Vector Analysis

Introduction: Generally, We use two types of quantities in Mathematics and Science

such as,
1. Scalars quantities.
2. Vectors quantities.
Scalars: A scalar is a quantity which has only magnitude but no direction.
Ex: Time, distance, mass, volume, temperature, real number etc.

Vectors: A vector is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction.

Ex: Displacement, velocity, momentum, acceleration etc.

Representing Vectors: The method of representing vectors is very important for

understanding of vectors. We use ray to represent a vector. We name a vector using
lowercase or uppercase letters.
 Take note that vector can be represented by both uppercase and lower case
letters.
 When a vector is represented by upper case letters, we use the notation → or
←. Ex: AB, AB

Modulus or magnitude of vector: The module or magnitude of vectors is a positive

number which measures the length of vector in a suitable unit.

Ex: If a,b, c etc. be the vectors, the modulus of the vector are a,b,c etc. Where | a | = a,
| b | = b, | c | = c etc. And if AB, BC, PQ, RS are the vectors, the modules are |AB |, |
BC | or |PQ |, etc.

Unit vectors: A unit vectors is a vector whose module or measure is unity, If a be any
vector and a be its module then α is an unit vector in the direction of vector a. We will
denote unit vector by the symbol a or e in this book unless state otherwise.
Similarly if b, c, d are the vector, their unit vector are respectively�' , �' , �' . The unit
vector is used for its direction only.
Thus� = a�' , � = b�' , � = c�' etc.

A null vector: A null vector is a vector whose module or magnitude is zero and is
denoted by 0.
|�| = 0, we define a as a zero vector.

Coplanar Vectors: A system of vector is said to be coplanar if their support are

parallel to the same plane.

Components of vectors:
The vectors A1iˆ, A2 ˆj and A3 kˆ are called the rectangular component vectors or

simply components vector of A in the x, y, and z
directions respectively.

A1 , A2 , and A3 are called the rectangular components or simply components of A in
the x, y, and z directions respectively.
 
The sum or resultant of A1iˆ, A2 ˆj and A3 kˆ is the vector A so that we can write

A  A1iˆ  A2 ˆj  A3 kˆ .
 
The magnitude of A is A  A  A21  A2 2  A2 3 .
In particular, the position vector or radius vector r from 0 to the point x, y, z  is

written
 
r  xiˆ  yˆj  zkˆ , and has magnitude r  r  x 2  y 2  z 2 .

Laws of vector algebra:

   
1: A  B  B  A Commutative law for addition
     
2: A  ( B  C )  ( A  B)  C Associative law for addition
 
3: Am  mA Commutative law for multiplication
 

4: m nA  ( mn ) A
 


Associative law for multiplication
5: m  n  A  mA  nA Distributive law

 
 
6: m A  B  mA  mB

Distributive

Ex.1: Using vectors, prove that any triangle���

b2 +c2−a2 c2+a2−b2 a2 +b2 −c2

(i)cosA = 2bc
, (ii)cosB = 2ca
and (iii)cosC = 2ab

Solution:
(i) Let ABC be any triangle and �� = �, �� = �, �� = �.
∴ �� + �� + �� = 0
⇒�+�+�=0
⇒ � + � =− �
∴− � = � + �…………(i)
Multiplying both sides by�, we get
−�. � = �. (� + �)
⇒ −a2 =− (� + �). (� + �)[From equation (i)]
⇒a2 = �. � + �. � + �. � + �. �
⇒a2 = b2 + ��� + c2
⇒a2 = b2 + 2bc cos π − A + c2
⇒a2 = b2 − 2bccosA + c2
⇒2bccosA = b2 + c2 − a2
b2+c2 −a2
∴ cosA = 2bc
(Proved)
(ii) Let ABC be any triangle and �� = �, �� = �, �� = �.
∴ �� + �� + �� = 0
⇒�+�+�=0
⇒ � + � =− �
∴− � = � + �…………(i)
Multiplying both sides by�, we get
−�. � = �. (� + �)
⇒−b2 =− (� + �). (� + �)[From equation (i)]
⇒b2 = �. � + �. � + �. � + �. �
⇒b2 = c2 + ��� + a2
⇒b2 = c2 + 2ca cos π − B + a2
⇒b2 = c2 − 2cacosB + a2
⇒2cacosB = c2 + a2 − b2
c2+a2−b2
∴ cosB = (Proved)
2ca

(iii)Let ABC be any triangle and�� = �, �� = �, �� = �.

