a) PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Process theories attempt to describe and analyze how personal factors interact and influence
each other behavior
Expectancy theory
This theory was formulated by Victor Vroom in 1964. The assumption of this theory is that
motivation is a conscious process in which decisions lawfully relate to psychological events.
Four assumption about the cause of behavior in organization provide the basis for this theory:
1. Combination of forces in the individual and environment determines behavior.
2. Individuals make decision about their behavior in organization. Although many
constraints are placed on individual behavior (e.g. rules, regulation, technology and work
groups norm), most individuals make two kinds of conscious decision;
i) Decision about coming to work, staying with the same organization or joining
other organization and joining membership
ii) Decision about how much to produce, how hard to work, and the quality of
workmanship
3. Different individuals have different needs and goals. Employees want different kinds of
outcome from their work e.g. job security, promotion, good pay etc.
4. Individual decide among alternatives based on their perceptions, of whether a given
behavior will lead to a desired outcome. Individual tend to do the things that they
perceive will lead to desirable reward and avoid doing the things that they perceive will
lead to undesirable outcomes.

Variables of the theory

a) First level outcomes – These are the result of behaviors associated with doing
the job itself. They include results such as productivity, absenteeism, turnover
and quality of work
b) Second level outcomes- Are those consequences (either positive or negative)
that first outcomes are likely to produce, such as a pay increase, promotion,
acceptance by co-workers and job security among others.
c) Expectancy is the belief that a particular level of effort will be followed by a
particular level of performance. Expectancy has a value ranging from 0,
indicating no chance that a first-level of outcome will occur after the behavior.
+1, indicating certainty that a particular first level outcome will follow a
behavior, e.g. if you believe that you have no chance of getting a high grade in
the next exam by studying this course, then your expectancy value will be 0,
therefore you might not put an effort to study the course.
d) Valence refers to the strength of a person’ preference for a particular outcome
such as reward. E.g. if a teacher strongly wants a promotion, then promotion
has a high valence for that teacher. An outcome is positively valent when a
person prefers attaining it and negative or 0, valence when a person prefers not
attaining it. The kind of valence that workers attach to outcomes(rewards) is
influenced by age, educational level and the type of work, for instance, a
young teacher is likely to give les emphasis to retirement benefit than an old
 teacher. Likewise, a newly trained graduate teacher may have a stronger desire
for career advancement than an older teacher with less education.
e) Instrumentality is the probability that performance (first level outcome) will
lead to a desired reward (second level outcome). It represents the belief by the
employee that a reward will be received once the task has been accomplished.
The core of the expectancy theory relates to how the person perceives the relationship
between effort, performance and rewards

Implication of Expectancy theory to education Management

 Educational managers should enhance teachers’ ability that will lead to
performance through further training, supervision, guidance, counselling and
participation in job-related decision
 Educational management should design reward systems which are based on
actual performance
 It is incumbent upon educational managers to ensure that teachers are matched
to their jobs
 Educational management should be cognizant of the teachers’ abilities and
traits so that so that they can be used in job placement in order to enhance
performance
 Educational managers should clarify job objective during the teachers’
induction and orientation
 The expectancy theory model provides educational managers with a strategy
for integrating teachers’ needs, desires and goals with those of the educational
organization
EQUITY THEORY OF WORK MOTIVATION
Equity theory which has root in the social exchange theory was developed by
Festinger’s and later refined by John Stacy Adams in 1963. The theory postulate
that individuals compare the ratio of their inputs and outcomes to the input-
outcome ration of another person. Adams argues that a major input into job
performance and satisfaction is the degree of equity or inequity that people
perceive in their work situations. He further argues that inequity exists for a
person whenever he or she perceives that the ratio of his or her outcomes to input
and the ratio of other’s outcome to other’s input are unequal.
Inputs represent what an individual contribute to an exchange while outcome are
what an individual receives from the exchange
Table: Typical input and outcomes in an organization setting
Inputs Outcomes
Age Challenging job assignment
Attendance Fringe benefit
Communication skills Job perquisites
Interpersonal skills Job security
Job effort (long hours) Monotony
Level of education Promotion
Past experience Recognition
Personal appearance Responsibilities
 Seniority Salary
Social status Seniority benefit
Technical skills Status symbols
Training Working conditions
Sources: Hellriegel, Skocum and Woodman (1989) p. 164
Equity exists whenever the ratio of a person’s outcomes to inputs equals the ratio of outcome
to inputs for others. For example, an individual may feel properly paid in terms of what he or
she puts into the job compared to what other workers are getting for their inputs. Inequity
exists when the ratio of outcomes to inputs are not equal. For example, if a person works
harder and put mores hours in the job and given the same salary or benefits like his co-
workers who put little effort and time, then inequity exist. Inequity can also exist when
people are overpaid. In this case, the overpaid employees might be motivated by guilty or
social pressure to work harder to reduce the imbalance between their inputs and outcomes in
comparison to their co-workers.

