printf("Enter number of character· \n");
scanf("O/od",&n);
I
substr(strl ,str2,s,n);
 ----
printf(''\n Substrin._g is 0/os" ,str2);
·getch();
.}
,ohar substr(char *s·tr1, char *str2,int s, -int a)
I{
inti;
for(i=s;i<=s+n-1 ;i++)
:{
*str2=*(strl +i);
6tr2++;
J
*str2= '\()'.;
·re.tuvn ,(0); J
The .above JJrqgram produces ~the frillow:ing ,result:
; SubstriQg
l
' ----·------"-
;· Enter a stiiing
~College
; iEnter ,staning \positien
3
? Enter -number,of!character
3
StibstriQg is :leg

( A word processor needs to keep formatting information as well as the text sequence
i&elf. This formatting information can be ·kept as a tree where the leaves of the tree are
pieces\ A word in bold face would be kept as a s~parate piece so it .could be pointed to by a
"boll format node in the format tree.
(Given. some printed text, the operations usually associated with word _prooessing,are the
fofrowing:

:Insertion Inserting a string,in the middle of.the•text.

Deletion : Deleting a •stliing :from .the·text.
·Replacement ! ·Replacing one string in the text ·by another.

A ·suppose in a given text T -we want itO insert a string S so that ~s begins ,in ·position K.
~ sllsume the storage position of the string begins with index O. Werdenote this operation as
10 ows:
 l1--_ _IN_S_E_RT__;.(T_,_K,_S_)_ __,,

INSERT ("FIRSTPMCS", 5, "YE AR" ) ="FIRSTYEARPMCS"

-,
INSERT ("PMCSFIRST", 9, ~'YEAR") ="PMCSFIRSTYEAR"

Supp ose in a given text T, we want to delet e the substring whic

h begins at position K
has lengt h L. we deno te this operation as follows:

DELETE(T, K, L)
I
Example:
DELETE ("FIRSTPMCS", 5, 4) = "FIR ST"
DELETE ("PMCSFIRSTYEAR", 0,4) = "FIR STY EAR "

Suppose in a given text T, we want to replace the first occu rrenc

e of a patte rn P by a
pattern P2. We will denote this operation as follows: 1

l REPLACE(T, P , P ) •
1 2 1
Example:
REPL ACE ("FIRSTPMCS", "FIRST", "BSC ")=" BSC PMC S"
REPL ACE ("FIRSTBCA", "YEAR", "BSC ") ="FI RST BCA "
l
In the first case, the patte rn FIRST is replaced by BSC. In the
. seco nd case th
YEA R does not occur, and henc e there 1n no change. .
e patte•rn
'

-~~-
it is also calle d Indexing, refers to finding the posit. .ion wher ! l -
e a stri
appers in a given string text T. we call this operation INDE X
and wrtie, ng patte rn P first
I INDE X(T, P) I
String matching consists of searching a query string (or pattern)
Pin a given text T
• Generally, the size of the pattern to be searched is smaller than
. the g·tven •
• Ther e may be more than one occurrences of the pattern Pin the text
text T s .•
we have to find all the occurrences of the pattern in the text.
• omet unes
• There ar~ several applications of the string matching. Some of
. al applicati these ~ su h
Text editors, Search engines, Biologic ons C as
,
• Since string-matching algorithms are used extensively, these
should be e~ . nt
uic1e
. in terms of time and space
)
/
Text : STRl = "FIRST YEAR CS"
Pattern: STR2 = "CS"
0 1 2 .3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
[FI I IR Is IT I IYIEIAIR I -

There is a match STR2 with the index 11 in the text STRl

Step 1: [Initialize], str 1, str2, n, max

Step 2: Set max=strlen(strl) -strlen(str2) + 1
Step 3: Repeat step 4 through step 6 for i=O to max.
Step 4: Set found=l •
Step 5: Repeat step 6 for j=O to strlen(str2) && found.
Step 6: if (*(strl +i+j) != *(stt2+j)) •
Set found=O
Step 7: if (found)
Return (i);
Step 8~Set2str2=!\Q '--
Step 9: Return

•
/*String Pattern Matching */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int search(char *strl, char *str2);
void main()
{
char strl [30],str2[15];
int n;
clrscr();
printf (" Pattern Matching \n");
printf(" --------------------- \n");
printf("Enter a Text \n");
gets( str 1);
printf("Enter a Pattern \n");
gets(str2);
if (strlen(strl)<strlen(str2))
{
printf("\n Pattern length must be less than Text");

•
 return;
}
n=search(strl, str2);
• ..
if (n==O)
Test");
printf("\n Pattern is not found in the
else
d",'n);
printf(''\n Pattern is found at Index 0/o
getch();
}
int search (Char *strl, char *str2)
{
int i,j, max, .found;
max=strlen(strl)-strlen(str2) +1.;
for (i=O; i<max;i++)
{
found=l;
~or(j==O;j <strlen(str2) && found; j+
+)

• if (*(strl +i+j)!== *(str2+j))

found=O;
}
if (found)
return (i);
}
return (O); •
}

lowing result:
The above program produces the fol
Pattern Matching,
--------------------- t •
• Enter a Text I

:
First Year cs
·Enter a Pattern '

cs !
i
• Pattern is found at In ~ 11 I .
r
i