∴ �� + �� + �� = 0
⇒�+�+�=0
⇒ � + � =− �
∴− � = � + �…………(i)
Multiplying both sides by�, we get
−�. � = �. (� + �)
⇒−c2 =− (� + �).(� + �)[From equation (i)]
⇒c2 = �. � + �. � + �. � + �. �
⇒c2 = a2 + ��� + b2
⇒c2 = a2 + 2ab cos π − C + b2
⇒c2 = a2 − 2abcosC + b2
⇒2abcosC = a2 + b2 − c2
a2 +b2−c2
∴ cosC = 2ab
(Proved)

Ex.2: If r1 = 5i +3j-k and r2 =− i +4j+3k, find r1 + r2 , r1 − r2 .

Solution: Given that,

r1 = 5i +3j-k and r2 =− i +4j+3k
Now r1 + r2 = (5i +3j-k) + ( − i +4j+3k)
= 5i +3j-k − i +4j+3k
= 4i + 7j + 2k

Again r1 − r2 = (5i +3j-k) − ( − i +4j+3k)

= 5i +3j-k + i − 4j − 3k
= 6i − j − 4k

Ex.3: If r1 = 5i +3j -k and r2 =− i +4j +3k , find the magnitude of r1 , r2 also find
3r2 − 2r1 .

Solution: Given that,

r1 = 5i +3j-k and r2 =− i +4j+3k
Now, the magnitude of r1
r1 = r1 = 52 + 32 + −1 2 = 25 + 9 + 1 = 35
And the magnitude of r2
r2 = r2 = −1 2 + 42 + 32 = 1 + 16 + 9 = 26
And 3r2 − 2r1 = 3( − i +4j+3k) − 2(5i +3j-k)
=− 3i + 12j + 9k − 10i − 6j + 2k
=− 13i + 6j + 11k

Ex. 4: Find the magnitude of the resultant of vectors,

r1 = 2i +4j-5k and r2 = i +2j+3k

Solution:
Given that,
r1 = 2i + 4j − 5k

And r2 = i +2j+3k
Let R is the resultant vector of vectors r1 , r2
∴ R=r1 + r2 = (2i +4j-5k) + (i +2j+3k)
= 3i +6j-2k

∴R = |R| = 32 + 62 + ( − 22 ) = 9 + 36 + 4 =√49 =7

Ex. 5: Find the unit vector parallel to the vector A = 5i-7j+8k.

Solution:
Given that,r1 = 5i-7j+8k
Now, A = A = 52 + ( − 7)2 + 82 = 25 + 49 + 64 = 138
Let ∝ be the unit vector of A
A 5i − 7j + 8k 5 7 8
∴∝= = = i− j+ k
A 138 138 138 138

Ex. 6: Find magnitude and unit vector of the vector r = 3i + 4j − 6k . Also find the
direction cosines of r .

Solution:
Let r = 3i + 4j − 6k
Magnitude = (32 + 42 + 62) = 61
Divide it by |r | = 61
r 3 4 6
61
= 61 i + 61 j − 61 k = unit vector parallel to r
3 4 6
Direction cosines are √61 , √61 , − √61

Ex.7: Find a unit vector parallel to the resultant of vectors, r1 = 2i + 4j - 5k and

r2 = i +2j+3k

Solution:
Given that,
r1 = 2i + 4j − 5k
And r2 = i +2j+3k

Let R is the resultant vector of vectors r1 , r2

∴ R = r1 + r2 = (2i +4j-5k) + (i +2j+3k)
= 3i +6j-2k

∴R = |R| = 32 + 62 + ( − 22 ) = 9 + 36 + 4 =√49 =7
Then a unit vector parallel to the resultant vector.
R 3i + 6j − 2k 3 6 2
∴R= = i+ j− k
|R | 7 7 7 7

