Principle of celestial navigation

- Celestial navigation is a way to find your location on Earth by looking at the Sun, Moon, stars, or
planets. It works by measuring how high these celestial bodies appear in the sky using a tool called a
sextant and noting the exact time of the observation. Since their positions in the sky change in a
predictable way, navigators can use a special book called a nautical almanac to compare their
measurements and figure out where they are. Each observation gives a rough idea of location, and
taking multiple readings helps pinpoint an exact spot. Even though we now have GPS, celestial navigation
is still an important backup for sailors and pilots in case technology fails.

Celestial bodies used for navigation

- Celestial navigation is a way to find direction and location by looking at objects in the sky, like the Sun,
Moon, stars, and planets. The Sun is the most commonly used because it is bright and easy to measure
during the day. By tracking how high it is in the sky at different times, sailors and explorers can estimate
their position. The Moon can also be helpful at night, but since it moves quickly and changes shape, it
requires precise calculations. Stars are some of the most reliable guides, especially at night. There are 57
specific navigational stars that sailors use because their positions are well-documented. One of the most
important is Polaris (the North Star), which almost always stays in the same spot above the North Pole. If
you can see Polaris, you can tell which way is north and even estimate how far you are from the equator.
In the Southern Hemisphere, navigators look for the Southern Cross, a group of stars that helps
determine direction. Planets like Venus, Jupiter, Mars, and Saturn can also be used for navigation when
they are visible. They are bright and follow predictable paths, making them useful in the absence of
stars. By measuring the angles of these celestial bodies above the horizon and using special charts,
navigators can calculate their exact position on Earth. Even though modern GPS has made navigation
easier, learning how to use the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets is still an important skill, especially as a
backup when technology fails.

the Equinoctial system

To use the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars for navigation, we need to know where they are in the sky at a
given time. Their positions are mapped using different systems, depending on the purpose. The main
systems used for this are the Equinoctial System, the Horizon System, and the Ecliptic System, each
helping to track celestial objects in a specific way. The equinoctial is an imaginary line in the sky that
matches Earth’s equator. It’s like taking Earth’s equator and extending it out into space, forming a giant
circle around the sky. This circle helps astronomers and navigators track the movement of celestial
bodies. The Equinoctial System helps sailors and pilots find their location by using the positions of stars,
the Sun, the Moon, and planets. Since these celestial bodies move in a predictable way, their positions at
any given time are recorded in special books called nautical almanacs. By measuring how high a celestial
body is in the sky using a sextant and comparing it to the data in the almanac, navigators can figure out
where they are on Earth. How it works
- To pinpoint a celestial object, two key measurements are used: declination (Dec) and right ascension
(RA). Declination is like latitude, telling us how far a star or planet is from the celestial equator. If it's
north of the equator, it has a positive number; if it's south, it's negative. Right ascension, similar to
longitude, tells us how far an object is from a starting point in the sky called the vernal equinox—the
spot where the Sun crosses the celestial equator every March. But instead of using degrees, RA is
measured in hours, minutes, and seconds, covering 24 hours around the sky.

Horizon system
- The Horizon System is a way to find where a star, planet, or the Sun is in the sky based on your own
location. It works by using two simple directions: altitude and azimuth. Altitude tells you how high
something is above the horizon. If an object is at 0°, it’s right on the horizon, and if it’s at 90°, it’s directly
above you (at the zenith). Azimuth tells you the direction along the horizon, starting from 0° at north,
moving 90° for east, 180° for south, and 270° for west. For example, if a star has an altitude of 45° and an
azimuth of 200°, that means it is halfway up in the sky and slightly west of south. This system is useful
because it tells navigators exactly where to look for celestial objects at a specific time. Sailors use it with
a sextant to measure the altitude of the Sun or a star, then compare that information with navigation
charts to help determine their location. However, because the Earth keeps rotating, the positions of
celestial objects change quickly, so measurements need to be taken at the right moment.