Consequences of Inequity
 People can change their inputs either upward or downward to what might be an
equitable level
 People can change their outcomes to restore equity
 People can distort their own inputs and outcomes
 People can leave the organization or can request to transfer to another department
 People can shift to a new reference group to reduce the source of the inequity
 People can distort the input and output of others
Implication of Equity theory in education management
 Educational managers should be aware of the social comparison processes among
teachers themselves and also between them and those working outside the teaching
profession. For instance, if teachers still think that their salaries are inequitable
compared to others with similar qualification in the public service, then there is little
reason to expect them to increase their effort in the teaching assignment
 Equity theory requires educational managers to have a thorough evaluation of the way
in which the rewards are distributed among teachers.

GOAL SETTING THEORY

The proponent of Goal setting theory are Edwin A. Locke and Gary P. Latham. According to
this theory, Locke indicates, the values and value judgement are cognitive determinants of
behavior. Locke defines value and value judgment as the things the individual acts upon to
gain and keep. He further says that emotions or desires are the way a person experience these
values. Intentions or goals, which act together with values, are also important determinants of
behavior.
According to Locke, people work
 had to achieve goals so as to satisfy their emotions and desires. He emphasizes that for goals
setting theory to work, employees must show commitments as one’s attachment to or
determination to reach a goal. After an employee has set the goals to be achieved, he or she
then responds and perform accordingly. The results of these responses are consequences,
feedback or reinforcement.
Functions of goal setting theory to employees
 Goal setting theory helps an employee to focus his or her attention on a particular
tasks or objective
 It regulates or increase employees’ efforts
 It enhances workers’ persistence on a task. Goals constantly remind workers of where
they are going and how they are moving.
 It enables workers to become more creative in charting out new strategies and action
plans for achieving the agreed upon results.

Goal setting steps

i.
Managers set out specific goals which are not too difficult for workers to achieve.
They should be measurable and challenging. Difficult but achievable goals lead to
better employee-performance than easy goals. If the goals are too difficult to
achieve, workers get frustrated and this reduces their motivation and hence work
performance.
ii. Workers are made to participate in goal- setting so that they feel that these goals
are their own. Workers who effectively participate in the goal- setting process
perform better than those for whom goals have been prescribed.
iii. Management provides the workers with appropriate support and resources for goal
achievement.
iv. The Management should provide an objective and timely feedback about the
employees’ progress toward goal attainment. The feedback should inform
employees what they are doing right and what they are doing wrong. Feedback
should be well timed if employees are expected to benefit from it.
Goal setting theory in educational management
This theory is widely applied in educational management since education is a highly results-
oriented sector. Educational managers must be conversant with generals aims and goals of
education of the country. These goals should be anchored in the curriculum and management
should help teachers to achieve their goals through lesson plans, scheme of work and
participative decision making.
Management by objectives (MBO)
Goal setting can be applied by the use of management by objectives. MBO was first coined
by Drucker in 1950 in his book, the Practice of Management. He aimed at harmonizing
individuals’ managers’ goal with those of the organization. He felt that MBO would lead to
improved organizational performance and employee satisfaction.
Steps in an MBO programme
i. Setting overall objectives and action plans
 ii. Developing the organization for MBO
iii. Setting individual objectives and action plans
iv. Periodic appraisal, feedback and adjustments
v. Final appraisal of results
JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL
The model was developed by J Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham in 1976. The model
recognizes that certain job characteristic contribute to certain psychological states and that the
strength of employee’s need for growth has an important moderating effect.
Five job characteristics
i. Skill variety
ii. Task identity
iii. Task-significant
iv. Autonomy
v. Feed back