Ex.8: Find a unit vector u parallel to the resultant R of vectors, r1 = 3i +5j -6k and
r2 = 2i +3j+7k
��������:
Given that,
r1 = 3i +5j-6k
And r2 = 2i +3j+7k
LetR is the resultant vector of vectorsr1 , r2
∴ R =r1 + r2 = (3i +5j-6k) + (2i +3j+7k)= 5i +8j+k

∴R = |R| = 52 + 82 + 12 = 25 + 64 + 1 =√90
Then a unit vector parallel to the resultant vector.
R
Then u is equal to|R | . That is,

R 5i + 8j + k 5 8 1
∴u= = = i+ j+ k
|R | √90 √90 √90 √90
Solved problem:

1) Determine the angles  ,  , and  which the vector S makes with the positive
directions of the coordinate axes and show that
Sin2 α + Sin2 β + Sin2 γ = 2

2). Find a unit vector u parallel to the resultant R of vectors ,

r1 = 4i +6j-3k and r2 = 7i -3j+2k

3). Find the resultant vector of the following vectors

r1 = 5i-7j+8k and r2 = 3i+6j+9k

4). Find unit vectorr1 = 5i -2j-6k

 SCALAR PRODUCT OR DOT PRODUCT
Definition: The scalar or dot product of two vectors a and b (read a dot b) is defined
as the product of the magnitudes of a and b and the cosine of the angle Ө between
them.
Symbolically we define as
�. � = abcosθ, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
From the definition we also write
�. � = bacosθ = abcosθ = a. b
Thus we notice that the commutative law holds for the scalar product of two vectors.
The sign of the product is positive or negative according as θ is acute or
obtuse.

Properties of Dot product of vectors.

�. � = �. � = abcosθ
(1) If θ = 0 °, then cosθ = 1 then�. � = ab
(2)Ifθ = 180 °, then = 1 , ∴ �. � = − ab
(3) If θ = 90 °, then cosθ = 0, ∴ �. � = ab. 0 = 0
If the dot product of to vectors is zero, then the vectors are perpendicular (orthogonal)
to each other.
(4) If a= b, then θ = 0.
Thus�. � = �. � = a. a cos 0 ° = a2
or, �. � = a2
or, �� = a2
The square of vector is equal to the square of its modulus.
Orthogonal vector Triads �, �, �.
The three unit vectors i,j, k are perpendicular to each other.
Then i. i= 1.1 cos0= 1
Similarly
j . j = 1, k. k = 1.
∴ i. i = j. j = k. k = 1 or i2 = j2 = k2 = 1
Againi. j = j. k = k. i = 0 = 1.1 cos90°=0

Angle between two vector a and b

If θ is the angle between the vectors � and�,

�. � = a b cos θ
�.�
or, cos θ = � �
−1 �.�
∴ θ=cos � |b|

Two vector will be perpendicular if a.b=0.

Some example:
Problem-1: Find the angle between the vectors a = 3i + 2j + 6k and b = 2i +
4j–4k.
Solution:
Let θ be the angle between � and �.
Then
�. � = abcosθ;
a = 32 + 22 + 62 = 9 + 4 + 36 = 49 = 7
b = 22 + 42 + 42 = √(4 + 16 + 16) = 36 = 6.
�. � = 3� + 2� + 6� . (�� + ��–��) = 6 + 8 − 24 = -10
�.� 10 5
∴cosθ = ab
= 7.6 =− 21
5
∴ θ = ���−� (− )
21

Problem 2: Find the angle between two vectors 5i – j + k and i + j – k.