Hour angles
The hour angle in celestial navigation is a way to measure how far a celestial object (like the Sun or a
star) has moved across the sky from a specific reference point. It tells navigators how much time has
passed since the object was last directly overhead. Hour angle is measured in degrees (from 0° to 360°)
or time (in hours, minutes, and seconds). Since Earth rotates 15° per hour, each hour of hour angle
equals 15 degrees of movement across the sky. The key reference point is the observer’s meridian (an
imaginary line running from north to south through their location).

Local Hour Angle (LHA): The angle between an observer’s meridian and the celestial object, measured
westward.

Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA): The angle between the Prime Meridian (0° longitude) and the celestial
object, also measured westward.

Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA): Used for stars, measuring their position relative to the vernal equinox instead
of the Prime Meridian.

Navigators use hour angles to determine their longitude. By measuring a celestial body’s altitude and
knowing its hour angle from tables like the Nautical Almanac, they can calculate their exact position at
sea or in the air.

Equation of time
- The Equation of Time explains why the Sun doesn’t always reach its highest point in the sky exactly at
noon on a clock. This happens because Earth's orbit is not a perfect circle and is slightly tilted. As a
result, the Sun sometimes appears ahead or behind our standard clock time. For sailors and navigators,
this is important when calculating Local Apparent Noon (LAN)—the exact moment the Sun is directly
overhead at their location. To find this, they check the Nautical Almanac, which lists the time difference
for each day. If the Sun is behind clock time, the difference is negative; if it’s ahead, it’s positive. When it
comes to global time, there are different systems. UT1 (Universal Time 1) is based on Earth's actual
rotation, while UTC (Coordinated Universal Time) is the official world time, kept precise using atomic
clocks. Since Earth’s rotation isn’t perfectly steady, scientists occasionally add a leap second to UTC to
keep it in sync with UT1. Meanwhile, GPS Time—used in navigation systems—is a continuous time
system without leap seconds. Instead, GPS receivers adjust the time automatically based on a built-in
correction. This makes GPS Time essential for precise navigation, as it helps keep everything running
smoothly without the small interruptions caused by leap seconds.

Nautical almanacs
- The Nautical Almanac is a book that helps sailors navigate by using the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets. It
provides key information needed to determine a ship's position at sea. The most important data in the
almanac include the Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA) and Declination (Dec.) of celestial bodies at any given
moment in Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). These values help navigators calculate the Local Hour Angle
(LHA) using the formula:

LHA = GHA ± Longitude (adding or subtracting depending on whether the location is east or west).

The almanac also includes useful details like the times of sunrise, sunset, moonrise, moonset, twilight,
and other planning information. For the Sun, Moon, and planets, GHA and Dec. are listed for every hour
of the year. For stars, a slightly different system is used, involving the Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA), which
remains nearly constant for several days. The GHA of Aries, another reference point, is provided for each
hour, and permanent tables help adjust values for minutes and seconds. In simple terms, the almanac
acts like a detailed map of the sky, allowing navigators to use celestial bodies to figure out where they
are on Earth.

Norie’s table
- Norie’s Table is a set of mathematical and astronomical tables used in celestial navigation to help sailors
and navigators calculate their position at sea. It is part of a larger book called "Norie’s Nautical Tables,"
first published in the 19th century and still used today as a backup for modern navigation tools like GPS.
The tables provide quick solutions for complex calculations, including:

Sight Reduction: Helps navigators find their latitude and longitude by simplifying calculations related to
celestial bodies.

Trigonometrical Functions: Includes logarithms, sine, cosine, tangent, and secant values needed for
navigation math.

Sun, Moon, and Star Positions: Lists data to help determine the location of celestial objects at different
times.

Great Circle Sailing: Provides calculations for finding the shortest route between two points on a curved
Earth. By using Norie’s Table along with a sextant (to measure the height of celestial objects) and a
nautical almanac (to get accurate star and planet positions), sailors could safely navigate the oceans long
before electronic systems existed.