Solution:

a = 5i – j + k and
b =i+j–k
The dot product is articulated as
a.b = (5i – j + k)(i + j – k)
a.b = (5)(1) + (-1)(1) + (1)(-1)
a.b = 5-1-1
a.b = 3
The Magnitude of vectors is given by

The angle between two vectors is

Problem-3: Find the angle between two vectors a = (3; 4) and b = (4; 3).
Solution: Calculate dot product of vectors:
a·b = 3 · 4 + 4 · 3 = 12 + 12 = 24.
Calculate vectors magnitude:
|a| = √32 + 42 = √9 + 16 = √25 = 5
|b| = √42 + 32 = √16 + 9 = √25 = 5
Calculate the angle between vectors:
a·b 24 24
cos α = = = = 0.96
|a| · |b| 5·5 25

Problem-4: Find the scalar product of the vectors (2,3,1) and(3,1, − 2) and also find
the angle between them.
Solution :
Let � = 2i + 3j + k
� = 3i + j– 2k
∴ a = √ 22 + 32 + 12 = (4 + 9 + 1) = √14,
∴ b = √(32 + 12 + 22 ) = 9 + 1 + 4 = √14
�. � = ( 2i + 3j + k). ( 3i + j– 2k ) = 2.3 + 3.1 + 1. (– 2) = 7.
�.� 7 1
∴cosθ = ab = √14.√14 = 2
1
∴ θ = ���−� = 600
2

Problem-5:.Show that the vectors (2,3,1) and (3,1, − 2) are perpendicular

( orthogonal) or not.
Solution:
Let � = 2i + 3j + k
� = 3i + j– 2k
∴ a = √ 22 + 32 + 12 = (4 + 9 + 1) = √14,
∴ b = √(32 + 12 + 22 ) = 9 + 1 + 4 = √14
∴ �. � = ( 2i + 3j + k). ( 3i + j– 2k ) = 2.3 + 3.1 + 1. (– 2) = 7.
The given vectors are not perpendicular because �. � ≠ �


Problem-6: Find the projection of the vector A  iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ on the vector

B  4iˆ  4 ˆj  7 kˆ

Solution:
Given vectors

A  iˆ  2 ˆj  kˆ

B  4iˆ  4 ˆj  7 kˆ
 A.B
We know projection vector A on vector B = …………………..(i)
|B|
∴ A. B = (i − 2j − k). (4i − 4j + 7k)=4+8-7=5
B = 42 + −4 2 + −1 2 = (16 + 16 + 1)=√33
From i weget ,
A.B 5
Projection vector A on vector B = = √33
|B|

For practice:
1) What is vector and unit vector?
2) Define dot product and cross product with diagram.
3) Vectors A and B are given by and . Find the dot
product of the two vectors.
4) Vectors A and B are given by and . Find the dot
product of the two vectors.
5) Determine the angle between and .

6) Determine the angle between and .

7) Determine if the following vectors are orthogonal:

VECTOR PRODUCT OR CROSS PRODUCT

Definition: The vector product of two vectors a and b (real a cross b) is a vector
whose
Magnitude is ab sin θ, θ being the angle between the rotation is made from a to b .
i.e. � × �. = ab sin θ ŋ
Where ŋ is a unit vector perpendicular to a and .

Right handed system of Rectangular co-ordinate Axes.

Let OX, OY, OZ be the three mutually perpendicular axes meeting at O.
Let �, �, �, be the unit vectors in the direction of OX, OY, OZ respectively
If the rotation of vectors is from �to �, to� and� to� then
i×j = k
j × k = i………………. (1)
k× i = j
if the rotation of vector is from i tok, k to j and j toi,then
i × j = − k,
j × k =− i, ⋯⋯⋯(2)
k×i = j
Now from (1) and (2)
i × j = − j × i = k,
j × k = − k × j = i, ⋯⋯⋯ (3)
k×i = −i×k = j
Again we have
i × i = 0, j × j = 0, k × k = 0
 
Ex.1. If A  A1iˆ  A2 ˆj  A3 kˆ and B  B1iˆ  B 2 ˆj  B3 kˆ , Prove that
iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
A  B  A1 A2 A3
B1 B 2 B3
Solution:
 
 
A  B  A1iˆ  A2 ˆj  A3 kˆ  B1iˆ  B 2 ˆj  B3 kˆ 
    
 A1iˆ  B1iˆ  B2 ˆj  B3 kˆ  A2 ˆj  B1iˆ  B2 ˆj  B3 kˆ  A3 kˆ  B1iˆ  B2 ˆj  B3 kˆ 
  A B  A B iˆ   A B  A B  ˆj   A B  A B kˆ
2 3 3 2 3 1 1 3 1 2 2 1

iˆ ˆj kˆ
 A1 A2 A3
B1 B2 B3

Ex.2. Find the unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors 2i + j + k and i–j +
2k
Solution:
Let � = � × � = ( 2i + j + k) × ( i–j + 2k ) = 3(i–j–k)
�×b 3(i–j–k)
. Hence the required unit vector = �×b =√(��+��+��)
3(i–j–k)
= �√�
� � �
=√3 − √� − √�

Ex3.

Determine a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of

A  2iˆ  6 ˆj  3kˆ and B  4iˆ  3 ˆj  kˆ.
Solution:
   
A  B is a vector perpendicular to the plane of A and B .
iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
A  B  2  6  3  15iˆ  10 ˆj  30kˆ
4 3 1
 
  A B 15iˆ  10 ˆj  30kˆ 3 2 6
A unit vector parallel to A  B is     iˆ  ˆj  kˆ
A B 152   102  302 7 7 7
Another unit vector, opposite in direction, is
 3iˆ  2 ˆj  6kˆ .
7
Ex.3. Find the cross product of the two vectors i + 2j + 3k and 3i–4j + 2k
Leta = i + 2j + 3k, b = 3i– 4j + 2k
∴ a × b = ( i + 2j + 3k ) × (3i– 4j + 2k )
i j k
=1 2 3
3 −4 2
= 16i + 7j– 10k
Ex.4. Find the sine of the angle between the vectors i + 2j + 3k and3i–4j + 2k

Solution:
Let θ be the angle between them. Then
��
∴a×b = ab sin θ ŋ or sinθ =
ab
a = √ (1 + 4 + 9 ) = √ 14,
b = ( 32 + 42 22 ) = √ 29
� × � = 16i + 7j– 10k
∴ |� × � | = √ (122 + 72 + 102 ) = √ 405
√405 9√5
∴⁡sinθ = =
14 ( 29) 14 ( 29)

Ex.5.Find the unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors 2i + j + k and i–j +
2k
Solution:
Let � = � × � = ( 2i + j + k ) × ( i–j + 2k ) = 3( i–j–k)
a×b 3( i–j–k)
Hence the required unit vector � = |a×b| = √(32+32+32)
3( i–j–k) i j k
= = − −
3√3 √3 √3 √3

Ex.6. Determine a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of

 
A  2iˆ  6 ˆj  3kˆ and B  4iˆ  3 ˆj  kˆ.
   
Solution: A  B is a vector perpendicular to the plane of A and B .
iˆ ˆj kˆ
 
A  B  2  6  3  15iˆ  10 ˆj  30kˆ
4 3 1
 
  A B 15iˆ  10 ˆj  30kˆ 3 2 6
A unit vector parallel to A  B is     iˆ  ˆj  kˆ
A B 152   102  302 7 7 7

Another unit vector, opposite in direction, is

 3iˆ  2 ˆj  6kˆ .
7

For practice:
1. Find
a  A  B , b B  A, c A  B  A  B 
        
A  2iˆ  3 ˆj  kˆ and B  iˆ  4 ˆj  kˆ, Find

2. In any triangle prove that c2 = a2 + b2–2abcosC.

3. Find the area of thetriangle whose vertices are
A(1, 2, 3), B (2 − 1, 1), C ( − 1, 2, 3)
4. Find the volume of the parallelopiped whose edges are represented by
a = 2i–3j + 4k, b = i + 2j–k, c = 3i–j + 2k
5. prove that A × (b × c) + b (c × a) + c × (a × b) = 0

Vector application
Problem 1: A particle moves along a curve whose parametric equations are
x  e t , y  2Cos3t , z  2Sin3t , where t is the time.
(a) Determine its velocity and acceleration at any time.
(b) Find the magnitudes of the velocity and acceleration at t  0.
Solution: 
(a) The position vector r of the particle is

r  xiˆ  yˆj  zkˆ  e  t iˆ  2Cos 3tˆj  2 Sin 3tkˆ.

 dr
Then the velocity is v   e t iˆ  6 Sin3tˆj  6Cos 3tkˆ
dt

d 2r
And the acceleration is aˆ  2
 e t iˆ  18Cos 3tˆj  18Sin3tkˆ .
dt
 
dr ˆ d 2r ˆ
(b) At t  0,  i  6k and 2  i  18 ˆj.
ˆ
dt dt

Then magnitude of velocity at t  0 is  12  62  37

Magnitude of acceleration at t  0 is 12   182 
325
Problem 2: A particle moves along a curve whose parametric equations are
x = lnt, y = sint, z = cos2t ,where t is time.
(a) Determine its velocity and acceleration at any time.
(b) Magnitudes of the velocity and acceleration at t = 1.

Solution:
(a) Given that
x = lnt, y = sint and z = cos2t
Let the position vector r of the particle is
r = xi + yj + zk
= lnti + sintj + 3cos2tk
dr d
∴ Velocity v = = ( lnti + sintj + 3cos2tk)
dt dt
1
= i + costj − 6sin2tk
t
 dv d 1
Acceleration a = = dt ( t i + costj − 6sin2tk)
dt
1
=− 2 i − sintj − 12cos2tk
t
(b) Magnitudes of the velocity and acceleration at t = 0
Magnitude of velocity = v = (1)2 + (cos1)2 + ( − 6sin2)2
and Magnitude of acceleration = a = ( − 1)2 + ( − sin1)2 + ( − 12cos1)2

Problem 3: A particle moves along a curve whose parametric equations are x =

2t, y = sin2t, z = cos4t where t is time.
(a) Determine its velocity and acceleration at any time.
(b) Magnitudes of the velocity and acceleration at t = 0.

Solution:
(a) Given that
x = 2t, y = sin2t and z = cos4t
Let the position vector r of the particle is
r = xi + yj + zk
= 2ti + sin2tj + cos4tk
dr d
∴ Velocity v = = ( 2ti + sin2tj + cos4tk)
dt dt
= 2i + 2cos2tj − 4sin4tk
dv d
Acceleration a = dt
=
dt
(2i + 2cos2tj − 4sin4tk)
=− 4sin2tj − 16cos4tk
dr
(b)At t = 0,then the velocity is, v=dt = 2i + 2cos0j − 4sin0k
= 2i + 2j
∴ Magnitude of velocity = v = (2)2 + (2)2 = 8
dv
At t = 0, then the acceleration is, a= dt =− sin0j − 16cos0k =− 16k
∴Magnitude of acceleration = a = −16 2 = 256 = 16

Problem 4 : A particle moves along the curvex = 2t2 , y = t2 − 4t, z = 3t − 5 where

t is time. Find the components of its velocity and acceleration at t = 1 in the
directioni − 3j + 2k

Solution:
Velocity


dr d
dt dt
   
2t 2 iˆ  t 2  4t ˆj  3t  5kˆ 
 4tiˆ  2t  4  ˆj  3kˆ
 4iˆ  2 ˆj  3kˆ at t  1

i−3j+2k i−3j+2k
Unit vector in the direction i − 3j + 2k is 2+ 2+ 2
= 14
1 −3 2
Then the component of the velocity in the given direction is
 4iˆ  2 ˆj  3kˆ. iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ  41   2 3  32  16

8 14
14 14 14 7

Acceleration
 
d 2 r d  dr  d ˆ
 2   
dt dt  dt  dt
 
4ti  2t  4 ˆj  3kˆ  4iˆ  2 ˆj  0kˆ

At t = 1 then the acceleration= 4i + 2j

Then the component of the acceleration in the given direction is

  
4iˆ  2 ˆj  0kˆ . iˆ  3 ˆj  2kˆ 41  2 3  02  2  14
  
14 14 14 7